DATE:  

                                                                 EXPERIMENT NO:

BEAKER DECANTATION
AIM:

To determine the size distribution of particles in a given sample by sedimentation and

decantation methods.

THEORY:

Beaker decantation is a technique use to separate sample into different size fractions based on
the differences in their terminal velocities. Decanting method is based on sedimentation and
decantation. Cumulative method of size analysis is based on the change in rate of settling. For a
particle settling through a fluid under Stoke’s law range for free settling conditions, the terminal
velocity is given by
gD2P ( ρ p − ρ )
ut =
18 μ
where, g - Acceleration due to gravity
Dp - Diameter of the particle
ρ p - Density of the particle
ρ - Density of fluid
µ - viscosity of the solution
Based on this formula, the settling time for a particle through a fixed height can be calculated.

PROCEDURE:

5 gm of sand (size ranging from 75 – 120 mesh) was taken in different beakers of 200 ml
capacity and filled it with water up to the mark. The mixture was stirred well to make slurry.
The first beaker was allowed to settle for 2s and other beakers for 5s, 10s, 20s, 40s, 80s, 160s
and 320s respectively. The supernatant liquid was decanted and the residue was filtered using
filter paper. The filtered residue was dried in an oven and then weighed.
OBSERVATIONS:

Density of particles = 2000 kg/m3

Height of water column, H = 4.5 cm = 0.045 m
Weight of sand taken, Ws = 5 g

Size (DP) Tim Wt. of filter Wt. of filter Wt. of residue ΔФ= Φ 1
WD Dp
(µm) e paper paper (W D ¿
(sec) (g) +residue (g) WS (m-1)

(g)

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

For time,t =
H
ut= t =
g D p2 ( ρ p−ρ)
ut = 18 μ
=

√
Dp = g ×(ρ −ρ)
p
18 μ ut
=
1
6 dΦ
Aw = ∫
Φ ×2000 0 D P
=

RESULTS:
The size distribution of particles in the given powder is determined by sedimentation and
decantation methods and specific surface area is calculated.
For the sample taken, specific surface area, AS =

INFERENCES:
DATE:                                                                   EXPERIMENT NO:
 BALL MILL EXPERIMENT

AIM:
The crushing efficiency of ball mill was investigated with respect to the effect of rpm on power
consumption of a ball mill for a given feed with known work index.

THEORY:

A ball mill consists of a cylindrical shell slowly turning about a axis and filled to about half its
solution with solid grinding medium. When the ball mill is rotated the grinding elements are
carried up the side of the shell nearly from the top from where they fall on the particles
underneath in a ball-mill. Most of the size reduction is done by impact. The energy expanded in
lifting the grinding units is utilized in reducing the size of the particles. Ball-mill can accept a
feed size of 12mm or less and deliver a product size of 500 micrometer to less than 5
micrometer the power consumption is in the range of 0.8 and 10 KWh/ton.

Critical speed of ball-mill is given by

Nc=
1
√ g
2 π R−r
Where,

R- inside radius of drum, m;

r- radius of the ball, m;

g- acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

Note: For effective operation of ball-mill, mill should be operated at 65-80% of critical speed as
the product size becomes finer, the capacity of the mill reduces and energy increases.

PROCEDURE:

1. A known quantity of feed was taken in the range of 10mm-12mm diameter size.

2. The selective feed was crushed by using ball mill at 65-80% of its critical speed. The critical
speed was calculated from the above equation (1)

3. The particle size distribution for the given feed was evaluated by repeating the above
procedure with respect to time of about 5 and 10 min.
OBSERVATIONS:

Diameter of feed, Da = 12mm

Weight of feed, Wf = 500g

Time taken for 20 pulses without load, TNL =

Time taken for 20 pulses with load, TL =

Total crushing time, Tc =

Energy meter constant (EMC) = pulses/kWh

Number of pulses, P = 20

Work Index, Wi = 16.06kWh/ton

Perimeter of cylindrical ball mill = 85*10-2m

Outer radius of ball mill cylinder, Ro = 13.2*10-2m

Thickness of cylinder, T = 1.2cm

Inner radius of ball mill, R = Ro-T = 12cm

25 R o +50 R s 25∗1.3+50∗0.95
Radius of ball, r = = =1.067 cm
75 75

Critical Speed, ηc = 1
2π √ g
=
√
1 9.81∗10−2
R−r 2 π 12−1.067
=90.45 rpm
4. The operating speed was fixed at 0.6 and 0.8 of the calculated critical speed.

5. The amount of power required to reduce the diameter of the given feed was calculated from
the obtained experimental values.

6. Finally, the estimated amount of power required and calculated efficiency was compared.

Note: The amount power required in the absence of given material was calculated from the time
taken for 20 pulses without load, TNL.
Crushing time, Tc = 5min

Screen Weight Cumulative

Mesh Dp(avg)
SNo Opening retained xi xi/Dp mass fraction
number (mm)
(mm) (g) φ
1 100 0.150 -
2 120 0.125 0.1375
3 150 0.106 0.1155
4 170 0.090 0.098
5 200 0.075 0.0825
6 400 0.038 0.0565
7 625 0.020 0.029
8 Pan 0.020

Crushing time Tc = 10min

Screen Weight Cumulative

Mesh Dp(avg)
SNo Opening retained xi xi/Dp mass
number (mm)
(mm) (g) fraction φ
1 100 0.150 -
2 120 0.125 0.1375
3 150 0.106 0.1155
4 170 0.090 0.098
5 200 0.075 0.0825
6 400 0.038 0.0565
7 625 0.020 0.029
8 Pan 0.020
RESULT

Critical speed of the ball mill is

Efficiency of the ball mill for Tc = 5 minutes is
Efficiency of the ball mill for Tc = 10 minutes is

INFERENCES:
CALCULATIONS:

P∗3600
Power without load,PNL =¿
T NL∗EMC

P∗3600
Power with load, PL = =¿
T L∗EMC

Pactual = PL-PNL = kW

For Tc = 5min

1
=¿
Diameter of product, Db = xi mm-1
∑ Dpavg

W f ∗3600
Mass flow rate, m = =¿ ton/hr
T c∗1000

1 1
Power calculated, Pcal = m*0.3162*Wi ( − ¿=
√ Db √ Da

= kW

Efficiency = ( Pact/Pcal )*100 =

ForTc = 10min

1
=¿
Diameter of product, Db = xi mm-1
∑ Dpavg

W f ∗3600
Mass flow rate, m = =¿ ton/hr
T c∗1000

1 1
Power calculated, Pcal = m*0.3162*Wi ( − ¿=
√ Db √ Da

= kW

Efficiency = ( Pact/Pcal )*100 =

Average efficiency =

Reduction ratio = Da/Db =

 DATE: EXPERIMENT NO:

CYCLONE SEPERATOR

Aim:

To study the operation of cyclone separator and to find out the inlet gas velocity,
pressure drop and collection efficiency.

Theory:

Cyclone is the most widely used separation equipment for separating dust or mist from
gas. It consists of a vertical cylinder with a conical bottom, a tangential inlet near the top and an
outlet for dust at the bottom of cone. The centrifugal force developed in the vortex send to
move the particle radially towards the wall and particle that reach the wall, slide down.

Formula:

ρ m−ρa
∆ H =h1−h2 ( )
ρa

Where, (h1-h2) is head difference of air in cm.

ρm is density of manometric fluid

ρa is density of air.

Velocity of air

V = CV√ 2 g ∆ H m/s

Air flow rate

Q= VA in m3/s
Sl. h1 h2 h1-h2 Pressure Flow Velocity, Weight Efficiency
No (cm) (cm) (cm) Head, ∆H Rate, Q V Collected (%)
(m) (m3/s) (m/s) (g)

Observations:
Procedure:

1 Prepare a feed stock of 400g cement dust or fly ash with constant average
particle size.

2 Run the cyclone with pure at fixed speed.

3 Now feed the dust particles of one particle size; at 100gms.

4 Collect the solid at the solid outlet.

5 Measure the weight of particles collected.

6 Calculate collection efficiency.

7 Repeat the experiment for different air velocity.

RESULT:

The collection efficiency of given cyclone separator =

The inlet gas velocity =

The pressure drop =

INFERENCE:
Model calculations :

For serial no:1,

h1 =

h2 =

h1-h2 =

Where h1and h2 are heights of liquids on two manometer limbs

ρ m−ρa
Pressure head, ∆ H =h1−h2 ( )
ρa

Where, ρm= Density of water (kg/m3),

ρa= Density of air (kg/m3)

Velocity,V = Cv√ 2 g ∆ H

Where, Cv= Coefficient of velocity = Vactual / Vtheoretical =

Area of suction of air, A= (π × d2)/4

Where, d = Diameter of suction pipe (m)

Flow Rate, Q =A×V

Calculations:

Collection efficiency of cyclone separator, E =

Average inlet gas velocity, Vavg=

Average pressure drop,∆Havg=

DATE: EXPERIMENT No:

HAMMER MILL

AIM:

To determine the power consumption of the hammer mill for crushing a material of
known work index.

APPARATUS:

Weighing machine, Sieves, Sieve shaker, Stop watch, Hammer mill Containers.

FORMULA:

(D 5+ D 6)
Feed size Dpa=
2

1
Product size Dpb=
∑( x i/D avg)

w t 3600
Feed rate ṁ= × tons/hr
t c 1000

Power consumed,

Kw………………………..Bond’s law

Where,

– Constant which depends on type of machine and material used.

= 0.3162 × work index

Dpb – Diameter of product, mm.

Dpa – Diameter of feed, mm.

P – Power, kW.
OBSERVATIONS:

Sl Mesh Screen Opening Davg Weight Xi Xi/Davg Cumulative

No: No: Retained(g) Mass Fraction
(mm)
(mm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Weight of feed taken= wf=

( D 5+ D 6)
Diameter of feed = Dpa = =
2

1
Diameter of the product = Dpb=
∑( x i/D avg)

Total crushing time = tc=

w t 3600
Feed rate,ṁ= × tons/hour
t c 1000

Work index =16.06KWh/ton

Kb = 0.3162×Wi =
THEORY:

Hammer mills for pulverizing and disintegration are operated at high speeds. The shaft carries
hammers, sometimes called beaters. The hammer may be T shaped elements stirrups, bars or
rings. The rotor runs in a housing containing grinding plates.

The clearance maintained between the liners and rotors are important with respect to the
fineness of product. The feed must be non-abrasive with a hardness of 1.5 or less.

1. Work primarily on compression

2. The feed enters the hopper, passes on to the anvil where the relatively huger particles get
broken or chopped to finer pieces

3. This is then thrown to the centre where a set of swing hammers are placed. Under the impact
of hammers grinding happens

4. Versatile intermediate crusher-can be used on steel balls, wood, wet clay etc.

5. Fineness of product can be enhanced by choke feeding at the expense of high energy
consumption.

Bond Crush Law:

Kw………………………..Bond’s law

Where,

P – Power in kWh

m – Mass flow rate in tons/hr

Wi – work index

Power consumed,

D pa
Reduction ratio =
D pb
Model calculations:

For mesh no: 52

Davg =

Mass fraction: Xi = Weight retained/total weight =

Xi/Davg =

D pa
Reduction ratio =
D pb
=

=
PROCEDURE:

Suitable feed stock of solid material is prepared. Feed is taken as that pass through BSS
5 mesh and that retains in BSS 6 mesh.500 gm of feed is collected from the retained
mesh. Hopper is filled with feed and adjust the opening of the hopper. Collecting tray is
kept under chute after cleaning it. Motor is switched on to start crushing. The total
crushing time is noted. The product is taken and sieve analysis is done on it.

RESULT:

1. Power consumption of the hammer mill for crushing a material of wi = 16.06 kwh/ton
was found to be
2. The reduction ratio of the material was =

INFERENCE:
DATE: EXPERIMENT NO:

JAW CRUSHER

Aim:
To study the operation of jaw crusher and to determine the efficiency of the crusher for
crushing a material of known weight.

Apparatus:
jaw crusher ,containers, sieve shaker, weighing machines.

Formulae Used:
Bond Crushing Law
1 1
P= ṁ×0.3162 ×W i ×( − )
√ D pb √ D pa
Where,
P – power , kW
ṁ – mass flow rate of feed ,tonnes / hour
Wi – work index
Dpb–particle diameter of product, mm
Dpa - particle diameter of feed,mm

Theory:
In a jaw crusher, feed of known size is allowed to fall to the feeder of V shaped jaw crusher. its
then driven by an eccentric so that a grate compressive force is applied to the lump of solid
caught between the upper jaws of the machine .the crushed feed drops in to the lower portion
and subjected to the re-crushing .
OBSERVATIONS:

Screen Weight
Sl. Mesh Davg Weight Xi / Davg Cumulative
Opening Retained
No Number (mm) Fraction Fraction
(mm) (kg)

1 BSS6 2.8
BSS7
2 2.36

3 BSS8 2

4 BSS14 1.18
BSS44
5 0.355

6 BSS52 0.300

7 BSS72 0.212
BSS100
8 0.150
BSS150
9 0.106

10 BSS170 0.090

11 Pan -
Total

Data:

Size of feed, Dpa =

Time for 20 pulses without load, TNL =

Time for 20 pulses with load, TL =.

Total time for crushing, Ttotal =

Weight of feed, Wf =

Work index, Wi = 16.06 KWh/tonne

Number of pulses, P =

Energy meter constant, EMC =

PROCEDURE:

A known weight of feed stock was collected between the mesh size of BSS5 and
BSS7.The machine is operated and time taken for 20 pulses without any load is
recorded. Then the material is feed to the crusher at a constant rate. Time taken for
20 pulses with load is noted and also the total time taken for crushing is noted. Sieve
analysis is done on the product retrieved from the jaw crusher. The weight of
product contained in each sieve is measured using a digital weight balance.

RESULTS

The operation of jaw crusher is studied and its efficiency and reduction ratio is calculated and
reported as below.

1. The efficiency of the crusher =

2. The reduction ratio =

INFERENCES
Calculations:

P×3600
Power without load = KW =
TNL ×EMC

P×3600
Power with load = KW =
TL ×EMC

Actual power, Pact = PL - PNL KW =

Σ(xi/Davg) = mm-1

1
Diameter of product, Dpb =
∑ Xi/ Davg = mm

W f ×3600
Mass flow rate , ṁ = tonnes/ h our =
1000 x Total time

1 1
Theoretical power, Pth =m×
˙ 0.3162 ×Wi( − ) KW
√ D pb √ D pa

Actual power
Efficiency = ×100 =
Theoretical power

D pa
Reduction Ratio = =
D pb

Model Calculations:

For mesh size 52,

Davg =

Wt.retained
Xi = =
Total Wt.

Xi
=
D avg

Cumulative mass fraction =

DATE: EXPERIMENT NO:

LEAF FILTER

AIM:

To determine the specific cake resistance for the given slurry.

INTRODUCTION:

Leaf filters are similar to the plate and frame filters in that a cake is deposited on each side of
the leaf and the filtrate flows to the outlet in the channels provided by the coarse drainage
screen in the leaf between the cakes. Leaf filters, sometimes called tank filters, they consists of
flat filtering elements (leaves) supported in a shell. The leaves are circular, arc-sided, or
rectangular and they have filtering surface on both faces.

THEORY:

If the cake porosity remains essentially constant during filtration Cv may be considered
as a constant.

2
dv A (−∆ Pc )
= …(1)
dt 2C v V

Where, V = volume of the filtrate

A = Area of the filter medium

Cv = Filtration constant

t = Time (s)

-∆PC = Pressure drop through the cake

For constant pressure drop this integrates to

2
Cv v
t= 2 …(2)
A (−∆ Pc )

The differential equation (1) is valid in general, the integrated equation (2) is restricted to
constant pressure drop operation in which the filtration constant Cv remains unchanged. If
it is desired to obtain relationships involving cake thickness instead of filtrate volume,
 ρ s ( 1−x )( 1−X )− ρ xX
V= AL …(3)
ρs

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

DATA:

N=1

dc = 0.104 m

Ac = 0.00849 m2

d = 0.224 m

ρ = _________ kg/m3 (from data book)

μ = __________ Ns/m2 (from data book)

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. No. P (mmHg) Θ (min) h (cm)

 Where, X=Porosity of the cake

x = Mass fraction solids in the feed stury

ρ = Density of the filtrate

ρs = Density of solids in the cake.

Eq. (3) may be differentiated at constant porosity to obtain

ρ s ( 1−x ) ( 1−X ) −ρ xX
dV = AdL …(4)
ρx

During the formation of filter cakes, laminar flow predominates and the linear velocity of the
fluid at any instant (v) is

1 dv K (−∆ Pc )
v= = ...(5)
A dt Lμ

Where, K= permeability

Defining another filtration constant CL

μ [ ρ s ( 1−x )( 1−X )− ρ xX ¿ ]
C L= AdL ….(7)
2 K ρx

and integrating at constant pressure drop and constant porosity,

C L L2
t= ….(8)
(−∆ P c )

The filtration constants Cv and CL. can be calculated from the properties of the slurry and cake,
but the permeability or porosity and particle size of the filter cake are frequently unknown. A
corresponding treatment based on the concept that the rate of filtration is directly proportional
to a driving force and inversely dependent upon a resistance.

A material balance is

(1− X )LA ρ s=Vρr ….(9)

Where, r = mass ratio of dry cake to filtrate

This eq. substituting in eq. (5)

CALCULATIONS:

∆Θ
∆V
∆V (m3) ∆Θ (min) V (m3) (min/m3)

Plot a graph between ∆Θ/∆V vs V and measure the slope.

(-∆P) = __________ mmHg

π 2
A= d N =¿ ___________ m2
4

slope × A 2 ×(−∆ PC )
α= = __________ m/kg
C v × ρ× μ
The expression Kρs (1-X) represents the specific conductance of the filter cake and

usually is constant during filtration except for changes in porosity of the cake. If the

specific resistance,

1
α= …(10)
Kρ s(1−X )

is substituted in cq. (7)

στρμ
Cv = …(11)
2

The pressure drop (-∆Pc) is the pressure on the slurry or upstream side of the cake mines the
pressure on the downstream side of the cake.A plot of dt/dV against V, gives a series of lines,
each of which will be straight if Cv is constant during that run, which is true for incompressible
cakes.
The slope of the line is
2C v
Slope = 2
(−∆ P c ) A
And the intercept is
V c 2C v
Intercept = 2
(−∆ P c ) A
Where,
A = Filtration area , m2

d = Diameter of one leaf ,m

N = no. of leaves

V = Vol. of filtrate, m3

h = Height of filtrate finished collected in time t , cm

ρ = Density of filtrate , kg/m3

θ = Time, min

α = cake resistance, m/kg

DESCRIPTION:

The setup consists of flat filtering elements (leaves) supported in slurry tank. A filter leaf
consists of a perforated plate over which a filter medium of woven fabric fitted The whole
assembly is connected to a vacuum pump through a filtrate receiver. An agitator is fitted in the
slurry tank. Drain valve is provided in it. The set-ups operated batch wise.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Prepare slurry of CaCO3 in water (2-5 % w/w).

2. Fix the leaf in the inner vessel after fixing the filter cloth.
3. Tightly close inner and outer chamber.
4. Start the vacuum pump at a minimum vacuum measured in the manometer/vacuum
gauge.
5. Turn on the valve of the slurry tank and adjust the vacuum at the desired level (P)
Simultaneously start the stop watch and record the height of filtrate in the filtrate
collected tank and the corresponding.
6. Continue with step 7 till there is appreciable decrease in rate of filtration.
7. Ensure constant stirring in the slurry tank and constant vacuum reading.
8. Break the vacuum line by closing the valve and stop the vacuum pump.
9. Open the filtration chamber and gently take out the filter leaves one by one.
10. Repeat the steps for different pressure.

PRECAUTIONS AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Proper cleaning is must of leaf and its cloth.

2. Feed slurry is filtered before feeding it into the tank.
3. Low flow is best for operating it.
4. Vacuum line should be tight properly.

TROUBLESHOOTING:

If the slurry is not coming properly then check the holes of the clothes and leaf.

RESULT:
INFERENCE:
DATE: EXPERIMENT NO:

ROLL CRUSHER

AIM:

To determine the efficiency and reduction ratio of the roll crusher for crushing a material of
known work index.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Roll crusher, containers, Sieve shaker and weighing machine.

FORMULA:

Bond crushing law,

P Kb
=
m √ Dp
, Kb = 0.3162 Wi

Where,

P – Power, kW

M - Mass flow rate, tones/hour

Wi - Work index unit

Dp - Particle diameter, mm

Dpa - Particle diameter of feed, mm and

Dpb - Particle diameter for product,mm

 P 1 1
=0.3162 W i[ − ]
M √ Dpa √ Dpb

Sl. Mesh Screen Davg(mm) Weight Weight Xi/Davg Cumulative

no no. opening(mm retaine Fraction (mm-1) mass fraction
) d Xi
(gm)
1 8 2 -
2 14 1.18 1.59
3 52 0.3 0.74
4 60 0.25 0.275
5 85 0.18 0.215
6 150 0.106 0.143
7 170 0.09 0.098
8 200 0.075 0.0825
9 Pan 0 0.0375
Tota
l
OBSERVATIONS

Diameter of feed, Dpa =

Weight of feed, Wf =

Time taken for 20 pulses without load, TNL =

Time taken for 20 pulses with load, TL =

Total crushing time, Ttotal =

Energy metre constant (EMC) =

No: of pulses, (P) =

Work index =
 Actual Power ( P act )
Efficiency = ×100
Power calculated ( Pcalc )

THEORY

A Roll crusher is a type of coarse crusher with heavy metal rolls turning on horizontal axes.
Particles of feed caught between the rolls are broken in compression and dropped. The limiting
sizes of particles that can be nipped by the rolls depend on the coefficient of friction between
the particle and the roll surface. Its estimate value is

Dpmax=0.08 + d

Where, d is the width of gap between rolls.

R is the roll radius

The size of product depends upon the clearance between the rolls.

PROCEDURE:

Sieve analysis performed for the given feed material such that feed size is taken in between
mesh size of BSS 5 and BSS 6. Nearly 600gm of feed is taken.

The product box of roll crusher is thoroughly cleaned. Crusher switched on. The feed is
dropped slowly in to the medium the procedure is done until all the feed is crushed.

The power used for crushing feed material and power used for simply running the crusher is
determined by measuring the pulses of EMC on watt meter and the working time for crushing.

The product is retrieved and sieve analysis is done.

Average feed size:

Dpa =

Average particle size:

1
Dpb = n

∑ xi /Davg
i=1

xi -mass fraction of ith particle

Reduction ratio:

Average feed Dia

RR =
Average Dia of product

Dpa
=
Dpb

CALCULATIONS:

P×3600
Power without load, PNL = = = kW
T NL ×EMC

P×3600
Power with load, PL = = = kW
T L×EMC

Pactual = PL- PNL= = kW

Σ (xi/Davg) =

1
Diameter of product, DPb = = mm
Σx i /Davg

W f ×3600
Mass flow rate, m = = tones/hr
Ttotal ×1000
 1 1
Power calculated, Pcal = m × 0.3162 × Wi[ − ]
√ D pb √ D pa
= kW

RESULT:

Size reduction of given particle is carried out using roll crusher.

The efficiency and reduction ratio of given material are:

Efficiency =

Reduction ratio =

INFERENCE:
 P actual
Efficiency of roll crusher, N = ×100 = %
P cal

Diameter of feed
Reduction ratio = =
Diameter of product

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

For mesh size 60,

Davg =

Wt.retained
Xi = =
Total Wt.

Xi
=
D avg

Cumulative mass fraction =

DATE: EXPERIMENT NO:

PIPETTE ANALYSIS

AIM:

To obtain the particle size distribution in the given sample and to plot the cumulative mass
fraction vs particle diameter curve.

THEORY:

There are many techniques like microscopic method, sedimentation method, sieving techniques,
Elutriation etc. by which the size distribution of the grains of a powder is measured directly.
Pipette analysis comes under sedimentation method. This method is based on Stoke’s law .We
assume that the particles are perfect spheres. Stoke’s law is given below

2
gD p ( ρ p −ρ )
ut =
18 μ

Where, g - acceleration due to gravity

d - Diameter of the particle

ρ p - Density of the particle

ρ - Density of fluid

µ - Viscosity of the solution

To apply this equation, it is assumed that the particles fall freely in the suspension. In pipette
analysis, a suspension of the sample is made in a deep vessel. After uniformly mixing, a pipette
is inserted in to the suspension and sample is withdrawn. The distance from the surface to the
point from which the sample is taken out and the time since the beginning of settlement are
noted. Pipette method is an incremental method of sedimentation analysis. In a settling
suspension, the variation of concentration at a particular depth can be directly related to the
particle size distribution. Initially, when the suspension is uniform the entire particles are
distributed evenly.

OBSERVATIONS:

Weight of sample taken for analysis =

Density of particle =

Density of liquid =

Viscosity of liquid =

Sample Time Wt. of filter Wt. of Filter Wt. Of sample)

No. (sec) paper paper ms
(g) + Sample (g)
(g)
1

9
When settling starts at a particular depth ‘h’ below the interface, the population of particles will

represent particle smaller than D, Where D = K √ h

t (Assuming that settling conditions are

favourable for free settling and under Stoke’s law range, for a given settling conditions K is a
constant.)
D
C ( h , t )= ∫ F ( D ) dD
D min

D max

C ( h , 0 )= ∫ F ( D ) dD
D min

C ( h,t ) = Concentration of the suspension at a depth h in ‘t’sec

C ( h,0 ) = Concentration of the suspension at a depth h in ‘0’sec
D

∫ F ( D ) dD
C ( h , t ) D min
1−φ= =
C ( h , 0 ) D max
∫ F ( D ) dD
Dmin

φ = Cumulative mass fraction of particle larger than D

If ms is the mass of solid in Vs volume of slurry
ms
C ( h , t )=
Vs
=

mo
C ( h , 0 )=
Vo
mo = mass of material taken for the sample

V o = initial volume of suspension

All grains of the same size settle at the same rate, grains of a given size where they exist at all
are in the same degree of concentration as at the beginning. Therefore all grains smaller than a
given size will be present in the pipette sample in the same degree of concentration as at the
beginning and all grains above the size would have settle below the depth at which the sample
was taken and are not present in the sample. The diameter of the largest particles in the pipette
h
ut =
can be obtained from stokes law where, t
 CALCULATIONS:

Time 1-   Dp
(µm)
ut
(sec)
(m/s)

For time, t =
ms
C ( h , t )=
Vs
=

mo
C ( h , 0 )=
Vo =

C ( h,t ) = Concentration of the suspension at a depth h in ‘t’sec

C ( h,0 ) = Concentration of the suspension at a depth h in ‘0’sec
C (h , t )
1−φ=
C ( h , 0) =

1−φ = cumulative mass fraction of the particle less than size 

φ=
PROCEDURE:

About 25 g of the given sample (size ranging from 150 – 170 mesh) was weighed accurately
and transferred in to a small vessel and 1000 ml of water was poured and stirred well to make
homogeneous slurry. The mixture was allowed to settle and the stop watch was started. At 5s, a
pipette was inserted in to the suspension up to height of 20cm and 20ml of sample was
withdrawn slowly. The pipette was removed carefully and the material was transferred in to the
weighed filter paper for drying. Likewise, 8 samples were withdrawn progressively without
disturbing the settling at different time of 10s, 20s, 40s, 80s, 160s, 320s, 640s and 1280s and
concentration were found and then particle size was calculated for each time.
 h
ut =
t =

h = distance from the top at which sample is taken

√
18 μu t
D p=
g ( ρ p −ρ )

Dp =
RESULTS:

Particle size distribution is studied using pipette analysis method

Cumulative mass fraction vs diameter of the particle curve is plotted.

INFERENCES:
DATE: EXPERIMENT NO:

SCREEN EFFECTIVENESS
AIM
The effectiveness of given screen for a known amount of mixture has been
Studied using Screen analysis method.

APPARATUS
Feed
Containers
Weighing machine
Sieves
Sieve shaker

FORMULA USED
Effectiveness = recovery × rejection

E = XD (1- XB ) (XF -XB) (XD -XF)

XF (1-XF) (XD- XB)

Where,

E = effectiveness of screen.
XF = cumulative Mass Fraction of product in feed.
XB= cumulative Mass Fraction of product in underflow.
XD= cumulative Mass Fraction of product in overflow.
 Mesh Size: 60

Determination of Cumulative mass fraction of FEED

Sn.no Mesh Screen Davg Weight Weight Xi/Davg Cumulativ

no openings (mm) retained fraction e mass
(mm) (g) (g) fraction

Determination of Cumulative mass fraction of FEED UNDERFLOW

Mesh Size: 60

Sn.n Mesh Screen Davg Weight Weight Xi/Davg Cumulativ

o no openings (mm) retained fraction e mass
(mm) (g) (g) fraction

THEORY
The purpose of screening process is to accept a mixture of particle that varies in sizes and
separate it in to two fractions, as an underflow that pass through the screen and an
overflowwhich is rejected by the screen. The product can be either underflow or overflow.
Let F, D, B are the mass of flow of feed, overflow and underflow respectively and XD, XB,
XF are the cumulative mass fractions of overflow, underflow and feed.

F = D+B …...... (1)

FXF = DXD +BXB...

(2) From (1) and (2)

EA

EB

Overall Efficiency, E = EA - EB
Mesh Size: 60
Determination of Cumulative mass fraction of FEED UNDERFLOW
Sl.no Mesh Screen Davg Weight Weight Xi/Davg Cumulativ
no openings (mm) retained fraction e mass
(mm) (g) (g) fraction

CALCULATIONS:
Sl.no Xi DPi Xi/Dpi
Xi/ DPi (Xi/ DPi)2 (Xi/ DPi)3
(mm) -1 -2 -3
(mm ) (mm ) (mm )

PROCEDURE:
 1. A known amount (1000 g) of sand mixture was taken as feed.

2. The feed mixture was screened using screens with different mesh sizes.

3. The mass of the screened mixture were collected and weighed from the each mesh.

4. The mass fraction of feed, underflow and overflow were calculated from
the observed weight of the mass collected from the each mesh.

5. The graph was plotted between (1/Dp) Vs cumulative mass fractions.

6. The values of XF, XB, and XD are found from the graph.

CALCULATIONS:
Mean diameter =

=
Mass mean diameter = Σ(xiDpi)

=
Volume mean diameter = (1 /Σ(xi/Dpi3))(1/3)

Mean length diameter = Σ(xi/Dpi2) /Σ(xi/D 3)

p
=

Mean surface diameter = (Σ(xi/Dpi) /Σ(xi/D 3))1/2

pi

Length mean diameter =Σ(xi/Dpi) /Σ(xi/Dpi2)

From graph, corresponding to 60 mesh

screen
XF

= XD

= XB
=
So effectiveness of 60mesh screen,
E = XD (1- XB) (XF -XB) (XD -XF)
XF (1-XF) (XD- XB)

=
RESULTS

i) The effectiveness of 60 mesh screen =

iii) Mean diameter of particle =

iv) Volume mean diameter of particle =
v) Mean length diameter of particle =
vi)
vii) Length mean diameter of particle =

INFERENCE
DATE: EXPERIMENT NO:
 SETTLING CHARECTERISTICS
AIM:
To study the settling characteristics of given CaCO3 slurry (6 wt% and 9 wt%) as a function
of depth and time.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Stop watch, CaCO3, container, measuring scale, weighing machine

HEORY:

Sedimentation is a physical water treatment process used to settle out suspended solids in
liquid medium under the influence of gravity. Suspended solids constitute the mass of dry
solids retained by a filter of a given porosity related to the volume of the liquid sample. This
includes particles of a size not lower than10μm and in case of colloidal particles, the size
between 0.001nm and1nm depending on the method of quantification. Due to electrostatic
forces balancing the gravity, they are not likely to settle naturally. The sedimentation velocity
limit of a particle is its theoretical descending speed in clear and still water. In settling process
theory, a particle will settle only if: In a vertical ascending flow, the ascending water velocity
is lower than the sedimentation limit velocity. In case of longitudinal flow; the ratio of the
length of the tank to the height of the tank is higher than the ratio of the water velocity to the
sedimentation velocity limit.

There are four types of sedimentation processes:

Type1: Dilutes, non-flocculent, free-settling (Every particle settles independently)
Type2: Dilute, flocculent. (Particles can flocculate as they settle.)
Type3: Concentrated Suspensions, Zone Settling (Sludge Thickening).
Type4: Concentrated Suspensions, Compression (Sludge Thickening).
In this experimental study, the effect of zone settling and compression of concentrated
suspension was investigated by varying CaCO3 concentrations.

OBSERVATIONS:
 Feed rate, F= 500 g/s

Height (cm) Time(s)

Sl. No.

6 wt. % 9 wt. % 6 wt. % 9 wt. %

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

PROCEDURE:
1. A 1000 ml of standard measuring flask was thoroughly cleaned and it was filled with 6
wt.% and 9 wt.% mixtures of CaCO3 individually.
2. The solutions were stirred till the concentration of the solution achieved homogenous.
3. The concentrated suspensions were kept separately without any disturbances.
4. The time was noted per centimetre increase in the height of the clear solution till it
reaches the equilibrium using a stop watch.
5. The graph was plotted between height of the bed and settling time.
6. The settling velocity and concentration of bed were calculated by plotting the tangents
in the graph which was plotted between heights of the bed and settling time.

(( )
Vi

7. Finally, graph was plotted between Flux

1
−
Ci
1
CV ) vs Ci to determine the
minimum area of thickener.
FORMULAE:

1) C o Z o =C i Z i

where, C 0 - Initial concentration of CaCO3 (g/L)

C i - Concentration of CaCO3 after time t (sec)

Z 0 - Initial height of CaCO3 (g/L)

Z i - Intercept of tangent from graph (m)

( Z i−Z t )
V i=
2) Settling velocity: t
where, Z t - Height of CaCO3 after time t
Co Zo
CV =
3) Final concentration : Zf

where, Z f - Final height of CaCO3

F
A=
Vi

( )
1
1
C i−
CV
4) Area of thickener:
where, F – Feed rate
MODEL CALCULATIONS:

For 6 wt. % CaCO3 and Zt =

Initial concentration, Co =
Initial height, Z 0 =

Time taken, t =
Intercept from graph, Zi =

Concentration at that time, Ci =(C0Z0)/Z i =

Final concentration, CV = (C0Z0)/Zf =

Settling velocity, Vi = ( Z i –Z t )/t =

Vi =

Flux at that concentration,

( 1
Ci
−
1
CV )
Feed rate, F =
So area of thickness, A = F/flux =
RESULTS:

The settling characteristics has been studied and graphs are plotted for given CaCO3 slurry (6
wt. % and 9 wt. %).

Thickener Area

1) For 6 wt. % CaCO3, A1 =

2) For 9 wt. % CaCO3, A2 =

INFERENCES:
CALCULATIONS:

Determination of flux obtained by 6wt. % CaCO3

C0 = Z0 = F= CV =
Zt Zi Ci Vi
Vi Area = F/flux

(cm) (cm) (g/cm3) (cm/s) Flux =

( 1
Ci
−
1
C ) V
(m2)
(g/cm2s)

Determination of flux obtained by 9wt. %CaCO3

C0 = Z0 = F= CV =
Zt Zi Ci Vi Area = F/flux
V i

(cm) (cm) (g/cm3) (cm/s) Flux =

( 1
Ci
−
1
C ) V
(m2)
(g/cm2s)

For 6 wt. % CaCO3

From graph, minimum flux =
So area of thickener, A1 = feed rate/minimum flux =
For 9 wt. % CaCO3
From graph, minimum flux =
So area of thickener, A2 = feed rate/minimum flux =
 DATE: EXPERIMENT NO:

PULVERIZER
Aim:

To determine the efficiency of pulverizer for crushing a material of known work index

Apparatus:
• Feed
• Sieves
• Containers
• Shaker
• Pulverizer

Terminologies used:
1.
Dpa – Diameter of feed (mm)
2.
Dpb – Diameter of product (mm)
3. Davg - Average diameter of screen opening (mm)
4.
Wf – Weight of feed taken (kg)
5.
Tc – Time taken for grinding (minutes)
6. Wi – Work index of material (kWh/ton)
7.
m – Feed rate (tons/hour)
8.
P – Power consumed (kW)

Formula:
Feed size,Dpa = (D5+D6)/2
Product size, Dpb = 1/∑(xi/Davg)
Feed rate, m = Wf /Tc tons/hr
Bond crushing law;
P 1 1
=0.3162Wi( − )
m √ Dpa √ Dpb
Where, kb=0.3162Wi
 Observations:

Sl. Mesh Screen Davg Weight xi xi/Davg Cumulative

No. opening (mm) retained mass fraction
No:
(mm)
(kg)
1

Total

Energy meter reading before and after loaded condition

Energy meter reading at no load condition Energy meter reading at loaded condition

No of Pulses(P) tp1(seconds) No of Pulses(P) tp2(seconds)

tp1 – time for 20 pulses of pulverizer without load (seconds)

tp2- time for 20 pulses of pulverizer with load (seconds)

tc - total time of crushing (seconds) =

 Theory:

A pulverizer or grinder is a mechanical device for the grinding of many different

types of materials. For example, a pulverizer mill is used to pulverize coal for
combustion in the steam generating furnaces of fossil fuel power plants.
A grooved revolving plate is revolved against a grooved stationary plate to
produce the grinding action. The space which separates the plates when adjusted
for operations determine the fineness of the friable material produced.

Procedure:

1. Feed size is kept below 8mm otherwise rolls are apart sufficiently.

2. The material is subjected to sieve analysis.

3. Dpa the mesh through which 80% passes through is noticed.

4. Check all connection.

5. Start the machine in no load condition and time for 20 pulses are noted.

6. The feed is given and same procedure is supplied.

7. Total time for crushing is recorded.

The product is undergone through sieve analysis
Observations and calculations:
Energy meter constant, EMC =
1600pulse/kWh Size of feed, Dpa =

Total time for crushing, Ttotal =

Weight of feed, Wf =

Work index, Wi =
Calculations:

PNL = P×3600
tp × EMC
1

=
PL = P×3600
tp × EMC
2

Pact =
= PL - PNL =
Feed rate, m = Wf /tc tons /hr =

1 1
Pcal=m 0.3162Wi( − )=
√ Dpa √ Dpb
Efficiency, N = Pact / Pcal × 100
=
Reduction Ratio= Dpa/Dpb =

Model Calculations:
For mesh no 85;
Davg =

Mass fraction, xi = Weight retained / Total weight = Xi/Davg =

Cumulative mass fraction =
RESULTS:

INFERENCES: