Septia Nur Rohmah

201010379202202

Reading Guide Questions

I. What statements did Ferdinand de Saussure make that influenced the course of linguistic
science from his time on?
Answer = One of the important ideas from Ferdinand de Saussure who changed the historical
paradigm to a formal paradigm is diachronic language study and synchronic language study.
Besides being able to be studied diachronically, language can be studied synchronically.
2. What is the significance of the discussion of stories told by people of different cultures in
this chapter?
Answer = It happens in all cultures and in all ages. It exists (and existed) to entertain, inform
and spread cultural traditions and values.
3. What possible explanations can we offer if we find that two languages express
similar meanings by phonetically similar forms?
Answer = Cognates are words in two languages ​that have the same meaning, spelling and
pronunciation.
4. What do we mean when we say that two or more languages are genetically related?
Answer = If both come from a common ancestor or one comes from the other.
5. What is a protolanguage?
Answer = In the tree model of historical linguistics, a protolanguage is a putative primitive
language from which several proven languages ​are assumed to have evolved through
evolution, forming a language family. Protocol languages ​are usually uncertified or, at best,
partially certified. They are reconstructed using the comparative method.
6. What was the significance of the statement by Sir William Jones in 1786
about the relationship between Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek?
Answer = Which led him to suggest that the three languages not only had a common root but
they were related to the Gothic, Celtic, and Persian languages.
7. Does a protolanguage die out and then get replaced by its daughter languages? What, for
example, is the nature of the relationship between Latin and Romanian?
Answer = There is no direct record of Proto-Indo-European; features are hypothesized to be
derived from Indo-European languages ​as documented by linguistic reconstruction
8. How are people's attitudes to language change and ideas of standard and
nonstandard forms in language interrelated?
Answer = Linguistic attitudes are evaluative responses to different linguistic variables
9. How do we know that language change is not caused by anatomical, cultural, or
geographical factors?
Answer = The creation of regional dialects, how they became their own languages ​and why
some climates encourage certain sounds in languages
10. Can a language be deliberately changed by members of a speech community?
Answer = Yes, with gatekeepers
II. To what extent is simplification a factor in causing language change to take place? What
are some problems associated with this explanation of language change?
Answer = Masculine and feminine, discourse lexical transmission, socio-historical
linguistics, social class and social networks, in conclusion
12. How might structural pressure cause a sound change to take place?
Answer = Sound is a mechanical wave created by the back and forth vibrations of particles
in the medium through which the sound wave travels.

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1. Lentiation is the process or result of a weakened articulation of a consonant, in which
the consonant is tuned, spirantized, or lost.
2. Rhotacism is a defective pronunciation of r
3. Cluster reduction occurs when a child reduces a set of consonants, ie. two or three
consonants that appear consecutively in a word (eg, "nd" in friend).
4. Syncope is the omission of an unstressed vowel or a shortened consonant in the
middle of a word. Apokope is the omission of an unstressed vowel at the end of a
word
5. Metathesis is the exchange of positions of two adjacent segments. Haplology is the
deletion of a segment or syllable that is identical or similar to an adjacent syllable or
segment within that syllable
6. The difference between voiced and epenthetic is that voiced vowels are often
schwa-like or "medium quality" while epenthetic vowels are solid vowels (either
schwa or not)
7. A prosthesis is a change, a change of spelling or pronunciation. The opposite process,
the loss of sound from the beginning of a word, is called aphesis or aphesis.
8. Speech fusion is a vowel change in which two or more different sounding syllables
are combined into a single syllable.
9. Vowel lengthening is caused by the loss of a back consonant, usually in a coda
syllable, or a vowel in an adjacent syllable
10. In historical linguistics, a vowel break, vowel break, or diphthong is a phonetic
change from a monophthong to a diphthong or triphthong
11. In the opposite process, alienation, sounds become less similar
12. There are two different types of assimilation: complete assimilation, in which the
sound affecting the assimilation becomes exactly the same as the sound causing the
assimilation, and partial assimilation, in which the sound becomes similar in one or
more characteristics but remains unchanged in other characteristics.
13. In the case of contact taking (also called direct taking), the assimilated phoneme is
next to the sound that causes the assimilation: Old English efn 'even' > West Saxon
emn. In distant assimilation, the two sounds are not adjacent: Proto-Indo-European
*Penkwe > Latin kwinkwe (written quinque). When assimilation applies to the whole
word, it is called a consonant (eg vowel consonant, nasal consonant)
14. In phonetics and phonology, palatalization refers to a series of assimilation processes
in which the articulation of a consonant is changed by the influence of a preceding or
following front vowel or a palatal or palatalized consonant. This is especially likely
for palatal approximation
15. In phonology, pronunciation (or ringing) is a sound change in which a voiceless
consonant becomes voiced under the influence of its phonological environment;
movement in the opposite direction is called de-sonorization or de-sonorization
16. The chords in successive parts are affected and are said to be vocal harmonies. This
local harmony includes both vowels and consonants, and can be interpreted by both.
Three main types are identified: nasal harmony, chromatic inversion and retrograde.
17. Diaeresis are symbols written over vowels in German and some other languages ​to
indicate how they are pronounced
18. A proper change in historical linguistics is a change in the pronunciation of a
language. Changing a voice can involve replacing one sound (or more generally the
property values ​of a sound) with another (called a sound change) or a more general
change to an existing sound (a sound change), such as the merging two sounds or
creating a new sound
19. High blood pressure can result from any type of damage to the central nervous system
(brain or spinal cord), such as strokes associated with spinal cord injuries or head
injuries.