Departmentt of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
Soran University

Blocks

Lecturer:
Dr. Aryanfar H. Sherwani
Department of Civil Engineering
February 2023

Dr. Aryanfar H. Sherwani 1

Blocks
Background
 A concrete block is primarily used as a building material in the construction of
walls. It is sometimes called a concrete masonry unit. A concrete block is one
of several precast concrete products used in construction. The term precast
refers to the fact that the blocks are formed and hardened before they are
brought to the job site.
 Most concrete blocks have one or more hollow cavities, and their sides may
be cast smooth or with a design. In use, concrete blocks are stacked one at a
time and held together with fresh concrete mortar to form the desired length
and height of the wall.

Dr. Aryanfar H. Sherwani 2

Blocks
Background
 The first hollow concrete block was designed in 1890 by Harmon S. Palmer in
the United States. After 10 years of experimenting, Palmer patented the design
in 1900. Palmer's blocks were 8 in (20.3 cm) by 10 in (25.4 cm) by 30 in (76.2
cm), and they were so heavy they had to be lifted into place with a small
crane. By 1905, an estimated 1,500 companies were manufacturing concrete
blocks in the United States.

Dr. Aryanfar H. Sherwani 3

Blocks
Background
 The concrete commonly used to make concrete blocks is a mixture of
powdered Portland cement, sand, and gravel as well as water. This produces a
light gray block with a fine surface texture and a high compressive strength.

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Blocks
Background
 Concrete masonry units are manufactured in three classes, based on their
density: lightweight units, medium-weight units, and normal-weight units,
with dry unit weights as shown in Table . Well-graded sand, gravel, and
crushed stone are used to manufacture normal-weight units. Lightweight
aggregates such as pumice, scoria, cinders, expanded clay, and expanded
shale are used to manufacture lightweight units. Lightweight units have
higher thermal and fire resistance properties and lower sound resistance than
normal weight units.

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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

 Mixing

1- The sand and gravel are stored outside in piles and are transferred into storage
bins in the plant by a conveyor belt as they are needed. The Portland cement is
stored outside in large vertical silos to protect it from moisture.
2- As a production run starts, the required amounts of sand, gravel, and cement
are transferred by gravity or by mechanical means to a weigh batcher which
measures the proper amounts of each material.
3- The dry materials then flow into a stationary mixer where they are blended
together for several minutes.

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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

 Mixing
4-After the dry materials are blended, a small amount of water is added to the
mixer. Admixture chemicals and colors may also be added at this time. The
concrete is then mixed for six to eight minutes.

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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

 Molding
5-Once the load of concrete is thoroughly mixed, it is dumped into an inclined
bucket conveyor and transported to an elevated hopper. The mixing cycle begins
again for the next load.
6-From the hopper the concrete is conveyed to another hopper on top of the
block machine at a measured flow rate. In the block machine, the concrete is
forced downward into molds.
7-When the molds are full, the concrete is compacted by the weight of the upper
mold head coming down on the mold cavities. This compaction may be
supplemented by air or hydraulic pressure cylinders acting on the mold head.
Most block machines also use a short burst of mechanical vibration to further aid
compaction.

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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

 Molding
8-The compacted blocks are pushed down and out of the molds onto a flat steel
pallet. In some operations the blocks then pass under a rotating brush which
removes loose material from the top of the blocks.

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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

 Molding

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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

 Curing
9-The pallets of blocks are conveyed to an automated loader which places them
in a curing rack. Each rack holds several hundred blocks. When a rack is full, it
is rolled onto a set of rails and moved into a curing kiln.
10- The kiln is an enclosed room with the capacity to hold several racks of
blocks at a time. There are two basic types of curing kilns. The most common
type is a low-pressure steam kiln. In this type, the blocks are held in the kiln for
one to three hours at room temperature to allow them to harden slightly.
Steam is then gradually introduced to raise the temperature at a controlled rate of
not more than 60°F per hour (16°C per hour).

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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

 Curing

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 FORM AND SIZE

o There are three basic forms of concrete block, solid, cellular and hollow, and
within each type a variety of products are available, thus providing flexibility
to block work construction both in style and function.
o Concrete masonry units are specified by their nominal dimensions.
o The nominal dimension is greater than its specified dimension by the
thickness of the mortar joint, usually 10 mm.
o For example, a (200*200*400 mm) block has an actual width of 190 mm
height of 190 mm and length of 390 mm

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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
 FORM AND SIZE

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 Properties
The properties of concrete blocks depend to a varying degree on the type and
proportions of the constituent materials, the manufacturing process, and the
mode and duration of curing employed, as well as on the form and size of the
block itself.

Density
 The density of concrete blocks is largely a function of the aggregate density,
size and grading, degree of compaction and the block form. The typical range
for dry density is 500-2100 kg/m3.

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 Properties
 Strength

 In addition to size, compressive strength is the basic requirement of concrete

blocks. Concrete masonry units can be classified as load bearing (ASTM C90)
and non–load bearing (ASTM C129). Load-bearing units must satisfy a higher
minimum compressive strength requirement than non–load-bearing units.

 The compressive strength of concrete blocks is dependent mainly on their mix

composition , degree of compaction and to a lesser extent on the aggregate
type and curing normally used. In general, for a given set of materials the
strength of a concrete block will increase with its density.

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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

 Properties
 Strength
 The compressive strength of individual concrete masonry units is determined
by capping the unit and applying load in the direction of the height of the unit
until failure (ASTM C140).

Strength Requirements of Load Bearing and

Non–Load-Bearing

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 Water Absorption
 The amount of water absorption of concrete masonry units is controlled by
ASTM standards to reduce the effect of weathering and to limit the amount of
shrinkage due to moisture loss after construction (ASTM C90). The
absorption of concrete masonry units is determined by immersing the unit in
water for 24 hours (ASTM C140). The absorption and moisture content are
calculated as follows.

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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
 Water Absorption

Weight Classifications and Allowable Maximum Water Absorption of Concrete

Masonry Units

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 Dimensional changes

 Concrete blocks will undergo some dimensional changes owing to variations

in the ambient moisture and temperature conditions. The magnitude of such
movements, to a varying degree, is largely influenced by the constituent
materials (mainly the aggregate), mix proportions and the process of block-
manufacturing adopted. Drying shrinkage is considered to be the most
important in normal applications

 drying shrinkage of concrete blocks can be reduced significantly by ensuring

that the units are properly matured and by preventing them from becoming
excessively wet on site prior to their use.

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 Durability
 In general, concrete blocks are adequately durable for most normal
applications. As a general rule, in extreme conditions of pollution (chemical
attack) and weather (frost attack), fair faced blocks with strength in excess of
7 MPa should be used.

 It should be noted that open-texture blocks are more susceptible to frost attack
than other blocks owing to the freedom with which water can move within the
block on freezing.

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 Efflorescence
 Efflorescence of the type found in clay bricks is rarely a problem with
concrete blocks. Such efflorescence as occurs in concrete blocks normally
consists of sodium, potassium and calcium carbonates formed as a result of a
reaction between the corresponding free hydroxides brought to the surface and
atmospheric carbon dioxide.

 Fire resistance
 In general, concrete blocks have good fire-resistance properties. However,
their actual fire-endurance is controlled by numerous factors. As a general
rule, most concrete blocks of 100 mm thickness can provide an adequate
resistance to fire for up to 2 hours if load-bearing or up to 4 hours if non-load-
bearing but specific information should be obtained from the manufacturer.

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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

 Thermal conductivity
 The thermal conductivity of a concrete block is largely dependent on its block
density as can be seen from the relationship. Blocks with high thermal
conductivity increases heat loss through walls in building structures.

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 Thermal conductivity
 Thus, in general, autoclaved aerated concrete and lightweight concrete blocks
have relatively low thermal conductivities. Similarly cellular and hollow
blocks, because of their lower net density, have lower thermal conductivities
than their solid counterparts.

 The thermal conductivity of a concrete block is further affected by its

moisture content, increasing as the moisture content increases.

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