Leadership theories

Definition:

Leadership defined as a process by which one individual influences others

toward the attainment of group or organizational goals. While at the same
time, maintaining the integrity and morale of the group.

Difference between leadership and management

Items Leadership Management
1. Position - It one selected by a group of - It one appointed by
followers'. someone higher in the
organizational hierarchy.
2. Power base - Arise from knowledge, and - Arise from the position of a
ability to motivate followers. legitimate authority.
3. Goals - Arise from personal goals Arise from organization
/vision and interests (passion). goals.

4. Innovative - Are developed ,tested , and - Are allowed (don’t

Ideas Encouraged among all Interfere with task
members of the group. accomplishment) but not
necessarily encouraged.
5. Risk Level - High risk (creative & - Low risk and balance.
innovation).
6. Nature of - Are related to vision and - Are related to efficiency and
activities judgment. cost effectiveness.
7. Focus - Is on people. - Is on system and structure.
8. Actions - Does the right thing. - Does things right.
9. Perspective - Long-range perspective, - Short-range perspective,
with an eye on the horizon, with an eye on the bottom
is critical. line often dominates.
10. Degree of - Is freestanding &not limited - Is tied to a designed position
Freedom to an organizational position in an organization.
of authority.
11. Degree of - Relative disorder seems to - Rationally and control
order be generated. prevail.

1
 Difference between leaders and managers
Leaders Managers
1. Power by influence others 1. Power by assigned authority.
2. Varied roles 2. Roles according to position
3. Not a part of the formal organization. 3. A part of the formal organization.
4. Focus on group process 4. Focus on group control
5. Emphasize interpersonal relationships.- 5. Emphasize achieve organizational goals.
6. Have goals not reflect organizational goals. 6. His function achieves organizational goals.
Functions of the leader Function of the manager
1. Achieve a consensus within the group 1. Focusing on coordinating and integrating
about the goal. resources.
2. Maintain a structure that facilitates 2. Using the function of planning, organizing,
accomplishing the goal staffing, and evaluating.
3. Supply with necessary information. 3. Define the mission and goals of the
4. Focus on communicating, motivating, organization.
initiating, facilitating and integration. 4. Clarify the organization structure.
5. Leaders have charisma and driven 5. Choose the mean by which goals will be
their power from followers. achieved.
6. Assign and coordinating tasks.
7. Have interpersonal skills.
8. Developing and motivating employees.
9. Evaluating out comes and provide feedback.
Leader roles
Decision maker Teacher Counselor.
Critical thinker Communicator Diplomat
Buffer Evaluator Role Model
Advocator Facilitator Change Agent
Visionary Risk Taker Coach
Forecaster Mentor Counselor
Influencer Energizer Creative problem solver
2
 Types/forms of leadership:

1. Formal leadership: When practiced by a staff member with legitimate

authority (approved position) conferred by the organization (nurse manager).

2. Informal leadership: When practiced by a staff member who does not have
a specified management role (outside the scope of formal leadership roles).

Developing leadership skills:

1. Get a reality checked: Real eye-opener is often the most powerful driver
for change.

2. Listen, listen and listen: Great leaders are great listeners-without exception.

3. Be humor in your work: People are more productive when they are
enjoying themselves.

4. Always be constructive: Great leaders always find a way to say things

calmly and constructively. Don't be critical of others (Language and
communication skills)

5. Judge your success by the success of your team: The true success of a
leader measured by the success of the employee (productivity, motivation
and satisfaction of your employees).

6. Stop providing solution: Don’t faster providing solution, give your

employees an opportunity how to "fix" problems and providing solution.

7. Let people get to know the real you: When your employees know the
person behind the façade will helps to break down the barriers and build the
trust and respect.

3
 8. Don't use the power of your position to get things done: Your team may
not always agree with what is being done, but they are more likely to respect
you if you take the time to explain your rationale.

9. Don't think of employees as things that need to be controlled or

managed: Let employees to do what they are there to do (given them trust).

10. Don't do things just because they will "look good": Do things because
they are right not just because they feel well or make you look good.

Characteristics of good leader:

1. Must have capability as a leader.
2. Must have a sense of humor.
3. Must have good health and emotional
stability.
4. Must have knowledge, honesty, and
maturity (experience and growth).
5. Able to self-control and satisfaction.
6. Able to self-criticize objectively.
7. Able to make decisions.
8. Able to inspire, motivate people and
communicated with them effectively.
9. Willing to assume the responsibilities.
10. Consistent and fair in all dealings.
11. Not too quick to judge others.
12. Focus on a professional and purposeful
vision toward the preferred future.

Variables affecting leadership style

Some forces within the Some forces within the group Some forces within the
leader members situation
o His or her values. o Size of the group. o Traditions and values of
o Extent of power. o Commitment to a common goal. the organization.
o Degree of confidence o Degree of maturity. o Size of the organization
about group member. o Tolerance for ambiguity. and its' structure.
o Feeling of security in o Readiness for responsibility. o Pressure of time.
uncertain situations. o Readiness to share in decision o Degree of which task is.
making.

4
 Theories of the leadership

A. Level I theory (Personal leadership theories)

Personal leadership theories: Personal leadership theories focused on

leadership traits (what leader are) and behaviors of the leader (what leader
does). These theories assume that leaders are born with leadership traits not
made and are made not born through education, training, and life
experiences.

1. Great man theory (1840): The Great man theory assumes that leaders are
born not made (traits of leadership are intrinsic).

2. Trait theory (1900): The trait theory assumes that leaders are born with
leadership traits. Gilbert, (1975) found leaders exhibits trait as dominance,
aggressiveness, ambition, self-confidence and tolerance to other views.
(Bass, 1990) added more traits as intelligence, personality and abilities. In
1983 McCalland found four primary trait:

1) Staying clam under pressure.

2) Admitting errors and mistakes rather than covering them up.
3) Persuading others without negative or coercive tactics.
4) Being an expert in a broad range of areas rather than a narrow minded
approach.

3. Skill approach theory (Notthouse, 2004). In this theory, leaders must have
three distinct skills are use based on the situation on hand to be effective
leader:

5
1) Technical skills are described as leader's competency in a specific type of
activity, such as computer skills.

2) Human skills are described as the ability to work with people and
motivation of other.

3) Conceptual skills are described as ability to have a vision, and develop

strategic plan.

4. Behavioral theories: Behavioral theories assume that leaders are made not
born (Real leader are made through education, training, and life
experiences).

A. Lewin’s leadership styles theory (1939). This theory focused on the ability
and behaviors of the leader (what leader does). Lewin’s identified four
styles of leadership classified into:

1. Authoritarian leader (autocratic-directive or restrictive). In this style of

leadership, the leader do all planning for the group members and considers
them as a passive instrument which their only role is carrying out the
predetermined goals without initiating action or decision making.

Characteristics of the leader used Authoritarian:

1. Centralized decision making.

2. Task oriented leadership.
3. One way communication.
4. Uses minimal group participation.
5. Uses the effort of employees without regard to their interests.
6. Feels little trust or confidence in workers.

6
7. Exercise power, firm personality, highly directive and dominating.
8. Gives feedback to members (personal praise or criticism).

Advantages of Authoritarian:

1. Effective performance with tasks accomplishment.

2. Useful in emergency situation.
3. Useful in inexperienced staff.
4. Less time consuming (decision making).
5. Result in a well-defined group action.
6. Feeling of security for subordinates.

Disadvantages of Authoritarian:

1. Lack of the group support (decision made without consultation).

2. Lack of autonomy.
3. Less commitment to organization goals.
4. Less job satisfaction.
5. Dose not encourages individual creativity.
6. Doses not encourage individual initiation or cooperation.
7. Dose not concerned with people who perform the tasks.

2. Democratic leader (participative, consultative). In this style of leadership,

the leader is people oriented focusing on human relation, team work and the
building of an effective work group.

Characteristics of the leader used Democratic:

1. Decentralized decision making.

2. People oriented leadership.
7
3. Two way communication.
4. Less control is maintained.
5. Criticism is constructive.
6. Economic and ego awards are used to motivate.
7. Others are directed through suggestions and guidance.
8. Emphasis is on "we" rather than "I" and "you".

Advantages of Democratic:

1. Open communication (helpful).

2. A spirit of collaboration and joint effort.
3. Member teams have a greater feeling of satisfaction and freedom.
4. Treat members as adults.
5. Give works feeling of self-worth and importance.
6. Participation promotes the acceptance of goals.
7. Increase staff cooperation.
8. Provide opportunity for staff to change and improve their work methods.
9. Help staff members to learn from their mistakes.
10.Enhance employee job satisfaction.

Disadvantages of Democratic:

1. Low level of productivity.

2. Is not useful in emergency situation.
3. Is not useful in inexperienced staff.
4. More time consuming (decision making).

8
3. Lassize fair (permissive, let do) style. In this style of leadership, the leader
allows the employees to make the decisions. However, the leader is still
responsible for the decisions that are made.

Characteristics of leader used Lassize fair:

1. Permissiveness, with little or no control.

2. Motivation by support when requested by the group or individuals.
3. Provision of little or no direction.
4. Communication upward and downward flow among members of the group.
5. Decision making dispersed throughout the group as he is unable or unwilling
to make decisions.
6. Emphasis on the group.
7. Criticism withheld.
8. Does not provide feedback.
9. Initiate little change.
10.Rules by members.
11.May work well with professional people.

Advantages of Lassize fair:

1. Result in high creativity.

2. Increase productivity when group member is highly motivated and self-
directed.
3. Enhance brain storming.
4. Encourage for alternative solution for problem.
5. Great deal of autonomy.

9
 Disadvantages of Lassize fair:

1. Lack of direction leads to frustration.

2. Group apathy.
3. Disinterests can occur in work environment.

4. The Bureaucratic leader (Weber, 1905)

Is very structured and follows the procedures as they have been

established. This type of leadership has no space to explore new ways to
solve problems and is usually slow paced to ensure adherence to the ladders
stated by the company. Leaders ensure that all the steps have been followed
prior to sending it to the next level of authority. Universities, hospitals,
banks and government usually require this type of leader in their
organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decrease corruption.
Leaders who try to speed up the process will experience frustration and
anxiety.

11
B. Likert’s leadership styles theory(1967)

In 1967, Likert published his leadership findings. He identified four

main styles of leadership for decision-making.

1) Exploitative authoritative style

o Based on fear, threats and punishment.

o One-way communication (downwards).
o Decision making is centralized make all of the decisions.

2) Benevolent authoritative style

o Less controlling than the exploitative authoritative system, under this system
motivation is based on the potential for punishment and partially on rewards.

o One-way communication (mainly downwards).

o Decision-making is centralized (may be some delegation) there may be some

delegation of decisions; almost all major decisions are still made centrally.

3) A consultative style

o Based on appropriate rewards.

o Two-way communication (limited upwards communication).

o Decision making is decentralized (limited) major decisions are still largely

centrally.

4) A participative style

o Based on group participation

11
o Two-way communication (high level of teamwork, communication, and
participation).

o Decision making is decentralized. People across the organization are

psychologically closer together and work well together at all levels.

C. The Leadership Grid theory (1961)

The Leadership Grid developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1961)

The leadership Grid is based on two behavioral dimensions:

 Concern for People (consideration): This is the degree to which a leader

considers the needs of team members, their interests, and areas of personal
development when deciding how best to accomplish a task.

 Concern for Results (production): This is the degree to which a leader

emphasizes concrete objectives, organizational efficiency and high
productivity when deciding how best to accomplish a task.

The Leadership grid theory identified five main styles of leadership

according to tow- dimensional grid which are measured on a scale from 1 to
9:

12
1) Impoverished or Indifferent leadership style: Refer to low concern for
both production and people. This leader is mostly ineffective. He/she has
neither a high regard for creating systems for getting the job done, nor for
creating a work environment that is satisfying and motivating. The result is
disorganization, dissatisfaction and disharmony.

2) Authority compliance leadership style: Refer to high concern for

production and low concern for people. Leaders, in this style believe that
employees are simply a means to an end. Employee needs are always
secondary to the need for efficient and productive workplaces. This type of
leader is very autocratic, has strict work rules, policies, and procedures, and
views punishment as the most effective means to motivate employees.

3) Country club leadership style: Refer to high concern for people and low
concern for production. This style of leader is most concerned about the
needs and feelings of members of his/her team are happy and secure as work
environment that is very relaxed and fun, but where production suffers due
to lack of direction and control.

4) Middle of the road leadership style: Refer to moderate concern for both
production and people. This style seems to be a balance of the two
competing concerns as an ideal compromise, so that neither production nor
people needs are fully met. Leaders who use this style settle for average
performance and often believe that this is the most anyone can expect.

5) Team leadership style: Refer to high concern for both production and
people. According to the Blake Mouton model, this is the best managerial
style. These leaders stress production needs and the needs of the people
equally highly.

13
B. Level II theory (Contingency theories)

The situational contingency theories emerged in the 1960s, contingency

approaches suggest managers adapt their leadership style in relation to
changing situations. Four common contingency models are:

1. Contingency theory (Fielders 1967). This theory focused on leader is most

effective when he/she matches leadership style (relational oriented or task
oriented) to situational factors. Fielder described three situational factors of
leadership:

1) Manager-followers relation (good to poor) reflects the degree to which the

leaders enjoy the loyalty and support of subordinates.

2) Task structure (high to low) reflects the degree to which the task is clearly
described, successful completion and evaluation of the quality of the task.

3) Position power (strong to weak) reflects the degree to which the leaders are
able to determine rewards and punishment by virtue of their position.

2. Normative leadership theory (Vroom's and Yotten 1973). This theory

focused on decision making and problem solving approach. They identified
five leadership styles:

1) Tell style: Manager assesses the problem, makes the decision

(independently) and informs followers.

2) Sell style: Manager gather information about the problem, makes the
decision (independently) and persuades followers to implement.

3) Consultative style: Manager seeks advice from followers and then makes
the decision (independently) and informs followers.
14
4) Joint style: Manager seeks suggestion and then makes decision
(independently) and informs the followers.

5) Delegate style: Manager delegate works to followers in developing group

solutions to the problem (consensus building).

3. Path goal theory (House – Mitchel 1974). This theory focused on human
motivation and task performance, removing obstacles to goal attainment,
coaching and providing personal reward for achievement (will result in
increased level of performance and productivity). Path-goal theory specifies
four types of leader behavior:

1) Directive leadership: Involves telling employees what is expected, giving

specific guidance, ensuring adherence to rules and procedures.

2) Supportive leadership: Focuses on the needs, concern of employees and

creates friendly climate in the work environment.

3) Participative leadership: Involves consultation with subordinates and

requests for opinion and suggestions.

4) Achievement–oriented leadership: Involves setting challenging goals,

seeking performance improvement, and emphasizing excellence in
performance.

15
4. Situational leadership theory (Hersey and Blanchard’s 1999): Four
distinct leadership styles according to the readiness and abilities of the
followers:

1) Telling style: (High task – low relationship) with followers who are unable
and unwilling about performing the task.

2) Selling style: (High task- high relationship) with followers who are unable
but are confident in performing the task.

3) Participating style: (Low task-high relationship) with the followers who are
able, but lack in confidence in performing task.

4) Delegating style: (Low task-low relationship) with followers who are able
and willing and have confidence in performing task.

C- Level III Theory (Contemporary theories)

There are new approaches for leadership theories as following:

1. Charismatic theory (Max Weber, 1905). Charismatic leadership is a trait-

based leadership theory where the leaders act as visionary driven by their
convictions and motivate their followers to work towards common vision
using personal qualities such as personal power, persuasiveness, and self-
confidence (leaders are often identified in time of crisis).

2. The transactional leadership theory (Burns, 1978). Transactional

leadership is similar to task-oriented leadership. It focuses on supervision,
organization, and performance. Also known as exchange theories of
leadership characterized by a transaction made between the leader and the
followers. It promotes compliance by followers (rewards and punishments).

16
 Basic assumptions of transactional leadership theory:

1. People perform their best when the chain of command is definite and clear.

2. Obeying the instructions and commands of the leader is the primary goal of
the followers.
3. Rewards and punishments motivate workers.
4. Subordinates need to be carefully monitored to ensure that expectations are
met.

3. The transformational leadership theory (Burns, 1978). Transformational

leadership is similar to relationship-oriented leadership, where a leader
works with teams to identify needed change, creating a vision to guide the
change through inspiration, motivation, and empower others. Kouzes and
Posner (2007) identify five key practices in transformational leadership, as
follows:

1. Challenging the process and thinking creatively about new solutions to old
problems.

2. Inspiring shared vision toward a goal (desirable and achievable)

3. Enabling others to act, (empowerment)

4. Modeling the way, ( leader must take an active role in change)

5. Encouraging by giving attention to people such as offering praise and saying

“thank you” for a job well done.

17
4. Connective leadership theory (Relationship oriented leadership):
This style values collaboration, teamwork and interpersonal skills to
promote collegiality in achieving organizational goals. Connective
leadership functions to breakdown hierarchical relationships & develop
leadership skills at all levels of the organization.

5. Shared leadership theory: It is based on the empowerment principles of

participative and transformational leadership. The essential elements of
shared leadership are relationships, dialogues, partnerships, and
understanding boundaries. (The idea of single hero-leader is unrealistic).
Example of shared leadership in nursing includes:

18
1) Self-directed work teams: Work groups manage their own planning,
organizing, scheduling and day to day work activities.

2) Shared governance: Decision making is conducted by reprehensive of

nursing staff that have been authorized by the administrative hierarchy and
their colleagues to make decisions about important matters (staff
development, professional development, quality assurance and
improvement).

3) Co-leadership: Two people work together to execute a leadership role both

clinical and administrative leader are needed.

6. Servant leadership theory (Greenleaf 1977): The servant leadership is an

attractive alternative (choose first to serve others and then to be a leader) to
the traditional bureaucratic environment. The servant leadership model
enhances the personal growth of nurses, improves the quality of care, values
teamwork, and promotes personal involvement and caring behavior.

Characteristics of servant leader:

1. Listen the deep (listen intently to others),

2. Empathy (accepting people and unique spirit),

3. Self-awareness, persuasion (seek to convince others),

4. Conceptualization (able to envision the future),

5. Stewardship (assume first commitment to serving needs of others),

6. Build community (take advantages of opportunities to create community),

7. Commitment to growth of people (seek holistic growth and development of

others).

19
7. Emotional intelligence leadership theory: Emotional intelligence is the
ability to understand and manage your own emotions, and people around
you, Reeves, (2005); suggest that cognitive intelligence is only half of the
equation necessary for success in the work place. The other most important
half is emotional intelligence. According to Daniel Goleman, there are five
key components of emotional intelligence:

1) Self-awareness. The ability to recognize and understand personal moods,

emotions, and drives, as well as their effect on others.

2) Self-regulation. The ability to control disruptive impulses, moods, and to

think before acting.

3) Motivation. The ability or a passion to work for internal reasons that go

beyond money and status (external rewards).

4) Empathy. The ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people.

5) Social skills. The ability in managing relationships (networks), and find

common ground and build rapport.

8. Quantum leadership theory: Quantum leaders focus on identifying old

habits and learning new ways (willingness to learn (tough love) and change)
to adapt to the chaos of change in the workplace. This theory guides the
leader in understanding relationships, behaviors and change. In simple
words, Quantum leadership is the process of leading from the future. Finally,
the quantum leader is flexible and non-controlling. The quantum leader also
views issues as opportunities, not problems.

21
9. The Leader-Member Exchange theory (1970s): This theory focused on
the relationship that develops between leaders and members of their teams.
The theory states three stages of relationship:

1) Role-Taking: occurs when team members first join the group. (Managers
assess new members' skills and abilities).

2) Role-Making: occurs when team members begin to work as part of the team
(Managers uses new members' skills and abilities). Managers sort new team
members into one of two groups.

In-group members Out-group members

o They work within the leader’s inner o They work within the leader’s inner
circle of communication (given circle of communication (given less
greater responsibilities, more responsibilities, less rewards, less
rewards, more attention, and freedom attention, managed by formal rules
in their roles, higher productivity, job and policies less productivity, job
satisfaction, motivation, and more disatisfaction, less motivation, and
citizenship behaviors). less citizenship behaviors).

3. Routinization: During this last phase, routines between team members and
their leaders are established.

10.Complexity leadership theory (CLT) focuses on emergent processes

within complex systems (system approach) and suggests that leadership
needs to operate at all levels in a process-oriented, contextual, and
interactive fashion. The model emphasizes the importance of social
interactions within organizations (network). The key role of the leader in
enabling change. Complexity leadership behaviors improve team
performance, increase the ability of the organization to adapt, innovate, and
promote quality outcomes.

21