ELECTOR MAGNETISM

Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical device used today in industry,
research, or the home. Generators, motors, transformers, circuit breakers, television,
computers, tape recorders, and telephones all employ magnetic effects to perform a
variety of important tasks

Electromagnetism is the study of magnetic fields set up by the passage of electric currents
through a system of conductors. Current produces a magnetic field, around a conductor.
The invisible lines of force of the magnetic field form a concentric circular pattern around
the conductor and are continuous along its length.

MAGNETIC FIELDS
In the region surrounding a permanent magnet there exists a magnetic field, which can be
represented by magnetic flux lines similar to electric flux lines. Magnetic flux lines,
however, do not have origins or terminating points like electric flux lines but exists in
continuous lops. The symbol for magnetic flux is the Greek letter ∅(phi)

The magnetic Flux lines radiate from north pole to the south pole returning & the north
pole to the south pole through the metallic bar. The strength of a magnetic field in a
particular region is directly related to the density of flux lines in that region.

N S

If unlike poles of two permanent magnets are brought together, the magnets will attract,
and the flux distribution is shown below. If like poles are brought together, the magnets
will repel, and the flux distribution is also shown below.

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 N S N S

Fig. Flux distribution for two opposite pole.

S NN NN SS

Fig. Flux distribution for two like poles

If a nonmagnetic material, such as glass or copper, is placed in the flux paths surrounding
a permanent magnet, there will be an almost unnoticeable change in the flux distribution.

However, If a magnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed in the flux path, the flux
lines will pass through the soft iron rather than the surrounding air because flux lines pass
with greater ease through magnetic materials than through air. This principle is put to use
in the shielding of sensitive electrical elements and instruments that can be affected by
stray magnetic fields.

Soft

N S
Sensitive
device

Glass
Soft iron for magnetic shielding

The unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (wb). One Weber equals 108 lines. In most
practical situations, the Weber is very large unit, thus micro Weber (µwb) is more
common. One micro Weber equals 100 lines of magnetic flux.
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Magnetic Circuits
One of the most obvious properties of a magnet is its ability to attract to itself
other pieces of iron or steel. Materials which can be attracted by a magnet are
known as magnetic material. Such other materials that can not be attracted by a
magnet are called non-magnetic materials

The most common magnetic materials are iron and steel while such materials as
copper, brass, paper and wood are non- magnetic materials.

Magnetic effects of a magnet appear to emanate from poles which tend to point
approximately in North-South direction. The pole that points towards North Pole
is generally called the North seeking pole which the pole that points towards the
south is referred to as the south seeking pole. In essence, there are North and
south poles.

It had been observed that when a piece of magnet is placed on one side of a
sheet of paper, it can attract a steel pin placed on the other side of the paper.
The area throughout which the influence of the magnetic effect extends is called
the magnetic field of the magnet.

Magnetic fields could be mapped by drawing lines which indicate the direction in
which an isolated north pole would move under the influence of the field as
shown in the diagrams.

N S S N S N

bar magnet flux or field lines

By studying the field produced by magnets, the following characteristics were
noted of magnetic lines of force(flux).
1. The magnetic field lines never intersect
2. Each field line forms a closed loop
3. The path of the field lines runs from North to south pole

1. Magnetic flux Density

The field set up by a magnet is permeated with magnetic flux (symbol φ). A
magnetic material is said to be strong when it is capable of producing numerous
lines of magnetic flux in a given area. Magnetic flux is measured in Webers
(abbreviated Wb). The strength of the magnetic field at any point in the area of
enclosure is a measure of the concentration of the magnetic flux at that point.
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The concentration of the lines of flux at any point is called flux density (Symbol B)
at the point. The unit of flux density is in Webers per meter squared (Wb/m2) or
in Teslas (T).
φ (Total magnetic flux in an area)
I.e. B=
A ( Area through which flux passes )

2. Magnetomotive Force (mmf)

The force that produces the magnetic lines of flux in a magnetic circuit is called
magnetomotive force (abbreviated mmf). It’s unit is in Ampere-turns.
∴ mmf=F=NI
Where I= current in Amperes
N= No of turns of conducting material.

3. Magnetizing Force (H)

The description of the force of magnetism is referred to as the magnetizing force
(symbol H). It is the ratio of the mmf to the unit length of the conducting
material.
mmf IN
I.e. H= =
L L
4. Permeability
A graph of the flux density against the magnetizing (H), gives rise to the
permeability of any conducting medium. For a vacuum, the ratio of the flux
density to the magnetizing force is a constants. This constant is called
permeability of free space (symbol µ0). It is the ability of material to induce flux in
it.
B
I.e = Constant
H
=µ0= 4π x 10-7 H/m
φ
Hence B = µ0 H But B=
A
IN
And H=
L
φ IN
∴ =µ0
A L
µ 0 AIN NI NI
φ= = =
L L RC
µA

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The B-H graph for non- magnetic materials is a straight line whereas that of the
magnetic materials is a curve.

B
graph of magnetic material

graph of non-magnetic material

0 H

For all materials other than free space (Vacuum):

B
=µ0µr
H
where µr= relative permeability
For a vacuum, µr =1
Flux density in a material
µr =
Flux density in a vacuum
and µ0µr is called absolute permeability

5. Reluctance(RC)

Reluctance is the magnetic resistance to the magnetic circuit to the presence of

magnetic flux. OR It is the property of the magnetic material which opposes the
creation of magnetic flux in it.
mmf IN
Reluctance = RC = =
Total flux φ

But φ=BA
IN
And from H=
L
HL=IN
IN HL
∴ RC = =
φ BA
B
Also =µ0 µr
H
∴ B= µ0µrH
HL
Substituting in RC =
BA
HL L
RC = =
H ( µ0 µ r ). A µo µ r A

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6.Series Magnetic Circuit

For series magnetic circuit having n number of paths the total reluctance S
is given by;
Rτ= R1+R2+R3+….+Rn
This is similar to resistors in series

Example 1
A closed magnetic circuit of cast iron consists of two magnetic circuit
paths. One of the paths is 12cm long while the other is 4cm long and of
cross-sectional areas of 2cm2 and 1 cm2 respectively. A coil of 400 turns is
wound round the 12cm length path of the magnetic circuit. If a current of
0.5A flows in the 12cm length path, determine the flux density in the 4cm
path assuming µr of the iron to be 250.

Solution
L 12 x10 −2
Re luc tan ce R1 = =
µ 0 µ r Aa 4πx10 − 7 x 250 x 2 x10 − 4
12 x10 − 2
=
6.28 x10 −8
= 1.91x 10 6 H
L 4 x10 −2
R2 = =
µ 0 µ r A 2 4πx10 − 7 x 250 x1x10 − 4
4 x10 − 2
=
3.14 x10 −8
= 1.3 x10 6 / H
RT= R1+R2
= (1.91+1.3)x106/H
=3.21 x 106/H

IN IN
From R= ∴φ=
φ RT
0.5 x 400
=
3.21x106
=6.23x 10-5 Wb
Flux density (B) of the 4cm path;
φ
B=
A
6.23 x10 −5
=
1x10 − 4
= 0.623T
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Example 2
A magnetic circuit with an air gap 2mm long and cross sectional area 4cm2
as shown below has the following dimensions; L1 =16cm , L2= 10cm Area
A1= 4cm2 and A2=2cm2 A Coil of 1000 turns of wire is wound on the iron
circuit and carries a current of 1.5A. At the operating flux density, the
permeability of L1 is 1800 and that of L2 is 1000. Neglecting the effect of
magnetic leakage, determine; a) the total reluctance of the magnetic circuit
b) the magnitude of the flux in the air gap.
Air Gap
I
2mm
1000
turns L2

L1
Solution Note
-4 2
L1= 0.16m A1= 4x 10 m L1,L2 and La are mean lengths of the
magnetic flux.
L2= 0.1m A2= 2x10-4m2
La = 0.002m Aa= 4x10-4m2
N=1000 turns, I=1.5Amp
L1 0.16
a) R1= =
µ 0µ r A1 4π x10 x1800 x 4 x10− 4
−7

= 1.77 x 105 At/Wb

L2 0 .1
R2= =
µ0 µr A2 4π x10 x1000 x 2 x10− 4
−7

= 3.98 x 105 At/Wb

La 0.002
Ra= =
µ0 Aa 4π x10− 7 x 4 x10− 4
= 39.79 x 105 At/Wb
Total Reluctance R=R1 +R2+Ra
=(1.77 + 3.98 + 39.79)x105
=45.54 x 105 At/Wb or (45.54 x105/H)

(b) MMf= IN
= 1.5 x 1000= 1500At
IN
But R=
φ
IN 1500
∴φ= =
φ 45.54 x105
= 0.33mWb
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 7. Magnetic Leakage and fringing

Not all the flux produced by the coil arrive at the intended destination which in
many cases is as a result of air gap in the magnetic material. The useful flux is
that which passes directly across the air gap to do useful work. Some of the flux
fringes or bypasses the air gap at the edges of the gap. Some of the flux never
reach the air gap as typified by the leakage flux shown in figure 3.0. Also some
flux do not complete the cycle of the magnetic circuit and hence tend to leak into
the magnetic system. Such flux are referred to as leakage flux.

Magnetic
Leakage

N-turns Magnetic
fringing
Useful flux
Figure magnetic leakage and fringing

The ratio of the total flux to the useful flux is called the magnetic leakage
coefficient. That is;
Total flux
Leakage Co-efficient = ; usually its value between 1.1 and 1.2
Useful flux
φt
=
φu
8. Parallel Magnetic Circuit

The analysis here is analogous to that of the parallel electric circuit. That is to
say, a magnetic circuit which has more than one path for the flow of flux is called
parallel magnetic circuit. Just as one could also understand that an electric circuit
which provides more than one path for the flow of electric current is known as
parallel electric circuit . Figure 3.01 (a) shows a parallel connected magnetic
circuit and (b) the equivalent circuit.
φ1

X φ1 Y Z φ2 φ3
I
S1
S2 S3
φ2 φ3
N- turns Fm

φ1 φ3
C φ1 φ3 A
B (b) Equivalent
circuit

Figure (a) Parallel magnetic Circuit

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In the circuit above a coil of N-turns is wound on limb XC and it carries a current
of I ampers. The flux φ1 produced by the coil divides at Y into two paths namely;

(i) Flux φ2 which passes through path YB

(ii) Flux φ3 which passes through path YZAB
That is to say; φ1=φ2+φ3

The magnetic path YB is parallel to the magnetic path YZAB, thus forming
parallel magnetic circuit. The mmf required for this parallel circuit (YB//YZAB) is
equal to mmf required for any one of the paths.
For instance;
Let R1= reluctance of path X YBC
R2= reluctance of path YB
R3= reluctance of path YZAB
Total mmf= mmf for XYBC + mmf for YB or mmf for YZAB
I.e IN= φ1R1+ φ2R2
= φ1R1+φ3R3
The effective reluctance of the parallel branches R2 and R3 is given by;
R 2 R3
R 2 + R3
∴ Total reluctance in the magnetic circuit is
R 2 R3
Rt=R1+
R 2 + R3
It should be noted that the reluctance R1, R2 and R3 should be determined from a
calculation of
L
R=
µ0 µr A
for those paths of the magnetic circuit in which φ1,φ2 and φ3 exist respectively.
Example3
A magnetic core is made of iron which has dimensions as shown in the
magnetic circuit. The magnetic core has uniform cross- sectional area of
20cm2. If the flux 4000µWb due to coil A passes through paths A and B with
none through C, determine;
a) the mmf for coil
b) the mmf for coil c due to the coil wound around path C.
40cm 40cm
IA IS IB
20cm
Coil A Coil C

B C
A

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Solution
Total mmf in path A=φA RA + φBRB (since B // C)
Flux φA=4000 x 10-6 Wb
LA= 20 cm = 0.4m
LB= 20cm= 0.2m
φB= 4000x 10-6 Wb
LA
(i) mmf in path A= φ A x
µ0 µ r AA
0 .4
= 4000 x 10-6 x
4π x10 x1000 x 20 x10− 4
−7

= 636.6At
0 .2
mmf in path B= 4000 x 10-6 x
4π x10 x1000 x 20 x10 − 4
−7

= 318.3At
Total mmf for Coil A= 636.6 + 318.3 = 954.9 At
(ii) Since path B is parallel to path C
φBSB=φcSC
LB Lc
4000 x 10-6 x = φC x AB=Ac=A
µo µr AB µo µ r Ac
4000 x10 −6 xLB
∴ φc=
Lc
4000 x10 −6 x0.2
= = 2mWb
0 .4
Hence;
mmf for coil C =φCRC
0 .4
= 2x 10-3 x = 318.3 At
4πx10 x1000 x 20 x10 − 4
−7

9.Ampere’s Circuital Law of Magnetic Circuit

The amperes circuital law of magnetic circuit states the algebraic sum of the
rises and drops of mmf around a closed loop of a magnetic circuit is equal to
zero. This goes to say that the sum of the mmf rises in a closed magnetic
circuit are equal to the sum of the drops around the magnetic circuit loop.
The most utilized equation for mmf drops in a magnetic circuit is expressed by
IN
Fm= HL (Since H= ) ∴HL = IN
L
Rise = Drop
Where Fm= mmf in ampere turns
H= magnetizing force on a section of a magnetic circuit
L= Length of the section

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 Applying ampere’s circuital law on a magnetic loop made of different
ferromagnetic materials, the equation will be expressed as;
Fm= H1L1 +H2L2 + ---- + HnLn
or that Fm- H1 L1- H2L2 ---------_ HnLn=0
For example, consider a magnetic core which is made of different
ferromagnetic materials as shown in figure below
L1 L2

Steel Cobalt

L3

Fig Magnetic circuit of

iron three different
ferromagnetic materials
Applying ampere’s circuital law
Fm= H1L1+ H2L2 +H3L3
Rise mmf Drops
That is; IN = H1L1+ H2L2 +H3L3
In magnetic circuit analysis, reluctance is most often calculated. Just as one
can state that in electric circuit;
V=IR
In magnetic circuit, mmf (Fm) =φR
where φ = Flux in a section of a magnetic circuit
R= Reluctance
Thus, as current is to resistance in electric circuit, flux is to reluctance in
magnetic circuit.

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 Example4
A piece of electromagnet consists of two sections made of cast iron and
steel as shown in the magnetic circuit of figure below . It has 500 turns
of wire wound on the cast iron portion. Determine the current I to
establish the indicated flux in the core given that the magnetizing force
for steel and iron are 70At/m and 1600 At/m respectively. Its dimension
is 5cm uniform.
15cm
steel

20cm
10cm

φ Iron

I 500 Fig 3.03 Electromagnet of

turns cast iron and steel

Solution
Applying ampere’s circuital law
Fm= Hsteel Lsteel+HironLiron
= HsLs+HiLi
Mean Li= 15+5+15 =35cm =0.35m
Ls=15cm = 0.15m
∴ IN= (70x0.15)+ (1600X0.35)
= 10.5 + 560
I x 500 = 570.5
570.5
I= = 1.14 A
500

10. Electrical and Magnetic Circuits Compared

Electrical Magnetic
1. Emf (E) mmf (Fm)
2. Resistance (R ) Reluctance (R)
3. Current (I) Flux (φ)
L L
4. R= ρ R=
A µ0 µ r A
E mmf −1
5. R= Ω R= H
I φ

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11.Hysteresis
The concept and implication of hysteresis is better demonstrated and understood
with the B-H graph shown in figure below. It is assumed that a known magnetic
material is completely demagnetized. That is , no trace of magnetic effect in the
material (or circuit).

a
b

y
c
-H 0 f x +H

e
d
-B
Fig Hysteresis loop

If the magnetic field strength H increases, the flux density B also increases given
by the curve 0a in the graph. At a point ox of H, it becomes difficult to increase
the flux density B. Under this condition, the magnetic material is said to be
saturated.

When H is reduced, it is observed that the flux density did not follow the
increasing path back but traced the curve ab. When H is reduced to zero, flux is
shown remaining in the material and represented by ob in the graph. This is
referred to as remanent flux density or residual magnetism.

As H is increased further in the negative (opposite) direction, the flux density

decreases until at a value shown by oc. This indicates that the flux density has
been reduced to zero. The magnetic field strength H valued described by oc is
called coercive force.

Further increase of H in the same negative direction causes the flux density to
increase also in the negative direction until a saturation point is reached as
shown by cd. If H is varied backwards from yo to ox, the flux density traces the
curve defa similar to abcd.

It is observed that the change in flux density B lag behind the changes in the
magnetic field strength H. This effect is called hysteresis. The figure traced by
abcdefa is referred to as hysteresis loop. The energy lost by the magnetic
material in the cause of these changes is called hysteresis loss. The larger the
area of the loop, the larger the hysteresis loss. For hard materials such as hard
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steel, the loop is large and for soft steel materials such as silicon iron, cobalt
steel, etc the loop is comparably small.

Hence, in making permanent magnets, transformer cores, relay cores, electric

bell magnets, etc, soft magnetic materials are utilized since the energy loss in
hard materials is considerable.

12. Magnetic Field due to Electric Current

The magnetic field around any current –carrying conductor moved through lines
of flux in a magnetic field is demonstrated using the screw rule. The screw rule
states that if a right hand thread screw is place along the axis of a solenoid and
is screwed in the direction of the current, it moves in the direction of the magnetic
field inside the solenoid. The direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid is
from south to north.

Current- carrying conductor Lines of flux

Lines of magnetic flux

X

IN Current carrying
OUT
Conductor

Demonstrating this phenomenon with solenoid as stated above in figure below

S N

Direction of current flow

I
+ -
Fig. Solenoid with Cell

13. Force on Current – Carrying Conductor

When the current-carrying conductor is moved through the magnetic field, the
field around the conductor interacts with the field produced by the magnetic
material. As a result, force is exerted on the conductor. This force F is
proportional to;
1 the magnitude of current through the conductor.
2 the length in metres of the conductor and perpendicular to the magnetic field.
3 the flux density of the magnetic field.
4 the angle of movement of the conductor in the magnetic field.
Mathematically; this is expressed by;

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At right angles (900) of conductor movement in the field; F=BLI

At any other angle between the field and conductor ;

F=BLI Sin θ
The unit of force is in Newtons
where B= flux density in teslas
I= current in Amperes
L= length of conductor in metres
θ= angle of inclination to the field

14. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, a voltage is produced across the
conductor. This principle is known as electromagnetic induction, and the resulting
voltage is an induced voltage.

The principle of electromagnetic induction is widely applied in electrical circuits in the

study and operation of transformers, electrical motors and generators.

When a wire is moved across a magnetic field, there is a relative motion between the
wire and the magnetic field. Likewise, when a magnetic field is moved past a stationary
wire, there is also relative motion. In either case, there is an induced voltage in the wire
as a result of this motion.

The amount of the induced voltage depends on the rate at which the wire and the
magnetic field move with respect to each other: The faster the relative speed, the grater
the induced voltage.

N +

S Vin
_

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If a load is connected across the terminals of the moving conductor in magnetic field, the
induced voltage courses a current through the load which is known as induced current.

15. FARADAY’S LAW

Michael Faraday discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction in 1831. He found

that moving a magnet through a coil of wire induced a voltage across the coil, and that
when a complete path was provided; the induced voltage caused an induced current, as
you have seen. Faraday’s observations are as follows:
1. The amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic field with respect to the coil (dφ/dt)
2. the amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional to the number of
turns of wire in the coil (N)

Vin
Faraday’s law is expressed in equation form as follows:
 dφ 
Vind= N  
 dt 
Eg. Apply Faraday’s law to find the induced voltage across a coil with 100 turns that is
located in a magnetic field that is changing at a rate of 5 ωb/s
 dφ 
So Vind== N   = 100(5ωb/s)= 500V
 dt 

When the current carrying conductor is moved at right angles to the magnetic
field, emf is induced in the conductor. This emf induced causes current to flow in
the conductor. By this understanding it holds that the emf is produced and hence
the current flow in the conductor as a result of the conductor moving across the
magnetic field. This effect is known as electromagnetic induction.

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16. Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
The laws of electromagnetic induction were long stated by Michael Faraday.
These laws can be established using a centre-zero ammeter connected with a
coil of wire and abar magnet as shown in figure below.

Direction of movement Coil of wire Direction of movement

S N S N

Bar magnet

b
a

1. When the bar magnet was moved towards the coil of wire, the centre-zero
ammeter deflected to the right.
2. When the bar magnet was moved away from the coil, there was also a
deflection on the ammeter but in the opposite direction.
3. When the number of turns of the wire was increased, the deflection
recorded was greater.
4. When the bar magnet was made stronger, the deflection was also
observed to be greater.
5. When the bar magnet was kept steady near the coil of wire, no deflection
was recorded on the ammeter.
6. When the motion of the bar magnet was relatively doubled/increased, the
deflection on the ammeter was also observed to have doubled.
7. The bar magnet was kept steady and the coil was moved at the same
speed as the magnet was first moved, the same deflection was recorded
on the ammeter.
8. It was also observed that when the bar magnet was moved towards the
coil, the magnetic lines of flux from the bar magnet linked with the coils of
the wire.

By these experimental observations, faraday concluded that it is the relative

movement of the coil and the magnetic flux that causes the emf to be induced
and hence the current induced in the coil. This phenomenon is referred to as
electromagnetic induction. Summarily, faraday states that;
1. Emf is induced whenever magnetic field linking that circuit changes.
2. The magnitude of the induced emf in any circuit is proportional to the rate
of change of the flux linking the circuit.

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Mathematically, this law is expressed by;
dφ
Emf (E)= N Volts.
dt
In a generator action, if a conductor is caused to move at a certain speed V in
between two permanent magnets through a magnetic field, emf is induced in the
conductor. In machines (generators) the conductors are the armature windings.
The magnitude of the emf so induced is determined by;
Emf= Blv Volts
where l= length of the conductor
v= Velocity of movement at 900 to the field
B= flux density
At any other angle of movement through the field;
Emf= Blv Sin θ Volts
Where θ= angle of movement through the field

17. Electromagnetic Devices

The solenoid: Generally, the solenoid is a type of electro- magnet that has a movable
iron core whose movement depends on both an electromagnetic field and a mechanical
spring force. The mechanical movement is used for many applications, such us opening
and closing valves, automobile door locks, and so on.

The Relay: Relays differ from solenoids in that the electromagnetic action is used to
open or close electrical contacts rather than to provide mechanical movement.
NC
Armature
contact
2
1
3
·
NO
contact
4
Spring

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18. INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTOR

When a length of wire is formed into coil, it becomes a basic inductor. Current flowing
through the coil produces a magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force around each loop
(turn) in the coil effectively add to the lines of force around the adjoining loops, forming
a strong magnetic field with in and around the coil. The net direction of the total
magnetic field creates a north and a south pole.

When there is current through an inductor, a magnetic field is established When the
current changes, the magnetic field also changes.

An increase in current expands the magnetic field, and a decrease in current reduces it
therefore, a changing current produces a changing magnetic field around the inductor
(coil). In turn, the changing magnetic field, according to Faraday’s law, reduces a voltage
across the coil because of a property called self-inductance.

Self- inductance (simply inductance L) is a measure of a coil’s ability to establish an

induced voltage as a result of a change in its current.

The hennery, symbolized by H is the basic unit of inductance. By definition, the

inductance is one henrys per second, induces one volt across the coil, In many practical
applications, millineries (mH) and micro henries (µ H) are the more common units.

The common schematic symbols for different types of inductors

Variable
Air-core Iron-core (Permeability
inductor inductor -tuned)

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The polarity of the induced voltage in an inductor can be determined by the application of
Lenz’s law. It states that: When the current through a coil changes and an induced voltage
is created as a result of the changing magnetic field, the direction of the induced voltage
is such that it always opposes the change in current of current and the inductance of the
inductor.
di
Vind = L
dt
Factors that affect the inductance of an inductor include the following;
1. The number of turns of wire. The more the turns of wire the higher the
inductance
2. The cross-sectional area of the coil of wire. The greater the cross-sectional area of
the coil the greater the inductances.
3. The presence of magnetic core. When the coil is wound on an iron core, the
inductance of the inductor increase.
4. The nature of coil arrangement. A short thick coil of wire has higher inductance
than a long thin one.

The number of turns of wire, the length, and the cross- sectional are of the core are
factors in setting the value of inductance. The inductance is inversely proportional to the
length of the core and directly proportional to the cross- sectional area Also, the
inductance is directly related to the number of turns squared this relation ship is as
follows: l Cross-
sectional
area, A
Core
material
N number
of turns

NI
φ=
l
µA
φ µA
⇒ =N
I l
Multimly both sides by N
φ 2 µA N2 N2
L=N =N = = = Self Induc tan ce
I l l RC
µA

ECEg332:Electrical Machine I Chapter 1 20

By Sintayehu Challa
Example
A ring of mild steel has mean circumference of 400cm and a cross-sectional area of
500mm2 with 400 turns. Determine the inductance of the coil corresponding to a reversal
of a magnetizing current of 2.5A Take µ0= 4πx 10-7 H/m.

Solution
IN 2.5 x 400
H= = =250 A/m
L 400 x10 − 2
B
=µ0
H
∴B=µ0H
=4π x10-7x 250
= 3.14 x10-4 T
φ=BA
=3.14 x10-4 x 500 x 10-6
=1.57 x10-7 Wb
∆φ 400 x1.57 x10−7
L= N =
∆I 2 .5
-5
= 2.5 x10 H
or = 25x10-6 H
= 25µH

Mutual Inductance
i m
(t)
m i(t)

N1
V(t) L1 L2 N2
N1 V(t)
L1 L2 N2

Φ
Figure 1 (a) (b)

dφ dφ dφ dφ
L1 = N 2 +M L2 = N 1 +M
di(t ) di(t ) di (t ) di(t )

Form figure 1 (a) and (b)

dφ dφ dφ dφ
L1+L2= N2 +M + N1 +M
di di di di
dφ dφ dφ
LT=N1 + N2 + (2M )
di di di
dφ
=L1+L2+ (2M)
di
ECEg332:Electrical Machine I Chapter 1 21
By Sintayehu Challa
where LT= total or effective inductance. If Φ α i(t0 ), and that all flux produced by one
coil link up with the adjacent coil,
then
dφ
=unity.
di
Hence LT=L1+L2+2M (Aiding condition).

Suppose the direction of the current flow in the coils is reversed, such as shown in
figure 2, then the two coils are said to be in opposition.

M
i(t)

N1
L1 L2 N2

i(t)
Figure 2
Hence; LT = L1 + L2 - 2M (Opposing condition)

From figure 2
dφ dφ
MαN 1 and M αN 2
di di
dφ dφ
M 2 α N1 x N2
di di
M 2 α L1 L2
∴ M = k L1 L2
Where k= co-efficient of coupling
At unity value of co-efficient of flux coupling the flux linkage is maximum.
Generally; LT= L1+L2±2M
= L1+L2± 2k L1L2
An inductor stores energy in the magnetic field created by the current. The energy stored
so expressed as follows:

W= ½ L I2
Example
Determine the inductance of coil, with the number of turns is 4, and the length and the
cross – sectional area of the core is 0.01m and 0.1m2 respectively the permeability of the
core is 0.25x10 –3
N 2 µA (4 2 )(0.25 x103 ) (0.1)
L== = =40mH
l 0.01

ECEg332:Electrical Machine I Chapter 1 22

By Sintayehu Challa
SERIES INDUCTORS
When Inductors are connected in series the total inductance LT is the sum of the
individual inductances

LT= L1+ L2+ L3+…Ln

Notice that inductances in series are similar to resistance in series

Eg. Determine the total inbductance for each of the the series connection in the figure
below.

A
1H 2H 1.5H 5H

B
5mH 2mH 10mH 1000µH

PARALLEL INDUCTORS.

When inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance is less that the
smallest inductor the formula is very similar to that for total parallel resistance or total
series capacitor.
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
LT L1 L2 L3 Ln

When only two inductors are in parallel, a special product over sum form of equation can
be used
L + L2
LT= 1
L1 + L2
19. Dot Notation

In dot notation we try to find out the manner in which one coil is wound with respect to
the other. Depending on the physical winding of the second coil, the direction of any flux
it may create could add to or subtract from the flux of the first coil, Thus for two circuit
with mutual inductive coupling , the relative directions of the emfs in each winding will
depend on the relative directions of the turns and the relative position of the windings

ECEg332:Electrical Machine I Chapter 1 23

By Sintayehu Challa
The dot notation helps to determine the directions of the turns. Consider the diagram
below

3
1
1 3

4
2
2 4
Series aiding

1 3 3 3

2
2 4 4
∅
Series opposing

In series aiding, the currents enter the coupled windings (coils) at the dotted terminals.
While in the series opposing, one current enters at the dotted terminals while another
leaves by the dotted terminals.

∂i
Suppose that the current changes at the rate of in the first case (series aiding)
∂t
Then the total emf induced in the circuit will be expressed by;
emf = Self induced emf + Mutually induced emf

∂i ∂i ∂i ∂i
ie emf = L1 + L2 + m + m
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t

∂i
= (L1 + L2 + 2m)
∂t
If the two coils are connected in opposition [series opposing], the polarity of the mutually
induced emf is reversed as we had earlier explained.

I.e
δi δi δi δi
emf = L1 + L2 − M − M
δt δt δt δt
δi
= ( L1 + L2 = 2 M )
δt
Generally,
emf for aiding and opposing series inductors is expressed by

emf = L1 + L2 ± 2M

ECEg332:Electrical Machine I Chapter 1 24

By Sintayehu Challa