Wave Motion

The of the actual nature of light is central to a

issue
treatment complete
of Optics, and we will struggle with it throughout light, however wonderlul it 1s 01 a
macropie le
this work. The
straightforwand question "ls light a wave phe- profoundly wanting on a
micrOcopic
level. Finsten,
first to suggest that the
nomenon or a
particle phenomenon is far more eleciromagnelic wave, which
than it might at first seem. For complicated ceive macroscopically, is the statistical r.

example, the essential feature manifestatitn

of a particle is its localization;
it exists in a fundamentaly granular underly1ng microwopic
"small" region of well-defined,
space. Practücally. we tend to take some-
(p. 49). In the subatomic domain, phete the classical concea
thing familiar like a ball or a pebble and shrink it physical wave is an illusion. Still, in the
large-cale regie
down in which
imagination until it becomes vanishingly small, and that's a we
ordinarily work, clectromagnetic waves seem
"particle." or at least the basis for the concept of enough and classical theory
applies superbly well
But a ball interacts with its "particle." Because both the classical and
field that interacts with the
environment; it has a
gravitational ments of light make use of the
quantum-mechanical z
Earth (and the Moon, and mathematical desuriptiun.
etc.). This field, Sun, waves, this chapter lays out the basics of
which spreads out into what both fiama
is-cannot be separated from the ball; it is an space-whatever it isms will need. The ideas we
develop here will
inextricable physical waves from a surface tension ripple in aappl; th
just as it is an inextricable part of the definitionpart
of the ball
of to a
pulse of light reaching us from some distant
cup tf
z
"particle. Real particles
interact via fields, and, in a
sense, galar;
the field is the particle and the
particle is the field. That little
conundrum is the domain of
Quantum Field Theory, a disci-
pline we'll talk more about later (p. 133). Suffice it to say now
that if light is a stream of 2.1 One-Dimensional Waves
they
submicroscopic particles (photons),
are by no means
"ordinary" miniball classical
On the other particles. An essential aspect of a
hand, the essential feature of a wave is its traveling wave is that it is
nonlocalization. A classical traveling wave is a Sustaining disturbance of the medium
agates. The most familiar waves, and through
whicr
sustaining disturbance of a medium, which moves self the easiest to
space transporting energy and momentum. We tend through (Fig. 2.1), are the mechanical waves, among which r
of the ideal wave as a continuous
to think on
strings, surface waves on *
entity that exists over an sound wav es liquids,
extended region. But when we
look closely at real waves and compression waves in both solids and flud
(Such waves are
as waves on
strings), we see
composite phenomena direction of
longitudina-the medium is displor: -
compised of vast
numbers of particles moOving in concert. motion of the
wave. Waves on a stnng
The media tromagnetiC waves) are transverse-the medium is y
supporting these waves are atomic
(1.e., particu-
late), and so the waves are not
m a
direction perpendicular to that the
themselves. The only
continuous entities in and of of motior of the
possible exception might be the electro- In* all cases,
although the
energy-carrying disturt
magnetic wave.
Conceptually, the classical electromagnetic advances through the medium, individual par
the
wave (p. 43) is atoms remain in the
supposed to be a continuous entity, and
ir the
vicinity of their equilibrium
serves as the model for the
very notion of wave as distinct
disturbance advances, not the material
from particle. But in the
past century we found that the energy
one
several crucial features of a wave thatmEu
of
of an
electromagnetic Trom a stream of disting
wave is
The classical formulation of the
not distributed
continuously. sets up "waves
particles. The wind blowing
of grain" that
electromagnetic theory of stalk
sweep by. eve houg
only Sways in place. Leonardo da VinCi ems
 Wave Moton

********************

* * * * a A . . * * * * . *

mm
AANAMuDNuuwsww.DL

* * * * *

Figure 2.2 A
wave on a string

2.1)

wave
function or
to some specific
corresponds
which showS
a pulse
where f(x, 1) in Fig. 2.3a v.
This is represented at a speed
shape. coordinate system s
the stationary =
0. can be
t
traveling in disturbance at any
instant, say
The shape of the value. In this
case.

time constant at that

found by holding
(D) 0) =
Ax)
x , D)=o J ( x .
wave
ransverse

wave in a spring. (b)

A
at that time.
For example. if
2.1 (a) A longitudinal
wave
the
re the profile of the shape ot
represents
constant, the profile has
,where a is a makes
not Sx) =e
function. (Squaring thex
a Gaussian
does
is
bell; that is, it
wave analo-
that a t = O is
to recognize
it 1s pre-
a =
0 axis.) Setting
Une first person
which it
travels, and
it symmetrical
around
the x as it travels by.
through at very of the pulse
the medium propagate taking a "photograph"
that does not
port that allows
waves to
gous to
limit ourselves to a wave

we
this property
moment time
For the After a
through space.
Jreat speeds. moving in the poSIuve ils shape as it progresses
distance vr, but in
allI
y change
disturbance the the r-axis a
0n
some such
The specific nature
of the pulse has moved along now
introduce a
unaltered. We
constant speed v. It might
be
tne il remains
the pulse
Wna other respects with
unimportant.
that travels along
at the moment
or the magni system S, longer a
e Is string in Fig .
coordinate
v. In this system
y is no

displacement of the with an eiec the speed sta-

a associated
field (Fig. 2.3b) at we m o v e along
with S. we see
a
magnetic
or time, and as (2.2). Here, the
q u a n t u m - m e c h a n i c a l

lectric function of
im wave (or even
the
constant profile
described by Eq.
or tionary that
Probabil of a matter wave). function
is rather than x, so
c y amplitude it must be a coordinate x
Snce is moving,
dIsturbance
n
position and time
 12 Optcs

(b)
3.04
2s
Figure 2.3 Movng reference frame.
9 m/s

= fr) (2.3)
s
The disturbance looks the same at any value of t in S' as it did
atr = 0 in S when S and S" had a common origin (Fig. 2.3c).

We now want to rewrite Eq. (2.3) in terms of x to get the

wave as it would be described by someone at rest in S. It fol- 0 t l s t=2s I=3s
lows from Fig. 2.3c that
Figure 2.4 (a) The proile of a pulse given by the functon fx)=
3/(10x + D. (6) The profile shown in (a) is now moving as a wave.
(2.4) Ax, t) = 3/110(x - vt)+1), to the right. t has a speed of I m s

and advances in the positive x-directon.

and substituting into Eq. (2.3)

Mx, 1) = Jx - vu)
(2.5) prof+le of the disturbance. To tun fix) into
now have the
yx, ), that is, to turn it into the description of a wave mov-
This then represents most general form of the
one ing in the positive x-direction at a speed v, we replace x
dimensional wavefunction. To be more specific, we have only wherever i t appears in f x ) by (r - vn), thereby yielding
to choose a shape,
Eq. (2.2), and then substitute (r vur) for x -

bx, 1) =
3/[10(x vi) + 1]. If v is arbitrarily equal o.
-

set
inf{x). The resulting expression describes a wave having the say. 1.0 m/s and the function is plotted successively at t = u.
desired profile, moving in the positive x-direction with
speed v. Thus, lx,
a I=
I s, ! =
2 s, andr =
3 s, we get Fig. 2.4b, which shos
t) =e is a
bell-shaped wave. the
To see how this all works in bit more pulse sailing off to the right at 1.0 m/s. just the wayfs
a
detai, let's unfold supposed to. Incidentaly, had substituted (r + or)
the
analysis for a
specific pulse, for
we
for."
3/(10x + 1]
example, hr) the protile function, the resulting wave would move ofr
=
flx). That profile
is plotted in Fig. 2.44, ana theleft.
t was a
wave on a
rope, would be the vertical If we check the form of Eq. (2.5)
ment and we might even replace it by the symbol y. displace
Whether
by examining after ä
increase in time of Ar and a corresponding increase of U
represents displacement or pressure or electric field, we in x, we find
 We Matrn 13

illerential equatom cqual the under of the highest derivativc

s
dafferential equatiom
coqualon Furthermore, if a

unaltered.
a l n
is oder N, the olution will contain N arbitrary
e profile We o w derive the one-dimensional form o me wav
ilarly.
immlan
it the wave Was traveling in tlhe nepative
the
on. that 18, to the lett, Eq. (2.5) would hecome guided by the forckowledye (p. 13
that mn
Cqualon
DaSIC of waves traveling at a fixcd speed requires tw
tn pecy
J X + U). with 7>0 (2.6) ns famplitude and frequency or wavelength) afe
there
and ihis suggests second derivatives. Becaue
ue
can tare
and t)
independent variables (here. r we

may
concueae regardless of the shape of
ineretorc tan,
done hy Just
hance. the variables x and r must
appear in the lunc
Ive
of dx, 1) with respect to cither r or
1. This u
is

and treaing
to one variable
uni, tnat S,
as a
singie vartable in the form (x T u). differentiating with respect
a The usual rules for differentiation
ion (2.5) is otten expressed equivalently as someTunc tner as if it were constant.
deriva-
to make the distinction evident
the partial
aPply, but
Iive is writlen as d/dx.
take
of L , T).
O relate the space and time dependencies
Au-)=F Fu- x/v) n e partial
derivative
with respect
of lx, 1) =f(x) inasmuch as
to x, hoid-

Using x' =x U, and

ing I constant.

The pulse shown in Fig. 2.2 and the disturbance described

spoken o as one-dimensional because the
Eq. (2.5)
are

lying on a line--it takes only

es sweep over poinis one

the fact
variable to speciuy lnem. Don t be confused by
e
case the rope happens to rise up into
A in this pariicular a
(2.8)
dimension. In contrast, a [wo-dimensional wave 0X dx ox'
gond
pagates out across a surface, Iike the ripples on a pond,
by iwO space variables.
d can be deseribed oxo * =1
because x

21.1 The Differential Wave Equation to time is

Holding r constant, the partial derivalive with respect

h 1747 Jean Le
Rond d'Alembert introduced partial difer
physies. (2.9)
into the mathematical treatment of 0)7
nial cquations
That Same year, he wrote an articie on the motion of vibrating
srings in which the so-called differential wave equation Combining Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9) yields
second-
first time. This linear, homogeneous,
ppears for the
erder. partial equation usually taken as the
differential is

waves in a lossless medium.

etining expression for physical
There lots of different kinds of waves, and each is
are This says that the rate of change of y witht and with x are
dbsceribed its wavefunction X). Some are written in
by own
equal,to within a multiplicative constant, as shown in Fig. 2.5.
ems of pressure, displacement, while olhers deal with
or The second partial derivatives of Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9) are
rOmagnetic fields, but remarkably wave wavefunc
all such
ons are solutions of the same differential equation. The
wave must
(2.10)
is that the
cason it's partial differential equation
a

those
of several independent variables, namely,
unction
space and time. A linear differential equation is essenliaily

each composed ola and

of two or more terms,
C consisting
a function ix) or its derivalives. The
multiplying
EVant point is that each such term must appear only to ne Since
TN power, nor can there be any cross products of withits
Vaives, or of its derivatives. Recall that the order of a
 4 Optcs

general. treat continuous distributions of quantities in

and time and so take the form of partial differential e
tions. Maxwell's of
formulation electromagnetism. which
a field theory. yields a variation of E4. (2.11). and from th
the concept of the electromagnetic wave arises in a
com
pletely natural way (p. 44
We began this discussion with he special case of wa
that have a constant shape as they propagate, even though.
a rule, waves don't maintain a fixed Still. that simpj
profile.
assumption has led us to the general formulation. the differ.
ential wave equation. Ifa function that
represents a wave is;
solution of that equation, it will at same ume be a
A Dosition hcid constant
the functio
of (x vrspecifically, one that is twice differentiable (in
nontrivial way) with respect to bothx and 1.

2.2 Harmonic Waves

Figure 2.5 Variaton of u with x and t. Let's now examine the simplest wave form, one for which the
profile isa sine or cosine curve. These are variously knowna
sinusoidal waves, simple harmonic waves, or more
s harm
succinct
waves. We shall see in Chapter 7 that
any wav
shape can be synthesized by a superposition of harmoni-
waves, and they therefore take on a special
significance.
It follows, using Eq. (2.9), that Choose as the profile the simple function

plx, 1)=o Ua) =A sin kr =flr) 2.1

Combining this with Eq. (2.10), we obtain where k S a positive constant known as the
propagatior
number. It's necessary to introduce the constant k
because e cannot take the sine of a
simp
quantity that has physt
(2.11) cal units. The sine is the ratio of two lengths and is thereter
unitless. Accordingly, kx is properly in radians, which is n
which is the desired one-dimensional differential wave real physical unit. The sine varies from +1 to -I
equation. Note that this is a so-called homogeneous differ- the maximum value of
so tn=
(x) is A. This maximum disturban
ential equation: it doesn't contain a term (such as is known as the
a "force'" amplitude of the wave (Fig. 2.6). To tra
or a
"source") involving only independent variables. In other form Eq. (2.12) into a
words, is in
progressive wave traveling at speru
each term of the equation, and that means that in the positive x-direction, need
if y is
we merely replace-
a solution any multiple of (r-v), in
Equation 2.11 is the wave
will also be a solution. which case
that do not equation for undamped systems
contain sources in the
The effects of region under consideralion. x . 1) = A sin k{r - vn) = f(x - vn) (2.1
damping
dy/or term to form
can be
described by adding in a
a
more
come back to that general wave equation, but we'll This is clearly a solution of the
later (p. 69). differential equ wave
As a rule, (see Problem 2.18).
partial differential Holding either x or t fixed resulls
tem being described
is
equations
arise when the sys- sinusoidal disturbance; the wave is
of the continuous. The fact that time is one periodic in both spaee
independent variables reflects the ume. The
spatial period is known as the wavelength
poral change in the
process under continuity of tem- denoted by A. Wavelength is the number a
analysis. Field theories, in per wave. ThS SUstoma
of units of e o
 Wave Motion

x) sinA Asin2i/A
=A sin

A/4 as
SA/4 M/ 7A/4 hich seres

harmonic
func ton,
2.6 A
Figure à
harmoric
wave.
une wdveeg
fa
27
e prone
or to a change
in phase o
Corresponds

hence

10m. although the micron (I am = 10 m) But these are all positive quantities:
a n d the older angstrom (T A = 10 " m) can
kvT = 27T
(2.17)
I e t i n he literature. An inerease or decrease in x by
* f o u n d

should leave unaltered, that is,

uunt A

2..14)

from which it follows that

harmonic equivalent to altering
w a v e , thus is .18)
ase of a
7 A/vv
function by #27. Therefore,
ument of the
sine

per
wave (Fig. 2 . ) .
A) D = Sin [k{x = vi) + 27] The period is the
number units of time of v, or the

i-71)=sin x[Ca which is the temporal

frequency
the inverse of second). Thus.
per
= 2
number of waves per unit of time (i.e..
kA
do

positive numbers,
1/T
and A are
since bothk then
sccond o r Hertz. Equation (2.18)
k= 2T/ (2.15) cycles per
in units
of
becomes
shows how to plot the profile given by .19)
Figure 2.6 sine
Here p is the argument of the
12.12) in terms
of A. Notice that r)
=
0 when-
Dction, also called the phase. string
0, T, 27, 3T,
and
rest and a harmonic w a v e o n a
you are at
=

i r Sin p
=
0, which happens when p Imagine that
that sweep by
respectively. The number of w a v e s
0n. 1hat occurs at x
=
0, A/2, A, and 3A/2, is progressing past you. 1.0 s. the o v e r -
discussion of A, we is A. In
the above is v, and the length of each
n an analogous fashion to amount of
per second is the product iA.
7. This is the all lengthof the disturbance that passes you
the temporal period, come a a
CAamine to pass a stationary
each wave is 2.0 m long and they
for one complete
wave
If, for example,
takes behavior of the wave
then in 1.0 s, 10 m of wave tly by.
In this case, it is the repetitive rate of 5.0 per second,
E This is just what we m e a n by the speed of the wave (7-the

lme that is of interest, so that

it advances. Said slightly differently.
rate, in m/s, at which
(2.16) of w a v e A passes by in a time
T. iUs speed
because a length
this rela-
must equal A/T
=
vA. Incidentally, Newton derived
in section called *To find
tionship in the Principia (1687)
a

sin k[x
-

v{t + 7))
k(x
=

vi)
-

Sin
the velocity of waves."
used in the l i t e r a t u r e of
Two other quantities are often
[k(r vI) 27] is the angular temporal frequency
-

vt) =
sin wave motion. One
Sm K(X
Theretore, 2/T 27TV (2.20)
kUT|= 27
 16 0ptcs

given in units of radians per second. The other, whic

important in spectroscopy. Is the wave number or Spa

frequency
spatial
. 1/A
oA4A (2.21
a)
measured in inverse meters. In other words, x is the
umber
ofwaves per unit of length (1.e., per meter). All of the

A 1=/4
quantities apply equally well to waves thal are notl harmonie
as long as each suchis made
wave
repeated profile-element (Fig. 2.8).
up of a

Using the above definitions a number of equivalen

expresions can be written for the traveling harmonic wae
single regular

A sin k(r = vn)

2.13
=A sin 2 (2.2
A sin 2m(*x + vi)
(2.23)
y=A sin (kr F wr)
T/2 (2.24)
=
Asin 2mv (2.25)

t= ST/8 of these, Eqs. (2.13) and (2.24) will be encountered most fre-
quently. Note that all these idealized waves are of infinite
extent. That is, for any fixed value of t, there is no mathe
matical limitation on x, which varies from-** to +*, Each
Such wave has a single constant frequency and is therefore
S7/4
monochromatic or, even better, monoenergetic. Real waves
are never monochromatic. Even a
perfect sinusoidal genera-
tor have forever. ts outputil
T
cannot been operating
unavoidably contain a range of frequencies, albeit a snall
7/8

www
FIgure 2.7 A harmonic wave
moving along the xaxis during a ume of
one period. Note that it this is a picture of a rope any one point on it
only moves vertcally. Well discuss the
arrow in Section 2.6. significance of therotating

Figure 2.8 (a) The waveform produced by a saxophone. Imagine any

number of profile-elements (b) that, when
repeated, create the wave
form (C). Ihe distance over which the wave
repeats itself is called ie
Wavelength, A.
 WreMoton

*
he
wa*
s the phase
argument
of the ine

Chire 2 27)
Asin
where
A E

AL =A
= 0.
can
we

More generally.
case.

a
special
certainly

1.0 2 2)
wrile E)

sin (kx
A, 1) =A the pny
sical

sense
of
a
To get progreEssi
initial phase.
where e is the
we
wish to produce a
2.10. In
order

that
of E, imagine as in Fig.
string. string
eaning a
stretched
holding
the
A Sin r{i - 2 )
O n I C wave
on the hand
was
t= 20 harmonic
waves,

vertical
d i s p l a c e m e n t y

generate its in
sim
move
such that that is,
have to a c c e l e r a t i o n ,

and
of its
would
atr=0
negative But
to t h e 2.2).
proportional Problem about to
(see X-axis

motion be on the
its
harmonic need n o t
ple the hand certainly could, of
c o u r s e ,
begin
=0, 2.10. It
downward,
a s in Fig.
rorm MX, t)= A sin k{x
-

vt), move

proOgressive wave or ne
2.9 A s p e e d of
1
1.0 m/S.
dt a
E rigt
to
roving

=-*,
baCk to r
does not extend
thee wave
because and when that
anc. just or t r e q u e n c i e s ,

Thas all
waves comprise a band
t o be
q u a s i m o n o c h r o m a t i c C .

is s a i d
the w a v e (2.13)
und is n a r r O w n u m b e r s into Eq.
some
o n , let's put let * * * * * * * * * *

we m o v e arbitrarily
Before term. To that
end,
deal with each
how to wavefunction
und see =
2.0 m. Then the

1.0 m/s and A

2T ( x - vr) -/2
A sin
******Y

becomes
in SI unitS

(x-)
= A sin 3t/4

a
to the ngnt
wave progresses ******************************

how the
gure 2.9 shows
r
=0[whereupon i A
Sn r
from 2.0s

/ S as he time goes
=

=
A sin r{x- 1.0)) to ?
S |whereupon
f 2.0)J.
whereupon = A sin m{x
****
.....
********************

.3Phase and Phase Veloci

as that at x =
0 and t
= 74 T/ Zw,
0 note
such
With E =

harmonic
wavefunctions,
Figure 2.10
neany one of the y=A Sin(-7/2)
==
-A.
(2.26)
o)
(kr-
x, 1)=A sin
 18
wNn tw inital phaIs a

whah c a * *
Nten the a .
upuar Sung.
in
In
a ivcn
siuatoN, ether
Eq (6
mn
on an sgm1tianY
Fig 11. In this lamer cas.
wave. Even sa in s N e situathons oNN e\prsitn f
phas ma e mathemanaly ae AppAng than anes
the literature a b i n d s w i t n d n . a n i o All üs d

E. is

tuncaon ot * In tat. the

ani is obviusy a
and i. pe
ierivative of s with e s p t o i. holding x dnstant. is
Ihe inita phase angik is just the cvstant ovntnbun0n to the

phas ansng at the generator and Is ndependent of how rar razeichansge of phase wih time. or
in srace. or hOw ng in ime. the wave has traveled.
The phae in Eg. 226)s kt ar whereas n Eg.9
hrh
it's (at-
kr. Nonetheless. of these equations desnbe
waves moving posive r-äirertion that
in the
otherwise are The rate-of-shange ot phase at any fixd lacaion is the ang
identical exePt for a relanive phase difference of : As is ar
requeny
in
ot tne wave.
.10
the
rate aa which a print on the
rope Fig. oscillates up and down. That point must go
tunrough the same numbr ot cyeles pr rond as the wave
For each cycle. s changes by 2.
Similarly. the rate-7-change phase wit distane.
t holding: constant. iss

4 These expressions should bring to mind an aquanm

two
from the
theory of partial derivatives. one used trequently in
Themodynamics. namely.

(¢/dr),
(/ax),
The term on the left the
The
represents speed of propagatior e
condirion of constant phase. magine a harmonis wa
and choose
the wave. As the
any point on the profile. for
example. a crest t
wave moves
ment y of the crest
through space. the displax
******************* ** t = 3r4 remains fixed. Since the
the harmonic only vanabie m
wavefunction is the
phase. it too must be on
stant for that moving point. That is. the phase is fixed at such
a value as to
yield the constant y
point. The point moves cormesponding to the chos
and so too does
along with the
profile at the speed
the condition of
***************. constant phase.
Taking the appropriate partial derivatives of
for
example. by Eq. (2.29) and as given.
ure
Eq. (2.32). we get
substituting them in
2.1l WhE=
- note that at x =
0 and
A Sn 2 =A t :4,
(
 Ne Mtor 19

the spveed at which the pnolile moves and is Anow n

lyAs the phase velocity ot the wave. The phase

I s avmpanied by posilive a sign when the wave

in the dinxtion ofineneasving and a negative one in

eeeisngA. his is Consistent With our devel-

ton o
ntas the magnitude of the wave velocity: v> 0.
nsider the idea of the propagation of constant phase
it e1ates to any one or the harmonic wave equa-
how

A sin k(x + 7)

= K{t ) = constant

must increase. Even ifr <0 so that p < 0,

st inCreases, X
increase (1.e.. become less negative). Here, then, the
ust
in the direction of increas-
adition of constant phase moves subiract from
AS long as the two terms
in the phase
waves. Photo by EH
other. the wave travels in the positive x-direction. On Figure 2.12 Circular
h
other hand. for

p k(x + vn) = constant

st increases x can be positive and decreasing or negalive 2.4 The Superposition Principle
In either case, the constant
ni becoming more negative.
condition moves in the decreasing r-direction.
The form of the differential
wave cquation [Eq. (2.1)}
phase fixed magnitude of waves. one that is quite
Any point on a harmonic wave having a
reveals an intriguing property
other words, classical particles. Suppose
1s constant in time, in
unlike the behavior of a stream of
Oves such hat p{x. 1)
els, )/ dt = 0, or aliernatvely, dylx, a ns u t h a t the wavefunctions and v, are each separale Soutons
of the wave equation: it follows that (Ui + v) is also a solu
and it leads (Problem 2.27) to
far all waves, periodic or not, and t
he expressIon tion. This is known as the Superposition Principle.
since it must be true that
can easily be proven
(2.34)
(ab 8x)
u when we have
which can be used to conveniently provide
v is always a positive
number, Adding these yields
U, 1). Note that because
the motion is in
when the ratio on the right turns out negative
ne negative I-direction.
two-
igure 2.12 depicts producing hypothetical
a source

surface of a liquid. The essentially

lmensional waves on the
disturbance, as the medium rises and
Uusovdal nature of the is another usetul
and so
t )= (t U)
alls, 1s evident in the diagram. But there
The curves connecting all
way to envision what's happening. set concentric circtes. which establishes that (, +U) is deed a solution. What
of
ponts with given phase form
a
a waves amve at the same
this means 18 that when two separa"
constant at any one
nermore, given that A is everywhere a Circle, u toc
place in space wherein ney ove they simply add to
will
ISLance from the source., if p is constant over
another wil ermanently destroying
nUSt be constant over that circle. In other words, all the cor- (or subtract from) one
disturbance at each
wave. Ihe resuling
or disrupting either
and speak or
ponding peaks and troughs fall on circles,
we
is the algebraic sum of the indi-
circular waves, cach of which expands oulward a point in the region of overlap Once
as waves at that location (Fig. 2.13).
vidual constituent
speed v.
 20 Optcs

other hand, = 0 wherever the Iwo comstituent w

cqual nagnitudes and opposite signs (e-g., at kr
Incilentally, notice how Arelative psitive phiase dit
1.0 rad between the two curves shulis t/, to the left wi lleree
lo by 1.0 rad.
Developing the illustration a bit further, Fig. 2.14
withiep
the
how the
resultant arising Irom
nearly equal-amplitude waves depends on the phave
superposition a
difference between them. In Fig. 2.14a the two c

waves have the same phase; thal 1s, their phase-anele constitue
be
ence is zero,
to in-phase: they riise a
and they are said
fall
in-step, reinloreing cach olher. he composite
which then has substantala amplitude, Is sinusoidal with
0,9 sn [k*
+ 1.00rad) same frequency and wavelength as the component y
(p. 285). Following the sequence o ne urawings, we see t
the resultant amplitude dminishes as the phase-angle di
ence increases until, in 2.141, it almost
kig. vanishes wh
that difference The waves are then said to be
equals T.
lar
Figure 2.13 The superposition of two equalwavelength sinusoids d'i out-of-phase. The fact that waves which are oul-of-pho
and da. having amplitudes A, and Ap respectively. The resultant, , is a
tend diminish each otcr has given the name
Sinusoid with the same wavelengtn, which at every point equals the
to
interferen
aigebraic sum of the constituent sinusods. Ihus at x = Xo, Ko)= to the whole phenomenon.
it
,Xo)d%o}; the magnitudes add. Ihe amplitude of is Aand
can be determined in several ways; see Fig. 2.17.

2.5 The Complex Representation

having passed through the region where the two waves coex As we develop the analysis of wave phenomena, it wil
ist, each will move out and away unaffected by the encounter. become evident that the sine and cosine functions that deserih
Keep in mind that we are talking about alinear superpo harmonic waves can be somewhat awkward for our purpoves
sition of waves, a process that's widely valid and the most The expressions formulated will sometimes be rather invohe
commonly encountered. Nonethe is also possible for
and the trigonometric manipulations required to cope with
the wave amplitudes to be large enough to drive the medium
them will be even more unatiractive. The complex-1Lunier
in a nonlinear fashion (p. 604). For the time being we'll con
representation offers an aliernative description that is mathe
centrate on the linear differential wave equation, which
matically simpler to process. In fact, complex exponentiak an
results in linear Superposition
a
Principle.
Much of Optics involves the superposition of waves in one
used extensively in both Classical and Quantum Mechanics, a
well as in Optics.
or another. Even the basic processes of relflection and The complex number 2 has the form
way
refraction are manifestations of the scattering of light from
countless atoms (p. 83). a phenomenon that can only be (2.19
Xtiy
treated satisfactorily in terms of the overlapping of waves. It
therefore becomes crucial that we understand the process, at where i = V-I. The real and imaginary parts o e
least qualitatively, as soon as possible. Consequently, care respectively, Xand y, where both x and y are themselwes te
fully examine the two cocxisting waves in Fig. 2.13. At every numbers. This is illustrated graphically in the Argand un
every value of kx) we simply add , and ta, either
point (í.e, D).
gram in Fig. 2.15a. In terms of polar coordinates (r,
be or negative. As a quick check,
or which could positive
mind that wherever either constiluent wave is zero
keep
(e.g.
in
0), the resultant disturbance equals the value of the rCOS G y= r sin &
other nonzero constituent wave ( =
V2), and those two curves
cross at that location (e.g., at kr = 0 and +3.14 rad). On the
and
*tIy= r(cos 6+isin 6)
 Wave Motiorn 21

T0in
=09 sin(

7 Figure 2.14 The superposition of two sinusoids with

amplitudes of A, =
1.0 and A, =
0.9. In ia) they àre

iphase. In (D) v, leads , by 7 3. In (c) , leads d; by

2/3. And (d) v, and 2 are out-of-phase by and almost
1.0 sin kr
1.0sin kr = 0.9 sin (kx- T) cancel each other, To see how the ampitudes can be
d. 0.9 sin (kx-27/3
=
determined, go to Fig. 2.13.
2 1

asterisk (Fig. 2.1Sc). is

The Euler formula* compler conjugate, indicated by an
found by replacing i wherever it appears, with -i. so that
e=cos 6 + i sin &
* =(* + iy)* = ( r - iy)

leads to the expressione = cos 6 - i sin 8, and adding

* = r{cos 6 - isin B)
and subtracing these two equations yields

* = re
and
cos
2
a) Imaginary (5)

e-e6
Ina Sin 6 =
2i
r sin

Moreover, the Euler formula allows us (Fig. 2.155) to write

= re" = rcos 6 + ir sin Real

where r is the magnitude of ~ and 6is the phase angle of ~, in

radians. The magnitude is often denoted by lE| and Re
referredto
as the modulus or absolute vatue of the complex number. The

A cos ar Re

*******sssas*snesasasmeme*s*sssessessss*** Figure 2.15 An Argand dagram is a representation of a complex num-

If you have any doubts about this identity, take the differential of ber in terms of ts and imaginary components. This canbe
COs 6+i sin é, wherer=l. Ihis elds d~ = i~ de, and integra
real
using either (a) x and y or (b) r and e. Moreover, Wnen b is a constanty
done
ton gives ~ = exp (i8). changing function of time (d), the arrow rotates at a rate o.
 22 Optics

The operations of addition and subtraction are quile stralght- such that

forward:
Re(2) (+ i") and
Im (z) = -
( tiv) (, + v;)
Both of these expressions Tollow immediately
and thereton fr
( 2 ;) t * Y>)
Argand diagram, Fig. 2.15a and c. For example.
because the imaginary parts cancel, and so Re (i)
=,
From the polar form where
Notice that this process is very much like the component
addition of vectors. Re (2) =
rcos 6 and Im (2) =
rsin 9

Multiplication and division are most simply expressed in it is clear that either part could be chosen to describe ah.
pOlar form monic wave. It is customary, nowever, o choose the
t,)
part, in which case a harmonic wave is written as

lx, 1) = Re [Ae"«-kr*
236
i@,-)
2
2
which is, of course, equivalent to
A number of facts that will be useful in future calculations
are well worth mentioning at this point. It follows from the
r , 1) = A cos (wt k x + ¬)
ordinary trigonometric addition formulas (Problem 2.37) that

Henceforth, wherever it's convenient, we shall write te

wavefunction as
and so, if = x and ~, = iy,

x,1) = Ae"kre) = Ae*

e=e = e'e"
(2.37
and utilize this complex form in the required computations.
The modulus of a complex quantity is given by
This is done to take advantage of the ease with which com-
plex exponentials can be manipulated. Only after arriving a
(EE") a final result, and then only if we want to represent the actual
wave, must we take the real part. It has, accordingly, become
and
quite common to write t , ), as in Eq. (2.37), where it is
understood that the actual wave is the real
Inasmuch as cos 27 = | and sin 2T = 0, par

e=1

Similarly. 2.6 Phasors and the Addition

e" =eiT =
-I and e/= ti of Waves
Thefunctione'is periodic; that is, it repeats itself every 12T: The arrow in the Argand diagram (Fig. 2.15d) is set rotating a
frequency w by letting the angle equal wt. This suggess d
e*i2 = ee =e scheme for representing (and ultimately adding) waves
that we will introduce here qualitatively and develop
Any complex number can be represented as the sum of a (p. 272) quantitatively. Figure 2.16 depicts a harmonic wave o
later
real part Re (2) and an
imaginary part Iim (2) A
amplitude uaveling to the left. The arrow in the hs
diagraum
and revolves ata constant rate such that the chang*
= Re (E) + i Im () lengthA
ing angle it makes with the reference x-axis is wt. This rotating