Basic Drilling Technology: Rizki Akbar - Drilling Engineering - Universitas Trisakti - 2020

BASIC DRILLING
TECHNOLOGY
Rizki Akbar – Drilling Engineering – Universitas Trisakti -

2020
LASER PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCES CENTRE
FEBRUARY 2013 – LAGOS BATCH THREE
COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
2
INDUSTRIAL EXCELLENCE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
• Overview of Oilwell Drilling
• Drilling Rig Selection
• Rotary Drilling Rig Systems
• Well Planning, Procedure and Costs
• Formation Pressure
• Formation Evaluation
• Mechanics of Drilling a Hole
• Drilling Problems
• Drilling Contracts
• Drilling Cost Analysis
• Introduction to Directional Drilling
• Glossary of Terms

3
OVERVIEW OF OILWELL
DRILLING
OVERVIEW OF OILWELL DRILLING
• Oilwells are being drilled to depths of almost
six miles in the continuing search for the
lifeblood of the modern world, fossil fuels.
• The first oilwell in the U.S. was a 69-foot hole

drilled by Edwin Drake in Pennsylvania in 1859.
• More than 20,000 wells have now been drilled

offshore.
• Ocean-floor completions have been made below

1,500 feet of water, and capability exists to
complete such wells in 4,500 feet of water or
deeper.
5
• Rotary drilling rig power has increased from 1
horsepower (hp) a hundred years ago to the
10,000-hp equipment now used offshore.
• The essential functions of rotary drilling rigs are

hoisting, rotating, circulating and controlling and
powering.
• The rigs consist of portable machinery and

structures that can be quickly dismantled, moved,
and reassembled on a new location.
• Rigs can be mounted on wheels or built on barges

and ships to facilitate the transportation of
equipment from rig site to rig site.
6
• Rotary drill pipe is special upset-end pipe with
thread and shoulder end connections (called
tool joints).
• The pipe is carefully designed to withstand the

tensile, torsional, collapse and burst stresses of
rotary drilling.
• Drill collars are heavy-walled steel tubes placed

at the bottom of the drill string to provide
weight for the bit and hold the drill string in
tension.

7
• Rotary drill bits may be roller cone, diamond or
drag types.
• Roller cone bits may be of milled-tooth construction

or have tungsten carbide inserts for teeth. They
may have plain, lubricated or journal-type
bearings.
• Diamond bits have various configurations, but

generally they feature fairly large stones held in a
matrix that allows the diamonds to be pressed into
the bottom of the hole when weight is applied.
• High-pressure fluid streams (jets) are used on roller

cone and drag bits to facilitate the drilling process
developed by applied weight and rotation.
8
• The hydraulic system of a drilling rig provides a
stream of high-velocity fluid to clean the bottom
of the hole and thus to improve the drilling
process.
• The fluid also sweeps the cuttings out of the well
and up to the surface.
• Drilling fluid may be made of water-base or oil-
base mud, water, air or gas.
• Water-base muds are the most common drilling
fluids; they are made up of water, clay, inert
solids, and chemicals in order to obtain the
desired properties of viscosity, gel strength and
density.
9
• Straight-hole drilling is actually a misnomer,
since most so-called straight holes are usually
within 20 to 30 off vertical.
• They do not change direction abruptly, and they

do not have sharp edges or bends in the line of
the hole from top to bottom.
• Large-diameter drill collars and properly placed

reamers and stabilizers make it possible to drill
a straighter hole than an assembly of small-
diameter drill collars without stabilizers or
centralizers.
10
• Directional drilling uses the principles of
straight-hole drilling to form a wellbore that
changes its angle in a desired direction
according to a predetermined plan.
• Various types of deflection tools are used to

establish the direction and amount of angle
away from vertical.
• Downhole measurements and survey

instruments are used to determine the direction
and amount of angle away from vertical.
11
• Fishing is a drilling operation that involves
recovering small equipment, drill pipe, drill
collars, or whole strings of pipe that may be
lost or such in an oil-well.
• The operation requires various catch tools,

fishing string accessories and wireline devices
to survey and separate frozen strings of pipe.
• Blowout prevention involves using the entire

hydraulic system of a rotary rig to control
formation pressure.

12
• Preventing oil-well blowouts requires
recognizing the preliminary signs of a blowout,
utilizing the blowout preventers (BOPs) and
circulating fluid of the required density to
contain the formation pressure.
• Well logging is used to evaluate oil or gas zones

in a well.
• Electric logs can make estimates of what kind

and how much production will occur.

13
• Open-hole logs can give readings of lithology,
porosity and hydrocarbon content.
• Acoustic and radioactivity logs make accurate

assessments of porosity and estimations of
permeability.
• Cased-hole logs can obtain much of the same

information through the casing.

14
• Casing and cementing are the first operations
required to complete the well after the hole has
been drilled, logged, and tested.
• The purpose of casing is to prevent the wall of the

hole from caving in and to provide a means of
extracting petroleum if the well is produced.
• Several strings of casing (heavy pipe) are set before

a well reaches final depth, but the production
string is the casing set from the underground
reservoir to the surface.

15
• The production string may be casing set from total
depth of the surface, or it may be a liner set at
some intermediate depth.
• Cementing is an operation that prevents fluid flow

between the formation and the casing.
• The cement is pumped around the casing to seal

the annulus, to protect the casing from corrosion
and to prevent pollution of freshwater formations
near the surface.

16
• Well testing involves an early evaluation of the
productive capacity of a well.
• It is usually performed in open hole before

casing is set.
• Well testing may involve wireline formation test

tools, drill stem testing or formation evaluation
based on core samples, electric log data, or
other methods of down-hole sampling.

17
• Well completion is the process of setting casing
and providing a passageway for fluids to flow to
the surface.
• Completing a well may involve setting a screen

liner or perforating the production pipe.
• Running and setting a packer and tubing may

also be involved in completing a well.
• Deep wells with extremely high pressures

usually require special equipment to handle
completion tasks.
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HISTORY OF OILWELL DRILLING
 Commercial Drilling for oil and gas started in
the US.
 The first oil well was drilled by Drake using
cable tools in 1859 to 65 feet in Pennsylvania,
United States.
 However, this method did not originate in the
United States but is believed to have been
used in China before being used in the US.

19
ROLE OF
DRILLING IN
OILFIELD
DEVELOPMENT

20
OILWELL DRILLING PERSONNEL

21
PROSPECT SELECTION
 In case of Production wells, prospect selection is
identified by the need to maintain or increase
reservoir production
 Exploration wells require geological and

geophysical data gathering, processing and
evaluation
 Surface geological study
 Subsurface mapping
 Identification of structures e.g. anticlines, salt
domes, fault traps, sand bodies lenses
 Seismic Evaluation
22
EXPLORATORY DRILLING
• Exploratory drilling is drilling to locate
probable mineral deposits or to establish
the nature of geological structures.
• Such wells may not be capable of production
unless minerals are discovered.
• The objectives of exploratory wells are:

– To determine the presence of hydrocarbons.
– To provide geological data (cores, logs) for
evaluation.
– To flow test the well to determine its production
potential, and obtain fluid samples.
23
APPRAISAL DRILLING
• Appraisal drilling is carried out following
the discovery of a new field to determine the
physical extent, amount of reserves and
likely production rate of the field.
• The objectives of appraisal wells are:
– To establish the lateral and vertical extent of (to
delineate) reservoirs in the field.
– To determine the amount of petroleum reserves
in the field.
– To determine the likely oil production rate in the
field.

24
PRODUCTION DRILLING
 Also called development drilling.
 This is drilling to accomplish production of
the minerals (including drilling to inject
fluids for pressure maintenance and/or
secondary and tertiary recovery).

25
WELL LOCATIONS IN ONSHORE
AND OFFSHORE DRILLING

26
ROTARY DRILLING
 In rotary drilling, the hole is drilled by
rotating a bit to which a downward
force is applied
 The bit is fastened to and rotated by a
drill string composed of high quality
drill pipe and drill collars with new
joints added as drilling progresses

27
ROTARY DRILLING
 Rotary drilling uses a drilling fluid called
the drilling mud to lift up cuttings
 Drilling mud is circulated through

drillstring to the hole and back to surface
 At the surface, the mud is channeled

through a series of tanks (quiesent time)
for cutting removal and mud conditioning

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DRILLING MUD
 A mixture of clay, water, chemical additives,
and weighting materials
 Flushes rock cuttings from a well, lubricates
and cools the drill bit, maintains the required
pressure at the bottom of the well, prevents the
wall of the borehole from crumbing or
collapsing.
 Prevents other fluids from entering the well
bore.

29
DRILLING MUD
 Drilling mud is used by pumping it with mud
pumps through the drill string where it sprays
out of nozzles on the drill bit.
 The mud then travels back up the annular space

between the drill string and the sides of the hole
being drilled, up through the surface casing, and
emerges at the surface.
 Cuttings are then filtered out at the shale shaker

and the mud enters the mud pits.

30
FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING FLUID
1. Reduce friction between the drill string
and the side of the hole
2. Maintain hole stability
3. Prevent inflow of fluids
4. Form a thin, low permeability,

filter cake which seals pores
and other openings in formations
penetrated by the bit
5. Carry cuttings up to the surface
6. Cool and clean the bit
7. Assist in collection and interpretation

of data
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ADVANCEMENTS IN ROTARY
DRILLING
 Directional Drilling
 Horizontal Drilling
 Multilateral Drilling
 Coil Tubing Drilling
 Casing Drilling

32
DRILLING HAZARDS
o Tools dropped while Drilling
o Stuck Pipe
o Increased size of Hole
o Lost Circulation Problems
o Sloughing Shale
o Bit Washout/Plugging
o Kick/Blow out

33
TYPES OF RIGS
• There are a number of rig types that are used for
drilling for oil and gas.
• They are:
• Fixed Platform
o Land Rig
o Barge
o Jack-up
o Submersible
• Floating Platform
o Semi-submersible Rig
o Drill ship
• The rig type depends essentially on:
• The environment (land or offshore) as well as
• Water depth (for offshore rigs).
• Weather conditions(clement or harsh weather)
34
SUMMARY OF MAIN TYPE OF RIGS
 Land (Onshore) Rigs
1. Derrick & Mast
 Offshore Rigs
1. Barges
2. Jackup Rigs
3. Standalone Platforms
4. Submersible Rigs
5. Semi-submersible Rigs
6. Drill Ships

35
LAND RIGS
They are usually
transported in section
by truck to accessible
locations.
They can be derricks

or masts.
Nabors 680 near

Wamsutter, Wyoming, US
36
OFFSHORE RIGS
• Offshore rigs are rigs used on inland lakes,
swamps, shallow water areas adjacent to the coast
or deep sea areas of the world.
• The offshore rigs can thus be used in both the

shallow and deep water areas of the world.
• Offshore rigs range from barges, semi-submersible

rigs, jackup rigs and drill ships.
• A well drilled from an offshore rig is much more

expensive than a land well drilled to the same
depth. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
37
OFFSHORE RIGS
• The increased cost can be attributed to several
factors:
– specially designed rigs,
– subsea equipment,
– loss of time due to bad weather,
– expensive transport costs (e.g. helicopters, supply
boats).
• A typical North Sea well drilled from a fixed
platform may cost around $10 million.
• Since the daily cost of hiring an offshore rig is
very high, operating companies are very
anxious to reduce the drilling time and thus cut
the cost of the well.
38
BARGE
 A barge is a drilling structure which is used in
relatively shallow water, usually 80 feet or less.
 It is towed to its location where it is submerged

until it sits on the bottom.
 The flat bottomed barges are floated to location

before being sunk and attached to the ground with
pilings (lake and swamp barges).
 This submerging serves as its mooring system,

although anchors may also be used
39
JACKUP RIGS
• A jack-up rig is a type of mobile offshore oil
and gas drilling platform that is able to stand
still on the sea floor, resting on a number of
supporting legs.
• The most popular design uses 3 legs.
• The supporting columns may be moved up and

down by a hydraulic or electrical system.
• The whole rig can also be jacked up when the

supporting legs touch the seafloor.

40
JACKUP RIGS

41
JACKUP RIGS
• During transit, the platform floats on its hull
and is typically towed to a new location by
offshore tugs.
• Jack-up rigs provide platforms that are more

stable than semisubmersible platforms but can
only be placed in relatively shallow waters,
generally less than 1,000 feet (300 m) of water.
• The rig acts as a kind of platform. This type of

rig is almost always used in connection with oil
and/or natural gas drilling.

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LIMITATIONS OF JACKUP RIGS
 The obvious limitation with this type of
installation is the depth of water it can
operate in.
 Jackup rigs are found mostly in the North

Sea.

43
SUBMERSIBLE RIGS
 A particular type of floating vessel, usually
used as a mobile offshore drilling unit (MODU),
that is supported primarily on large pontoon-
like structures submerged below the sea
surface.
 The operating decks are elevated 100 or more

feet [30 m] above the pontoons on large steel
columns.
 Once on the desired location, this type of

structure is slowly flooded until it rests on the
seafloor. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
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SUBMERSIBLE RIGS
 After the well is completed, the water is
pumped out of the buoyancy tanks, the
vessel refloated and towed to the next
location.
 Submersibles operate in relatively shallow

water, since they must actually rest on the
seafloor.

45
SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE RIGS
• A Semi-submersible platform or rig, is a
mobile structure used for drilling for oil and
natural gas in offshore environments.
• Their superstructures are supported by

columns sitting on hulls or pontoons which
are ballasted below the water surface.
• They provide excellent stability in rough, deep

seas. Semi-submersible rigs can be moved
from place to place.
46
• Semi-submersible rigs can be ballasted up or
down by altering the amount of flooding in
buoyancy tanks.
• They are generally anchored by cable anchors

during drilling operations, though they can
also be kept in place by dynamic positioning.
• Semi-submersibles can be used in water

depths from 600 up to 35,000 feet (180 to
more than 10,600 m).
47
Semi-submersible Rigs COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

48
AN ANCHORED SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE RIG
An Anchored Semi-submersible
COMMITMENT TORig
ACADEMIC AND
49
DRILL SHIPS
• A drillship is a maritime vessel that has
been fitted with drilling apparatus.
• It is most often used for exploratory drilling

of new oil or gas wells in deep water or for
scientific drilling.
• The drillship can also be used as a platform

to carry out well maintenance or completion
work such as casing and tubing installation
or subsea tree installations.
50
DRILL SHIPS
• It is often built to the oil production
companies and/or investors design and
specifications but it can also be a
modified tanker hull and outfitted with a
dynamic positioning system to maintain
its position over the well.
• The greatest advantage these modern

drill ships have is their ability to drill in
water depths of more than 2500 meters.
51
DRILL SHIPS
• The valuable time saved sailing between
oilfields worldwide as per contractual
agreement is also an advantage.
• They are completely independent compared

with semi-submersibles and jack-up barges.
• In order to drill, a marine riser is lowered

from the drillship to the seabed with a Blow
Out Preventer (BOP) at the bottom that
connects to the wellhead.
52
DRILL SHIPS
Drill Ships
53
RIG DYNAMIC POSITIONING (DP)
 Some latter generations of semi-submersible
and drill ships are termed thruster assisted or
dynamically positioned.
 They use no anchors but require sophisticated

computer based control systems.
 They operate in any water depth. The

disadvantage of DPs is that they can move up &
down more (no damping action).

54
TENDERS
 A tender is a small
mobile unit similar in
nature to a drill ship
but with no derrick.
 The drilling derrick is

found on the platform
while the rest of the
drilling services like
mud circulation
equipment, mud
pumps,
accommodation etc. Champion West CWDP-01 Smart
are found on the Field Platform with Tender Assist
tender. Rig, West Pelaut, Brunei.
55
OFFSHORE PRODUCTION PLATFORMS
• Once exploratory wells have confirmed
commercial reservoirs of natural gas and/or
petroleum deposits, it is economical to build a
permanent offshore production platform from
which well completion and oil and gas production
can be made.
• These permanent structures are often very
expensive and generally require large deposits of
hydrocarbons to be economical to develop.
• Some of today’s largest offshore platforms are
located in the North Sea, where large structures
able to withstand high winds and large waves are
necessary. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
56
• There are a number of different types of
permanent offshore production platforms, each
useful for a particular depth range.
• The types of offshore platforms are:
– Fixed Platforms
– Compliant Platforms
– Seastar Platforms
– Floating Production Systems (FPS)
– Tension Leg Platforms
– Spar Platforms
A 'Statfjord' Gravity base Structure under construction in Norway. Almost

all of the structure will end up submerged.
57
• For non-floating structures (Compliant Towers /
Fixed platforms) the deepest water depths are:
– Petronius Platform, Water depth 531 meters (1,740 ft)
– Baldpate Platform, Water depth 502 meters (1,650 ft)
– Bullwinkle Platform, Water depth 413 meters (1,350 ft)
– Pompano Platform, Water depth 393 meters (1,290 ft)
– Benguela-Belize Lobito-Tomboco Platform, Water depth
390 meters (1,300 ft)
– Tombua Landana Platform, Water depth 366 meters
(1,200 ft)
– Harmony Platform, Water depth 366 meters (1,200 ft)
– Troll A Platform, Water depth 303 meters (990 ft)
– Gulfaks C Platform, Water depth 217 meters (710 ft)

58
BASIC OFFSHORE RIG COMPONENTS
• All offshore rigs have quite a number of
components that are similar.
• Some of these features are:
• Rig Floor.
• Accommodation.
• Offices.
• Helicopter Deck.

59
DRILLING RIG SELECTION
• Rig selection is the process whereby we define
our hardware needs to fulfil the well objectives.
• In safe cost-effective drilling operations, it is

vital that rig selection be given the highest
priority and not left to chance.

61
• The rig requirements can be defined within the
following groups:
– Type of rig
– Lifting capacity
– Substructure/pipe setback load capacity
– BOP size, type, number and rating
– Pump output and rating
– Tank capacity
– Solids treatment equipment
– Storage capacity
– Accommodation

62
SPECIFICATION OF A LAND RIG
• Type of Rig:
– For land wells the following choices are
available:
• Trailer Rigs
• Package Rigs
• Microdrill-type Slim Hole Rigs

63
Type of Rig Use

Trailer rigs: First choice for wildcat wells.
Limited lifted capacity.
Package rigs: Higher mobilisation cost.
Suitable for deep wells and
cluster drilling.
Slim hole rigs Use only in environmentally
sensitive areas where limited
lifting capacity is not a
problem.
64
• Lifting Capacity:
– The rig must be able to handle the
heaviest drillstring or casing string with a
margin of safety.
– It is not just the hanging weight of the

string that must be considered but also
the drags and overpulls necessary to free
the pipe if it was stuck.

65
– Normally, the heaviest string handled by a
rig is the production casing string.
– As a rule of thumb, the lifting capacity
requirement of the rig should be considered
as the heaviest string to be run plus a 25 per
cent margin of safety.
– The string weight should be calculated ‘in
air’ and no buoyancy factor included in these
figures.

66
– This is because if the string gets stuck,

the hydrostatic upthrust or buoyancy of
the string is lost and to pull it free will
require pulling more than its dry weight
to free it.

67
• Substructure/pipe setback load

capability :
– This must be sufficient to take the full
drillstring stood back in the derrick whilst
the heaviest string of the casing is being
run.
– Again, in most cases, this will be the
production string.

68
• Substructure/pipe setback load

capability :
– It is not acceptable to have to lay out

drillpipe to allow casing to be run as we
never know when the casing might need
to be pulled and the hole reconditioned
with a bit and BHA.

69
• BOP size, type, number and rating:
– With the minimum BOP requirements known

for each well type, and knowing the well plan
and expected pressure regime, the BOP
requirements can be specified.
– Since land rigs typically use smaller BOPs

than those used offshore, extra care must be
taken to ensure that casing and tubing
hangers can pass through with reasonable
clearance. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
70
• Pump output and rating:
– For a given hole size, a given calculation rate is
required.
– The normally used minimum annular velocity is

about 30 m/min.
– This corresponds to 500 gal/min or 1900 1/min)

pump output in 121/4-inch hole using 5-inch
drillpipe.
– The pressure loss in a given circulating system

can be calculated using a hydraulic slide rule or
by computation.COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
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– By knowing the hole sizes and casing setting
depths, the pump output capacity and pressure
rating can be defined.
–
– The rig pumps, therefore, should meet these
requirements as a minimum acceptable level.
– The bit nozzle pressure loss is a major part of

the overall pressure loss in the circulating
system and the use of PDC bits.

72
– PDC bits can work efficiently with lower bit

hydraulic horsepower (HHP) and have reduced
the HHP requirements for given hole sections.
– The mud weights to be used will also influence

the HHP requirements and these must be
considered.
– As a guide, the following pump requirements can

be used:
73
– Hole: 121/4” to 500 m 81/2” to 1000 m
500 gpm and 1500 psi
– Hole: 171/2” to 500 m 121/4” to 2000m
– Hole: 171/2” to 1500 m 121/4” to 3000 m

74
• Tank Capacity:
– The surface mud tank capacity must be
sufficient to allow continuous treatment of the
mud prior to pumping it downhole.
– Again, as a guide, the following minimum

surface tank volume requirements can be used:
• Hole: 121/4” to 500 m 81/2 to 1000 m –
60 m3/380 bbl
• Hole: 171/2” to 500 m 121/4 to 2000m –
90 m3/570 bbl
• Hole: 171/2” to 1500 m 121/4” to 3000 m –
120 m3/760 bbl
75
• Solids Treatment Equipment:
– Before considering this requirement, we must
determine what types of mud systems are to be
used on the wells to be drilled.
– Furthermore, the ease with which liquid waste

can be disposed must be assessed.
– Simple water-based mud systems can be kept in

shape by extensive dumping and diluting.
– This process takes some load off the solids

treatment equipment.
76
– However, it does fill the waste pit rather

quickly.
– If oil-based muds are in use, then

dumping and diluting is not an effective
continuous treatment.
– Consequently, a full set of solids

treatment equipment will be required.
77
– Most land wells can be drilled efficiently
with the following equipment when using
water-based mud:
• 2 double-decker shale shakers
• 1 de-sander 1700 1/min/440 gpm
• 1 de-silter 1700 1/min/440 gpm
– If oil-based mud is to be used, then in

addition to the above mud cleaners, a
centrifuge should be installed.
78
• Storage capacity:
– Under storage capacity, we must consider all the
consumables involved in drilling a well.
– To operate efficiently, the rig must be capable of

keeping the following materials nearby:
• Water.
• Sack chemicals.
• Bulk chemicals.
• Cement.
• Tubular goods.

79
• Storage capacity:
– Once the basic well design has been completed,
a list of the above requirements can be made. No
two sites are the same since they have different
logistic needs.
– If mains water is available and the supply can be

relied upon, then the water storage
requirements are minimal.
– If the well is located in an ‘oilfield area’, then

chemicals can be procured as needed and not
just kept on site. Similarly, casing can be
brought to the site only a few days prior to
running.
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• Accommodation and Offices:
– Company policy will, in most cases, dictate the level of

supervision used on the drill site.
– Most land wells will have a Drilling Engineer and possible a

Night-shift Drilling Supervisor.
– Each of these must have a place to work, a desk, filing

cabinets and shelves to keep files, etc.
– They also need shower facilities, sleeping quarters and a

small kitchen where food can be prepared.

81
– Different companies have different policies

regarding whether the Drilling Supervisor can
leave the site during drilling operations.
– It is often contended that the Supervisor should

never leave the site during these operations.
– If this policy is adopted then the need for good

kitchen facilities is increased.
82
– The accommodation and office

requirement for rig selection purposes
will be that which meets the particular
well’s and operator’s needs.
– This can be easily defined once the basic

program has been prepared.

83
SPECIFICATION OF AN OFFSHORE RIG
• Type of Rig:
– For most offshore wells, the type of rig
required will fall into one of three groups:
• Jack-ups, where the water depth is less than

100 m
• Semi-submersibles in hostile waters too rough

for drill ships and in depths over 100 m.
• Drill ships in calmer waters with depths over

100 m COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
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• Type of Rig:
– There are certain situations where any of the
three types could be used to meet a well’s needs.
– In these cases each well approach should be

costed out to find a clear economic leader.
– If there is no economic leader, then oilfield sense

or intuition will probably show you the way to
go.

85
• Type of Rig: Jack Up Rig:
• Jack-ups are used for most of the offshore
exploration drilling worldwide.
•
• They fall into two main categories determined
by the equipment used on the bottom of the
supporting legs.
• By far the most common type of jack-up is the

‘spud can’ type. This rig has spud or tanks
mounted on the base of the legs.

86
• These are usually round and are equipped
with a jetting system to allow them to be
jetted into the seabed.
• Additional jetting systems are installed on the

top of the spud cans to allow the can to be
pulled out of the formation, should
penetration into the seabed be too great.
• The second type of jack-up is ‘mat’ supported.

87
• This type of rig has a large single mat connected to the

base of each leg.
• This is lowered with the legs and, since it has a larger

area than individual spud cans, it applies less pressure
on the seabed for a given jack-up weight.
• Consequently, it is used mainly in areas where the

seabed is very soft and spud cans would penetrate too
far into the seabed if they were used, or where seabed
pipeline congestion precludes the use of spud can type
jack-ups.
88
• Only when operating in these types of areas
should mat supported jack-ups be considered.
In all other applications use spud can type
jack-ups.
• Most modern jack-ups are of the cantilever

design.
• This means that the derrick and substructure

can be skidded inboard on the rig for rig tows
and skidded out over a cantilever during
drilling operations.
89
• The safe working load of the derrick and

substructure is affected by the amount of
extension along the cantilever that is being
used.
• Consequently, when lifting, substructure and

setback capacity requirements are being
considered for cantilever jack-ups, the
position that the derrick will be on the
cantilever must be known or fixed.
90
• Type of Rig: Semi-submersible Rigs:
• In areas where water depths exceed 100 m
and heavy weather can be expected, then
semisubmersibles must be used.
• The choice will, in most cases, come down to

using either second generation or third
generation semis.
• Second generation semis appeared in the mid-

70s and incorporated a log of the lessons
learned by the first generation of semis and
submersible rigs.
91
• A major influence in their design was the
increasing exploration activity in the North
Sea.To make a rig pay in the North Sea meant
operating it for 12 months of the year.
• This in turn meant that the rig had to be able

to withstand 100 knot winds and 20 m seas
on a regular basis.
• Typical second generation semis are rig

designs such as the Aker H3 or Sedco 700.
92
• Type of Rig:Semi-submersible Rigs:
• These rigs typically have a variable deck load
of 1500 - 2000 tons and can be moored in up
to 300 m of water.
• Some second generation semis have been
‘upgraded’ over the years usually by the
addition of extra columns from the
submerged pontoons up to the main deck.
• This modification has the effect of increasing
the variable deck load, which in turn allows
the rig to carry more anchor chain and
therefore moor in deeper water.
93
• (The anchor chain or line must be four to five
times the water depth to achieve a good
mooring line catenary).
• In most cases, these ‘upgraded’ second
generation semis look awful but work OK, so
they can be used a s a substitute for some
third generation semi-submersible
applications.
• Third generation semis evolved from a desire
to go conventionally moored into deeper waters
and to carry greater deck loads.
94
• Typical third generation semi’s are designs
such as the F & G Pace Setter, the Aker H4,
the GVA 5000 and the Bingo.
• These rigs typically have a variable deck load

of over 3000 tons and can be moored in water
depths of up to 600 m.
• As with all things in life, you do not get

something for nothing when it comes to
choosing a semisubmersible rig.
95
• Type of Rig: Drill Ships:
• Drill ships are the rigs to use when drilling
in calm waters which are too deep for
jackup operations.
• They can be used in very shallow water (±
30 m) in very calm conditions but are
usually used in water depths of over 100 m.
• Drill ships come in two main groupings:
conventionally moored and dynamically
positioned (DP).

96
• Conventionally moored drill ships are rigs
moored with bow and stern anchors
(typically four at each end of the vessel).
• As such, they are restricted to water
depths of up to 500 m only because there
is a limit to the anchor chain or cable that
they can carry.
• The heading that the ships are given into
the prevailing seas is important since it is
fixed once the anchors are set.

97
• Dynamically positioned drill ships use a
series of hull mounted propellers (thrusters)
to keep them in position over the well.
• They hold their position by tracking
geostatic satellites and transmitting
interpreted data to the thrusters, which
fine-tune the rig position constantly.
• Since the rig is not anchored up, the bow
can be turned into the current prevailing
seas.
98
• DP drill ships will operate in water depths of
100 m up to several thousand meters and are
the favoured tool for drilling wells off the
Continental Shelf.
• When specifying a rig type, it is also

necessary to specify the deck load
requirements that the rig must meet.
• The deck load requirements are the amount of

drill pipe, tools, casing, cement, chemicals,
mud and fluids to be carried during the
drilling operation.
99
• The greater the deck load then the less
logistic support a rig needs
• A drill ship can carry on board most of the

equipment required to drill two wells.
• Generally speaking for drill ships, the deck

load is never a problem.
• For jack-ups and semis however, there is

never enough deck load capability.
100
• As a guide, most wells of up to 4000 m can be

drilled with deck load of less then 2000
tonnes.
• Wells deeper that this or in deeper water with

chain moored semis will require additional
deck load capabilities.

101
• Type of Rig: Lifting Capacity:
• The same criteria for lifting capacity apply
equally to offshore rigs and to land rigs.
• Typically, offshore rigs will routinely handle

larger casing sizes than land rigs and
therefore will need a higher rating on their
lifting capacity.
• Floating rigs use large seabed-placed BOP

units which must be handled at surface
initially by means of bridge cranes and then
finally lowered to the seabed either on
drillpipe or on riser.
102
• The weights involved in this operation are
considerable and could in some cases
exceed the normal expected drilling loads.
• Furthermore, modern floating rigs are all

fitted with a heave compensation system,
which is mounted either on the travelling
block or the crown block.
• These will have a rated capacity of around

500000 lbs., which will be a lot, less than
the total lifting capacity of the rig.
103
• When specifying a floater, compensated
capacity requirement should also be
determined.
• For jack-ups the rig in its working position must

satisfy the lifting capacity requirements.
• Any cantilever jack-ups must skid the derrick
out on the cantilever to gain access over the well
or jacket.
• The further out along the cantilever that the

derrick must go to be above on the well, the
lower the rigsCOMMITMENT
liftingTOcapacity
ACADEMIC AND
will be.
104
• Type of Rig:
– Site Conditions and Considerations:
• The culmination of the sometimes arduous
and complex task of geologic evaluation of a
potential offshore play is for the exploration
geologist to put a finger on the map and say
“drill here.”
• This decision sets in motion a series of actions

that will eventually lead to the drilling of an
offshore well. The first major step is to select
a rig to drill the well.

105
• Type of Rig:
– Site Conditions and Considerations:
• Certain data must be known about the
drillsite and surrounding area.
• Basic offshore rig selection criteria consist of:
– water depth,
– expected environmental conditions during the
forecasted drilling period (wind, waves, current
profile, and climatological conditions),
– distance from nearest dock facility, and
– availability of consumable supplies (such a
drilling mud, cement, pipe, rental tools and
spare parts).
106
• Type of Rig: Water Depth:
• A rough idea of the water depth is an
important criterion for rig selection.
• If the water depth does not exceed
approximately 350 ft, any of the three major
rig types can be considered.
• Jackups can handle a water depth range from

their shallow draft limit of 20 to 30 ft to a
maximum depth of 350 ft.
• The maximum strains, such as wind, wave,
and current conditions at the site.

107
• Severe conditions tend to lower the jackup
rig’s maximum water-depth capacity.
Drillship water depths range from
approximately 100 to 8,000 ft with today’s
technology.
• The shallow side is limited by clearance

between the bottom of the hull and the subsea
blowout preventer (BOP) equipment.
• Maximum water-depth limits occur because of

riser-systemCOMMITMENT
limitations and other constraints.
TO ACADEMIC AND
108
• Semisubmersible water depths range from
approximately 150 to 8,000 ft.
•
• The semisubmersible must stay in slightly
deeper water than a ship because of the
clearance between the submerged hull (60 to
90 ft below the water sea BOP equipment.
• Until 1978, semisubmersible maximum water

depth was limited by the practical depth of
conventional mooring systems -
approximately 2,200 ft.
109
• Type of Rig:
– Expected Environmental Conditions:
• Wind, waves and current are all important
site-specific data to help in rig selection and
in determination of vessel headings,
mooring pattern, mooring line tensions,
riser tensions, subsea equipment selection,
and equipment operational limits.
• Wind, wave, current and climatological data

are generally the responsibility of an
oceanographic consulting firm or your own
company’s oceanographer.
110
• Type of Rig:
• Many sources of environmental data are
available-the marine climatic atlas, ship
observations, U.S. Navy publications, privately
funded oceanographic studies, and university-
sponsored research.
• Converting these data into useful site-specific

wind, wave, and current information is the
scientific specialty of oceanography.

111
• Type of Rig:
• The oceanographer must have specified
coordinates of the location and the time of
they year (with some cushion on both ends) in
which operations are expected.
• With that he can develop the expected wind,

wave, and current conditions for the location.
• For an exploratory location, the
oceanographer may provide environmental
data for operational weather, seasonal one-
year storm and seasonal 10-year storm.
112
• Type of Rig:
• With that information, the drilling engineer
and technical support staff can accomplish
several tasks necessary in planning the well:
– A preliminary rig selection can be made based
on water depth, wind, wave and current
information.
– A preliminary estimate of vessel heading can

be determined.
– Before final headings is specified, however,
local knowledge of the area should be
considered.
113
• Type of Rig:
– Local conditions such as swell, tide-generated
currents, and rapidly changing wind
directions-frequently can affect the optimum
vessel heading significantly.
– The primary objective of optimum vessel

heading is to minimize vessel motion (primarily
pitch, roll, and heave) while keeping the
vessel’s mooring line forces within acceptable
limits and providing a lee side (calm-water
side) for supply and crew boats to tie up.
114
• Type of Rig:
– After the vessel is selected, mooring and riser
analyses can be run to determine whether the
vessel is adequately equipped for the location.
– In addition, both mooring and riser operating
tensions can be determined.
– Both are necessary after the rig arrives on
location.
– Typically, the mooring system is analyzed on
location.
– Typically, the mooring system is analyzed with
a one-year seasonal storm to determine what
operating tensions should be pulled on the
anchor lines.
115
• Type of Rig:
– A 10-year storm can be analyzed to determine
the level of proof test, to pull on each mooring
line.
– With reasonable risk considered, if each line
can withstand a 10-year storm proof test,
normal operations should be safe without the
fear of slipping an anchor or breaking a
mooring line.
– Drilling riser top tensions are developed to
minimize ball-joint angles and riser sag while
keeping riser-pipe stresses within acceptable
limits.
116
• Type of Rig:
• For jack up rig evaluation, comparing water
depth, current, wind, and tides with the
maximum recommended criteria established
by the rig designer is extremely important.
• In water depths nearing the rig’s maximum

capability, strong current or other
environmental factors may reduce the
acceptable water depth.
• Soil or foundation competency at the site must
be known for jackup operations also.
117
• Type of Rig:
• At an exploratory location with unknown soil

consistency, soil borings generally will be
required before the rig’s arrival on location.
• They are useful in determining depth of leg

penetration and to ensure that the soil can
adequately support the rig.

118
• Type of Rig:
– Logistics Consideration:
• Logistics must also be considered in rig
selection.
• Remote locations require substantially more
planning and preparation than do locations
adjacent to established bases and supplies.
• Consideration must be given to:
– frequency of consumable supply
– distance from supply base (length of boat run
– number of people the rig can accommodate;
– availability of spare parts
– shipment delays caused by customs
regulations.
119
• Type of Rig:
• Floating rig’s (ships and semisubmersibles)
variable deck-load capacity must be
considered and compared with frequency of
consumable supplies required.
• Ships have much greater variable deck-load
capacity than semisubmersible drilling rigs
(1500 vs. 3000 tons).
• If the location is extremely rough
environment, however, the semisubmersible is
more stable in rough seas than the ship.
• Trade-off and compromises are necessary
ingredients in rig selection.
120
• Type of Rig:
• Availability of pipe, mud, fuel, water and
other consumables must be carefully
determined during the planning effort.
• Helicopters to transport personnel and light

equipment in routine and emergency
situations are a necessary part of most
floating drilling operations.
• Those located within a few minutes of the
coastline and support bases are sometimes
exceptions.
121
• Type of Rig:
• Climatological conditions have a major
effect on helicopter operations.
• Fog and impaired visibility conditions will

ground flight operations and depending on
their extent, can have a major effect on
the resupply of consumables,
transportation of crews to and from
support bases, and overall rig operations.
122
• Type of Rig:
– Seismic and Other Location Studies:
• Preparations to drill and exploratory location
will include running and evaluating a suite of
location surveys.
• Site surveys generally are run by seismic
companies specializing in prespud site
studies.
• These companies will conduct the surveys,
evaluate the data, and prepare formal reports
that present the data that will be useful in
selecting the exact location, in preparing the
mooring plan, and in determining how the top
hole will be drilled.
123
ROTARY DRILLING RIG
SYSTEMS

124
ROTARY DRILLING RIG
• The main function of rotary drilling rig is to make
hole.
• The moving of the rig from site to site depends on

weight and size of each rig component.
• Each unit assembly is limited in weight because of

truck and highway limitations on gross weight.
• Rotary drilling rigs must be disassembled into many

components so that weight limits are not exceeded.

125
ROTARY DRILLING RIG
• Rotary rig design should:
Allow for rapid erection and take-down, and

consist of few pieces as possible.
Not require special cranes for assembly (rig-up)

or disassembly (tear-down).
Enable drill pipe to be run into the hole or pulled

out with minimum time wasted.
Provide the maximum amount of available power

for the circulating fluid to the bit.

126
ROTARY DRILLING RIG
• Many factors determine a rig’s portability:
Wheel-mounted rigs can be used for drilling to depths
of 10,000 feet or more and for completion/workover
service on 15,000-foot wells.
These rigs have self-erecting, telescoping masts; and
the mast, drawworks and engines are built on a trailer
or self-propelled unit.
Equipment such as mud pumps must be handled as
packages.
Therefore, efficient planning and design are
necessary.

127
ROTARY DRILLING
RIG Rotary Drilling Rig.
• The drilling rig
consists of six
major systems:
– Hoisting System
– Rotating System
– Fluid Circulating
System
– Power System
– Well Control
System
– Well Monitoring
System
128
HOISTING SYSTEM
DERRICK
The function of a
derrick is to provide
vertical clearance to the
raising and lowering of
drill string into and out
of borehole
Two type of Derricks
Standard Derricks - it is
of bolted construction
and assembled part by
part
Mast – a portable
derrick, one capable of
being erected as a unit
129
HOISTING SYSTEM
CROWN BLOCK
The fixed set of pulleys
(called sheaves) located
at the top of the derrick
or mast over which the
drilling line is threaded.
TRAVELLING BLOCK
A pulley (sheave)
assembly that connects
the drilling line to the
hook and swivel

130
HOISTING SYSTEM
DRAWWORKS
 It is the control center
from which the driller
operates the rig. It
contains clutches,
chains and other
controls
 It houses the drum
which spools drilling
line during hoisting
and allows feed off
during drilling

131
HOISTING SYSTEM
• The hoisting system is used to raise and lower the
drill stem.
• It is also used to support and lower pipe that is

used for casing and tubing.
• A mast or derrick supports the hook by means of

the travelling block, wire rope, crown block and
drawworks.
• The drawworks is powered by two or three engines

(called prime movers) to raise or lower the drill
stem so that the bit can drill.
132
HOISTING SYSTEM
• The drill stem is the
whole assembly from
the swivel to the bit,
including the kelly,
drill pipe, drill collars
and bit sub.
Hoisting System
133
DERRICK, MAST & SUBSTRUCTURE
• Standard drilling rig derricks are tall steel structures
with four supporting legs standing on a square base.
• The derrick and substructure plays an important role in

• The derrick provides the vertical height necessary for

the hoisting system to raise and lower the pipe.
• The derrick is assembled piece by piece at the drilling

site.
• A drilling mast, which is partially assembled when it is

manufactured, usually has a smaller floor area.

134
• It can be raised from a horizontal to a vertical
position in as shown below.
• The standard derrick has become rare today except
for extremely deep wells and offshore drilling.
Raising a Mast COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

135
• The mast has almost completely replaced the
conventional derrick for drilling on land because:
– It can be quickly dismantled and erected on another
location by the regular rig crew
– The mast can be moved in large units without complete
disassembly.
– Masts 135 to 145 feet in height are the most common size.
• The rig floor, rotary table, casing and drill pipes

rest on a substructure.
• The rig floor provides an area for handling the drill
stem and related equipment.

136
• Blowout preventers and wellhead fittings are
located under the substructure.
• Drill pipe is suspended from the rotary table, which

is supported by the beams of the substructure.
• Heavy-duty masts and substructures can stand a

load of 1,200,000 pounds.
• The normal capacity is in excess of 500,000

pounds.

137
• The derrick and the substructure must

have enough strength to withstand:
– Load suspended from a hook.
– Pipes set in the derrick.
– Wind loads.
• The API has developed size classifications

for the derrick as shown on the next
slide.

138
Derrick Size Classifications (Courtesy API)

139
General Dimensions of Derrick Sizes

140
• The derrick and substructure must be able to
support the force imposed by pipe weight on the
block by a portion of the drillstring standing in the
derrick.
• Due to the manner in which the hook load is

distributed over the derrick, the effective load may
exceed the actual.
• When heavy casing strings are run, it may be

necessary to lay down some drill pipe initially so
the derrick loading capacity is not exceeded.

141
Free Body Diagram of the Block, Fast and Dead Lines

142
• The derrick load resulting from a hook load can be
evaluated with the free body diagram (FBD) on the
previous slide.
• The force on the derrick (FD) includes the hook load

(L), the tension in the fast line (TF) and the tension
in the dead line (TD).
• The tension in the fast line in a non-ideal friction is

given by:

143
– where:
• EB = efficiency factor of block system
•L = hook load, lb
•N = number of lines strung over the block
system
• TF = fast-line tension, lb
• Since the dead line does not move, the
tension is in the dead line is given by:

144
• FD can now be written as:
• The total force on the derrick (FD) is not evenly

distributed over each of the four legs.
• The fast-line tension is distributed evenly between
legs C & D, since the drawworks is commonly
positioned between the legs.

145
• The dead-line tension is near a leg.
• The force on each leg can be summarized as
follows:
Load Load on each Derrick Leg
Total Load
Source A B C D
Hook
L L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4
Load
Fast
L/NEB - - L/2NEB L/2NEB
Line
Dead
L/N L/N - - -
Line
L + L/NEB +
Total L((N+4)/4N) L/4 L((NEB+2)/4NEB) L((NEB+2)/4NEB)
L/N

146
Derrick Leg
C D
Lines to Block
Fast line
Dead line
A B
Typical Rig Floor for Distribution of Forces

147
• The load on leg A is greater than any other leg
if EB > 0.5.
• Therefore, the maximum derrick load can be
defined as four times the strength of the
weakest leg:
– where:
• FDE = effective derrick load.
• The derrick will be exposed to loads created by
wind acting horizontally on pipe set back in the
derrick.
148
• The Wind Load (Lw) is calculated from:
– where:
• Lw = wind load, lb/ft, and
•V = wind velocity, mph.

149
DRAWWORKS
• The hoisting system is a vital component of the rig
equipment.
• It provides a means for vertical movement of pipe

in the well, i.e., to lower and raise the drillstring
and casing.
• The principal items in the hoisting system are as

follows:
– drawworks.
– crown and travelling blocks.
– wireline.
– ancillary equipment such as elevators, hooks and bails.
150
DRAWWORKS
• The hoisting system, in conjunction with the
circulating equipment, consumes a portion of the
rig’s power.
• A drawworks on a rig is known in other industries

as a hoist.
• The main purpose of the drawworks is to lift and

lower pipe in and out of the hole.

151
DRAWWORKS
• The hoisting drum either reels in wire rope to pull
the pipe from the hole or lets out wire rope to lower
the travelling block and attached drill stem, casing
or tubing.
• The drawworks includes a transmission, which uses

chains, sprockets and gears to allow speed changes
of the hoisting drum.
• Often, the drawworks has a drive sprocket to

power the rotary table.
• This arrangement is common, even on diesel-

electric rigs.
152
DRAWWORKS
A Rotary Rig Hoisting System

153
DRAWWORKS
The Drawworks consists of a revolving drum around which the wire

rope is spooled
154
DRAWWORKS
• The drawworks brake system makes it possible
for the driller to control a load a several
hundred tons of drill pipe or casing.
• Most rigs are equipped with two brake systems

for the drawworks hoisting drum: one that is
mechanical and one that is hydraulic or
electric.
• The mechanical system consists of compounded

levers to tighten brake bands to bring the drum
to full stop.
155
DRAWWORKS
• The hydraulic or electric brake can control the
speed of descent of a loaded travelling block,
although it is not capable of stopping the drum
completely.
• Another of component of the drawworks is the

catheads.
• The makeup, or spinning, cathead is located on

the driller’s side of the drawworks and is used
to tighten the drill pipe joints.

156
DRAWWORKS
• The other cathead, located opposite the
driller’s position, is the breakout cathead.
• It is used to loosen the drill pipe when it is

pulled from the hole.
• Air hoists are provided on many rigs for

handling light loads.

157
DRAWWORKS
The Friction Cathead

158
BLOCKS AND DRILLING LINE
• The travelling block, crown block and drilling

line within the derrick raise and lower loads
of pipe out of and into the hole.
• During drilling operations, these loads usually

consist of drill pipe and drill collars.
• The blocks and drilling line must also support

casing while it is being run in the hole.

159
• This casing is often heavier than the drill stem.
• Drilling line is reeved around sheaves (pulleys)

in the crown block at the top of the derrick or
mast and in the travelling block.
• The blocks and drilling line assembly must have

great strength to support the heavy loads.
• The number of sheaves is determined by the

weight to be supported.
160
• Five is the most common, but deeper wells
often require six or seven.
• Friction is minimized in the blocks by heavy

duty bearings.
• Large-diameter sheaves are provided to lessen

wear on the drilling line, which is usually a
multistrand steel cable, 1 ¼ to 1 ½ inches in
diameter.

161
• The block system is not a frictionless system,
i.e., its efficiency factor is less than 1.0.
• It is often assumed that the efficiency factor is
computed from:
– where n is the number of sheave pairs.

• The following Table indicates EB for various pulley
systems.
Number of Lines EB
6 0.886
8 0.85
10 0.817
12 0.785
162
• Drilling rigs have many applications for
wire ropes.
• The more common uses for wire ropes are

as drilling lines and guideline tensioners.
• The drilling line connects to the drawworks

and the dead-line anchor.

163
• It is pulled through the crown and travelling block
sheaves so that the travelling block can be raised
or lowered as necessary.
• Wire rope is made from cold drawn carbon steel of

various grades, depending on the strength
required.
• The API classifies the various grades as follows:

– extra improved plow steel (EIPS).
– improved plow steel (IPS).
– plow steel (PS).
– mild plow steel (MPS).
164
• Generally, the first two higher-strength
grades, EIPS and IPS, are used currently for
drilling lines due to the rugged service
encountered.
• The primary element of wire rope is the

individual wires.
• Wires are carefully selected, sized, and

layered into strands. After stranding, the
strands are layered together around a core
to form wire rope.
165
• The core may be a fiber rope (either natural grown
fibers or man-made fibers), a plastic core, a spring
steel core, a multiple-wire strand, or an
independent wire rope (IWRC).
• The independent wire rope is the most widely used

because it resists crushing and distortion.
• The wire rope is usually described by type of core,

the number of strands wrapped around the core,
and the number of individual wires per strand.

166
• For example, a 6 x 19 with an independent
IWRC is a typical type of rope used as drilling
line.
• It contains one independent wire rope core,

six strands, with nineteen separate wires per
strand.
• Wire rope is usually furnished preformed but

can be furnished non-preformed upon special
request.
167
• A preformed rope has the strands shaped to

the helical form they assume in the finished
rope before the strands have been fabricated
in to the rope.
• The strands of the preformed rope will not

spring from the normal position when the
sizing bands are removed.

168
Typical wire-rope construction with correct ordering

descriptions COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
169
• The lay of the rope describes the direction of the
strand wrap around the core and the direction of
the wire rope around within the strands.
• The strands may be right or left lay.
• The individual wires can be regular or lang lay.
• The length of the lay is usually 7.25-8 times the
nominal diameter.
Lay of the Rope COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

170
• The nominal strength of the wire rope

depends on the material used in construction,
the number of strands and wires, and the size
of the rope.
• The API has published Tables for breaking

strengths of various wire ropes.
• As an example, the nominal strength of 13/8”,

6 x 37 drawn galvanized IWRC rope is
192,000 lb.
171
• The API has established minimum design
factors for wire ropes operating under oilfield
conditions.
• These design factors are specified in API

Recommended Practice 9B.
• When working near the minimum design

factor, consideration should be given to the
efficiencies of wire rope bent around sheaves,
fittings or drums.
172
• The minimum design factors are as follows:
Type of Service Minimum Design Factor
Cable tool line 3
Sand line 3
Hoisting service other than rotary drilling 3
Mast hoisting and lowering 2.5
Rotary drilling line when setting casing 2
Pulling on stuck pipe and similar infrequent
operations 2
• The primary function of the wire rope in

conjunction with other components of the hoisting
system is to provide a mechanical advantage (M)
for raising or lowering the drillstring or casing.
• If the tension line in the fast line attached to the
drawworks is defined as TF, then the mechanical
advantage is as follows:
173
– where:
• L = hook load, lb
• TF = fast-line tension, lb
• M = mechanical advantage
• The fast-line tension can be computed, if an
ideal system is considered:
– where N = number of lines strung over the block

system.

174
• Since block efficiency (EB) must be considered in a
non-ideal case, the fast-line tension is as follows:
• The horsepower (HP) required to lift a load, L, at

some velocity is given by:
– where :
• V = velocity in ft/min, and
• 33,000 = ft-lb/min/hp
• This equation is very useful in determining the
amount of input horsepower requirements from the
prime movers. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
175
Breaking Strengths of COMMITMENT

variousTO Wire
ACADEMIC Ropes
AND
176
• Example: A 13/8”, 6 x 37 galvanized IWRC rope (EIPS) is
to be used when running a 425,000 lb casing string.
The company intends to rig-up a 10 line system.
Determine if the rope meets the design factor criteria of
2.0. Assume an efficiency of 0.98 per sheave.
• Solution:
– The efficiency factor (EB) for a 10 line system is:
EB = (0.98)n = (0.98)10 = 0.817
– The fast-line tension (TF ) is computed from:
= (425,000 lbs)/(10)(0.817) = 52,019 lbs

– The load factor is given by:
Load factor = 192,000/52,019 = 3.69
– Therefore, the rope meets the design factor of 2.0.
177
• Block system and drawworks efficiency must be
considered:
– where:
• HPB = block horsepower,
• HPE = engine horsepower,
• EB = block efficiency, and
• ED = drawworks efficiency.
• Wire rope requires lubrication to extend its life.
• The strands rub against one another as the
rope flexes over sheaves in the travelling and
crown blocks.
178
• Because wire rope eventually becomes too worn for
use, it is an expensive item in the drilling process.
• The usual practice is to evaluate the number of ton-

miles of work performed by the wire rope.
• A ton-mile is defined as the amount of work needed

to move a 1-ton load over a distance of 1 mile.
• After a rope has reached a specific ton-mile limit, it

is removed from service.

179
• The limits vary for different operations and may
range from about 500 for 1.0” rope to about 1,800
for 13/8” rope.
• Drilling line is cut (a portion is retrieved) before

any critically strenuous job.
• The major factors affecting ton-mile wear on the

wire rope are:
– round trips.
– setting casing.
– drilling.

180
• The following equation computes ton-miles
during a round trip:
– where:
• TR = ton-miles during a trip.
• D = hole depth, ft.
• LS = length of drill pipe stand, ft.
• WM = effective weight per foot of drill pipe,
lb/ft.

181
• M = total weight of travelling block-elevator
assembly.
• C = effective weight of drill-collar assembly
minus the effective weight of the same length
of drillpipe, lb/ft.
• Similar equations are provided in API RP 9B
for coring, drilling and setting casing.
• M is the weight of the travelling block

assembly.

182
• It includes the travelling block, hook, links and
elevators.
• If the actual weight of the travelling block assembly

is unknown, the following approximate values may
be used:
Travelling Block Capacity, tons Assembly Weight, lb
100 6,000
150 9,000
250 12,000
350 19,000
500 28,000
650 35,000
750 48,000
183
• In addition to fatigue wear from accumulated

ton-miles of service, the wire rope will wear more
at lap and pickup points.
• The pickup points are on the top side of the

crown block when the weight of the drill string is
lifted from the supports in the rotary table
during tripping operations.
• The lap points on the draw works drum occur

when the line begins to new wrap.

184
• Slip and cut programs are designed to avoid

excessive wear at the lap and pickup points.
• Slipping involves loosening the deadline anchor

and placing a few more feet of line into service
from the storage reel.

185
• Cutting requires that the line on the draw
works reels be loosened and a section cut
and removed.
• Slipping changes the pickup points, and

cutting changes the lap points.
• A line is usually slipped several times before

it is cut.

186
ROTATING SYSTEM
KELLY
 A Kelly is a square or
hexagonal length of
pipe that fits into a
bushing in the rig's
rotary table. As the
rotary table turns to
the right, the Kelly
turns with it.
RAT HOLE
 The main function of a
Kelly is to transfer
energy from the rotary
table to the rest of the
drill string.
SWIVEL
 It suspends the drill
string and allows KELLY
rotation at the same ROTARY TABLE
time.
187
ROTATING SYSTEM
DRILL PIPES
Drill pipes furnish the
necessary length for
the drill string and
serves as a conduit for
the drilling fluid
DRILL COLLARS
Provides weight and
stability to the drill bit,
maintain tension on
the drill pipe and help
keep the hole on a
straight course

188
ROTATING SYSTEM
• HEAVY WALL DRILL PIPES
provides additional hole
stability and aids in
directional control
• STABILIZERS
centralize the drill collars,
help maintain the hole at full-
gauge diameter
• JARS
provide sharp upward or
downward impact to free
stuck pipe
• REAMERS
helps to maintain a full-
gauge hole diameter
• CROSSOVER SUBS
which join components having
different types of connections.

189
ROTATING SYSTEM
BITS:
•Most critical component in
rotary drilling operations.
Different types of bits.
•Two main type of bits:

•Rolling cutter bits - consist of
cutting elements arranged on
cones (usually three cones, but
sometimes two) that rotate on
bearings about their own axis as
the drill string turns the body of
the bit. These bits can have teeth
or buttons
190
ROTATING SYSTEM
• Fixed cutter bits - also
known as drag bits,
consist of stationary
cutting elements that
are integral with the
body of the bit and
are rotated directly by
the turning of the drill
string.
• The principal types of
fixed cutter bits are:
• natural diamond
• polycrystalline
diamond compact
(PDC)
191
ROTATING SYSTEM
• The rotating system includes all the equipment
used to achieve bit rotation.
• A principal feature of the rotating system is

the rotary table, or rotary.
• The rotary table is powered by the prime

movers to rotate the kelly, which is raised or
lowered through the kelly drive bushing.

192
ROTATING SYSTEM
• The rotation of the kelly causes the drill stem
and bit to turn and thus “make hole” as the bit
grinds away the rock formation.
• The kelly is supported by the hoisting system.
• Drilling fluid is pumped down the drill pipe to

the bit and then up the annulus.

193
ROTATING SYSTEM
The Rotating
System

194
ROTARY, KELLY AND SWIVEL
• The rotary is the piece of equipment that

gives the rotary drilling rig its name.
• It is the machine that turns the drill stem

and the bit in order to make hole.
• A rotary table is fitted with a drive bushing.

195
• The three-, four-, six-, or eight-sided kelly
fits through the bushing and is thus turned
by the rotary.
• The rotary is a basic yet extremely rugged

machine that is distinguished by its ability
to withstand hard service.
• The drive bushing may fit in a square

opening in the rotary tale, or four pins that
fit in the openings of the table may drive it.
196
• The drive bushing permits vertical
movement of the kelly as the hole is
deepened, at the same time rotating the
drill stem.
• The rotary serves two main functions:

– to rotate the drills stem; and
– to hold friction-grip devices called slips to
support the drill stem or casing.

197
• A sprocket and chain may mechanically

drive the rotary from the drawworks.
• However, many drilling rigs provide power

to an electric motor that drives the rotary
directly.
• In some cases, an independent engine is

used to drive the rotary.

198
• The kelly is the top member of the drill
stem.
• It is about 40 feet long and may be either

triangular-, square-, hexagon- or octagon-
shaped to fit its drive bushing.
• The kelly can move freely up and down

through the drive bushing while the rotary
is turning it.

199
• The swivel hangs from a hook under the
travelling bloc, and serves several vital
functions.
• It supports the weight of the drill stem.
• It allows rotation of the drill stem.
• It provides a passageway for drilling fluid to

enter the drill stem.

200
• The rotary hose is connected to a
gooseneck-fitting on the swivel.
• Drilling fluid is pumped into the gooseneck,

through the swivel, and down the kelly.
• This fluid may be under pressure exceeding

3,000 psi.

201
DRILLING BITS
• A drilling bit is the cutting or boring tool
which is made up on the end of the
drillstring.
• The bit drills through the rock by scraping,

chipping, gouging or grinding the rock at
the bottom of the hole.
• Drilling fluid is circulated through

passageways in the bit to remove the drilled
cuttings.
202
DRILLING BITS
• There are however many variations in the
design of drillbits and the bit selected for a
particular application will depend on the
type of formation to be drilled.
• The drilling engineer must be aware of

these design variations in order to be able
to select the most appropriate bit for the
formation to be drilled.

203
DRILLING BITS
• The engineer must also be aware of the impact of
the operating parameters on the performance of
the bit.
• The performance of a bit is a function of several
operating parameters, such as:
– weight on bit (WOB).
– rotations per minute (RPM).
– mud properties.
– hydraulic efficiency.
• There are basically three types of bit:
– Drag Bits.
– Roller Cone Bits.
– Diamond Bits.

204
DRAG BITS
• Drag bits were the first bits used in rotary
drilling, but are no longer in common use.
• A drag bit consists of rigid steel blades

shaped like a fish-tail which rotate as a
single unit.
• These simple designs were used up to 1900

to successfully drill through soft formations.

205
DRAG BITS
• The introduction of hardfacing to the
surface of the blades and the design of fluid
passageways greatly improved its
performance.
• Due to the dragging/scraping action of this

type of bit, high RPM and low WOB are
applied.

206
DRILLING BITS
Types of Drilling
COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC Bit
AND
207
DRAG BITS
• The decline in the use of drag bits was due
to:
– The introduction of roller cone bits, which could
drill soft formations more efficiently
– If too much WOB was applied, excessive torque
led to bit failure or drill pipe failure
– Drag bits tend to drill crooked hole, therefore
some means of controlling deviation was
required
– Drag bits were limited to drilling through
uniformly, soft, unconsolidated formations
where there were no hard abrasive layers.

208
ROLLER CONE BITS
• Roller cone bits (or rock bits) are still the most
common type of bit used worldwide.
• The cutting action is provided by cones which have

either steel teeth or tungsten carbide inserts.
• These cones rotate on the bottom of the hole and

drill hole predominantly with a grinding and
chipping action.
• Rock bits are classified as milled tooth bits or insert

bits depending on the cutting surface on the cones.

209
ROLLER CONE BITS
• The first successful roller cone bit was designed by
Hughes in 1909.
• This was a major innovation, since it allowed rotary

drilling to be extended to hard formations.
• The first design was a 2 cone bit which frequently

balled up since the teeth on the cones did not mesh.
• This led to the introduction of a superior design in

the 1930s which had 3 cones with meshing teeth.

210
ROLLER CONE BITS
• The same basic design is still in use today although
there have been many improvements over the
years.
• The cones of the 3 cone bit are mounted on bearing

pins, or arm journals, which extend from the bit
body.
• The bearings allow each cone to turn about its own

axis as the bit is rotated.
• The use of 3 cones allows an even distribution of

weight, a balanced cutting structure and drills a
better gauge hole than the 2 cone design.

211
ROLLER CONE BITS
• The major advances in rock bit design since the
introduction of the Hughes rock bit include:
– Improved cleaning action by using jet nozzles
– Using tungsten carbide for hardfacing and gauge
protection
– Introduction of sealed bearings to prevent the mud causing
premature failure due to abrasion and corrosion of the
bearings.
Milled Tooth Bit Insert Bit

212
ROLLER CONE BITS
Elements of a Rock BitCOMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

213
DIAMOND BITS
• Diamond has been used as a material for
cutting rock for many years.
• Since it was first used however, the type of

diamond and the way in which it is set in
the drill bit have changed.
• There are three types of diamond bits:

– Natural Diamond Bits.
– PDC Bits.
– TSP Bits.
214
NATURAL DIAMOND BITS
• The hardness and wear resistance of diamond
made it an obvious material to be used for a
drilling bit.
• The diamond bit is really a type of drag bit since

it has no moving cones and operates as a single
unit. Industrial diamonds have been used for
many years in drill bits and in core heads.
• The cutting action of a diamond bit is achieved by

scraping away the rock.

215
• The diamonds are set in a specially designed
pattern and bonded into a matrix material set on
a steel body.
• The major disadvantage of diamond bits is their

cost (sometimes 10 times more expensive than a
similar sized rock bit).
• Despite its high wear resistance diamond is

sensitive to shock and vibration and therefore
great care must be taken when running a
diamond bit.
216
• Effective fluid circulation across the face of the
bit is also very important to prevent overheating
of the diamonds and matrix material and to
prevent the face of the bit becoming smeared
with the rock cuttings (bit balling).
• There is also no guarantee that these bits will

achieve a higher ROP than a correctly selected
roller cone bit in the same formation.
• They are however cost effective when drilling

formations where long rotating hours (200-300
hours per bit) are required.
217
• Since diamond bits have no moving parts they
tend to last longer than roller cone bits and can
be used for extremely long bit runs.
• This results in a reduction in the number of

round trips and offsets the capital cost of the bit.
• This is especially important in areas where

operating costs are high (e.g. offshore drilling).
• In addition, the diamonds of a diamond bit can be

extracted, so that a used bit does have some
salvage value
218
PDC BITS
• A new generation of diamond bits known as
polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits were
introduced in the 1980’s.
• These bits have the same advantages and

disadvantages as natural diamond bits but use
small discs of synthetic diamond to provide the
scraping cutting surface.
• The small discs may be manufactured in any size

and shape and are not sensitive to failure along
cleavage planes as with natural diamond. PDC bits
have been run very successfully in many areas
around the world.
219
PDC BITS
• PDC Bits have been particularly successful (long bit
runs and high ROP) when run in combination with
turbodrills and oil based mud.
Polycrystalline COMMITMENT
Diamond Compact
TO ACADEMIC AND (PDC) Bits
220
TSP BITS
• A further development of the PDC bit concept
was the introduction in the later 1980’s of
Thermally Stable Polycrystalline (TSP) diamond
bits.
• These bits are manufactured in a similar

fashion to PDC bits but are tolerant of much
higher temperatures than PDC bits.

221
FLUID CIRCULATING SYSTEM

222
• Mud Cycle at a Wellsite:
• Most of the mud used in a drilling operation

is re-circulated in a continuous cycle:
– Mud is mixed and kept in the mud pit.

– A pump draws it out of the mud pit and sends it,
through the hollow center of the drill pipe, down
into the borehole.
– Mud emerges from the drill pipe at the bottom of

the borehole where the drill bit is grinding
away at the rock formation.
223
– Now the mud begins the return trip to the
surface carrying the pieces of rock, called
cuttings, that have been scraped off the
formation by the bit.
– The mud rises in the annulus, the space between

the drill pipe and the walls of the borehole.
– The typical diameter of a drill pipe is about 4

inches (10 centimeters).
– At the bottom of a deep well, the borehole might

be 8 inches (20 centimeters) in diameter.At the
surface the mud travels through the mud return
line, a pipe that leads to the shale shaker.
224
– The shale shakers consist of a series of vibrating
metal screens which are used to separate the
mud from the cuttings.
– The mud drips through the screens and is

returned to the mud pit.The rock cuttings slip
down the shale slide to be disposed of.
– Depending upon environmental and other

considerations, they may be washed before
disposal.Some of the cuttings are taken to be
examined by geologists for clues about what is
going on deep down inside the well.

225
MUD PUMPS
 Their function is to circulate the
drilling fluid at the desired
pressure and volume.
 The pumps normally used for this
service is reciprocating piston,
double acting and duplex type.
STANDPIPE
 A rigid metal conduit that provides
the high-pressure pathway for
drilling mud to travel
approximately one-third of the way
up the derrick where it connects to
a flexible high-pressure hose (kelly
hose)
 Many large rigs are fitted with dual
standpipes so that downtime is
kept to a minimum if one standpipe
requires repair COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
226
• The circulating system sends drilling fluid from a
mud pit through the mud pump, standpipe, rotary
hose, swivel, kelly, drill pipe, drill collars, bit,
annulus and back to the pit.
• The hydraulic power of the drilling fluid passing

through the bit cleans the bottom of the hole and
produces more effective drilling.
• Under special circumstances, a mud motor or

turbodrill is used to turn the bit. In this case,
hydraulic power of the drilling fluid (instead of
rotation of the drill stem) turns the bit.
227
• If rigs did not require mobility and quick rig-up and
tear-down capability, they could be designed to
require less power for hoisting, pumping and other
jobs.
•
• Hydraulic rigs have been built, but they are heavy,
slow and troublesome to operate.
• The best means of hoisting drill pipe is the block-

and-tackle arrangement that is generally
employed.

228
• An essential feature of the rotary drilling process is
the circulating system, commonly called the mud
system. In order for rotary drilling to proceed, the
drilled cuttings must be lifted out of the hole.
• Fluid must be pumped down through the annulus

(the space outside the drill string).
• The principal purposes of circulating fluid are:

– cleaning the bottom of the hole by washing the cuttings
back up to the surface;
– cooling the bit;
– supporting the walls of the well; and
– preventing entry of formation fluid into the borehole.
229
• The circulation fluid is usually a liquid, but it may
be air or gas. Water is the usual base, though
occasionally oil is used.
• A pump forces the drilling fluid up through a

standpipe hose into the swivel, down through the
drill stem, and back to the surface again (where it
returns to the mud pits).
• The mud pits or tanks are usually fitted with solids-

control equipment, which removes cuttings and
other solid material in mud brought up from the
hole before it is recirculated into the well by the
mud pump.
230
• When air is used as drilling fluid, compressors

replace the mud pump and there is no need for
storage pits and settling tanks.
• Compressed air is forced down the drill stem to the

bit and up the annulus by air pressure.
• Most mud pumps currently used in the drilling

industry are duplex or triplex positive displacement
pumps.

231
The Circulating System

232
POWER SYSTEM
PRIME MOVERS
 These are used to
supply power to
 These can be steam
engines, electric
motors or internal
combustion engines
 The bulk of rig power
is consumed in two
operations namely:
 circulation of fluid. and
 hoisting.
233
POWER SYSTEM
• Drilling rigs, and their support vessels in the case of barge
and floating vessels, have high power requirements.
• Some of the equipment requiring power includes the

drawworks, mud pumps, rotary system and life-support
system.
• The power loading may be continuous or intermittent.
• The power system on a drilling rig usually consists of a prime

mover as the source of raw power and some means to
transmit the raw power to the end-use equipment.
• The prime movers used in the current drilling industry are

diesel engines.
234
POWER SYSTEM
The Diesel Engines in use on this rig are located on the

ground, some distance away from the rig
235
POWER SYSTEM
• Steam is no longer a source of rig power, since

natural gas (which was used to fire the boilers)
has increased dramatically in cost.
• Internal-combustion engines and electricity now

power most drilling rigs.
• Large rigs and most wheel-mounted assemblies

are generally powered by diesel engines.

236
POWER SYSTEM
• Most prime movers are diesel engines, although
engines that use natural gas or liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG) in the form of propane or butane drive
some rigs.
• Drilling rig engines range from 250 to 2,000

horsepower (hp) each; total rig power may be 500
to 5,000 hp.
• On a mechanical-drive rig, a means of transmitting

the power from the engines to the drawworks,
pumps, and rotary must be provided.

237
POWER SYSTEM
• This transmission is usually accomplished through
an assembly known as the compound, which
consists of clutches, couplings, shafts, chains and
sprockets.
• The most widely used system on new rigs or large

marine rigs is the AC-SCR system.
• The mechanical horsepower requirement for the

prime movers must be determined from an
evaluation of the loads and the overall system
efficiency.

238
POWER SYSTEM
• Mechanical Efficiency is given by:
o where the efficiency is less than 1.0.

• Although the above equation is straight forward, it is difficult
to implement due to problems in establishing the load and
efficiency factor.
• The efficiency factor (E) describes the power losses from the
prime movers to the end use equipment.
• It can be calculated from:

239
POWER SYSTEM
o where output is from the prime mover and input
is the amount remaining for actual usage after
some losses.
• The system losses result from friction, gears and
belt line losses.The efficiency factors range from 0
– 1.
• Some oilwell drilling personnel assume that

efficiency for oilwell drilling machinery are 0.98
per shaft and chains.
• If more than engine is used, an average value is

calculated.
240
POWER SYSTEM
• The mechanical horse power requirements must be modified
for harsh temperature environments or altitudes.
• According to API Standard 7B-11c, approximate conversions

for altitude temperature of naturally aspirated engines may
be made as follows:
• deduct 3 % of the standard brake horsepower for each 1000

ft rise in altitude above sea level.
• deduct 1 % of the standard brake horsepower for each 100

rise in temperature above 850 oF or add 1 % fall below 850 oF
• The engine manufacturer should be consulted for specific

variances.
241
WELL CONTROL SYSTEM
BLOWOUT PREVENTERS
(BOP)
 If the formation pressure is
more than the imposed by
drilling fluid, in this case
formation fluids flow into
borehole and eventually to
the surface.
 This effect is called blowout.
 The main function of
blowout preventers is to
close the annular space
between the drill pipe and
casing. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
242
WELL CONTROL SYSTEM
• Drilling fluid in the hole helps prevent formation
fluid from entering the borehole.
• If formation fluid does enter the well, it may rise to
the surface and cause some of the drilling fluid to
flow out of the hole.
• If the drilling crew cannot control the flow, it is
called a kick.
• If the flow is continuous and cannot be controlled, a
blowout has occurred.
• A blowout preventer (BOP), in conjunction with
other equipment and techniques, is used to shut off
and control a kick before it becomes a blowout.

243
BLOWOUT PREVENTERS
• Several BOPs are usually installed on top of a
well, with an annular preventer above and two
or more ram preventers below.
• An annular preventer has a resilient sealing

element.
• When activated by fluid pressure, the sealing

element closes on the kelly, drill pipe or drill
collars.

244
BLOWOUT PREVENTERS
• Ram preventers have two steel ram segments
that are pushed together from both sides to
seal around drill pipe.
• Both annular and ram preventers are operated

by hydraulic fluid pressure.
• Blind ram preventers can be used to close an

open hole (hole with no drill pipe in it).
• Blowout preventers are opened and closed by
hydraulic power.
245
BLOWOUT PREVENTERS
• The fluid is stored under pressure in an
accumulator.
• High-pressure lines carry the hydraulic fluid from

the accumulator to the BOP stack.
• When the driller turns the proper valves, the fluid

operates the BOPs.
• Because the preventers must be able to close

quickly, the hydraulic fluid is put under 1,500 to
3,000 psi of pressure by nitrogen gas in the
accumulator unit.
246
BLOWOUT PREVENTERS
Blowout Preventers

247
WELL MONITORING SYSTEM
 Safety and efficiency considerations require
constant monitoring of the well to detect drilling
problems quickly.
 Devices record or display parameters such as:
 Depth  Mud density
 ROP  Mud temperature
 Hook load  Mud salinity
 Rotary speed  Mud gas content
 Rotary torque  Hazardous air gas content
 Pump rate  Pit level
 Pump pressure  Mud flow rate

248
ANALOG AND DIGITAL MONITORING
PANELS
Monitoring Panels

249
• Good historical records of various aspects of the
drilling operation:
– assists the driller to detect drilling problems.
– aids geological, engineering and supervisory
personnel.
• In some cases, a centralized well-monitoring system

housed in a trailer is used.
• The centralized well-monitoring system provides

detailed information about:
– formation being drilled.
– fluids being circulated to the surface in the mud.
250
• The mud logger carefully inspects rock cuttings taken from
the shale shaker at regular intervals and maintains a log
describing their appearance.
• Additional cuttings are labelled according to their depth and

are saved for further study by the paleontologist.
• Gas samples removed from the mud are analyzed by the mud
logger using a gas chromatograph.
• There have been significant advances in sub-surface well-

monitoring and data-telemetry systems.
• These systems are especially useful in monitoring hole

direction in non-vertical wells.

251
• The control panel for operating the BOP stack
usually is placed on the derrick floor for easy
access by the driller
• When the drillstring is in the hole, the BOP stack

can be used to stop only the flow from the annulus
• Additional valves which can be used to prevent flow

from inside the drillstring include:
– kelly cocks.
– internal kelly cocks.
– internal blowout preventers.

252
AUXILIARIES
• Electric Generators:
– Modern rotary rigs provide power for auxiliaries with
AC generators that are usually diesel-powered.
– Most of these generators have capacities of 50 to 100
kilowatts, although larger units are sometimes
installed.
– The generators have enough capacity to carry the
main power load of the rig (excluding hoisting,
pumping, and rotating functions).
– A second engine and generator unit are held in ready
reserve.
– AC electricity is used for rig lighting, shale shaker
motors, mud pit stirrers, centrifugal pumps, rig
instruments, engine cooling fans, air conditioning for
bunkhouses and other purposes.
253
AUXILIARIES
• Air Compressors:
– A small compressor is usually mounted on the
engine compound for supplying air to the
pneumatic controls and clutches.
– The compressor has a volume tank to allow

reserve storage of compressed air.
– Large rigs usually have another electrically

powered compressor to furnish high-pressure air
for other purposes, such as starting the main
engines and operating air-powered hoists, air
slips, BOP equipment, water wells and air-
operated tools.
254
AUXILIARIES
• Water Pumps:
– Water supply is an important item for drilling rig
operations. Water is usually obtained from a well, stream,
lake or pipeline from a remote source.
– A stored supply of several hundred barrels is maintained
at the rig.
– This may be in a pit or tank(s) of sufficient capacity to

maintain operations for a short time if the primary supply
is interrupted. Low-pressure water pumps are usually
provided for wash down and for cooling the brakes of the
drawworks.
– High capacity pumps are generally used for mud and

cement mixing and mud transfer.

255
AUXILIARIES
• Other Equipment:
– Drilling rigs also include such facilities as fuel
storage tanks, a house for changing work
clothes, a doghouse (a small structure on the rig
floor that serves as an office for the driller), a
place to store parts for the pumps and other
equipment, and other facilities.
– Most large rigs are provided with an office

trailer where the supervisors can maintain
communications with the head office.

256
WELL PLANNING,
PROCEDURES AND COSTS

257
WELL PLANNING
• Well Planning involves the preparation of good
drilling programmes for safe and effective
oilwell drilling, testing and completion.
• The well planner must collate all available data

and technology and apply same to meet the
well objectives as cheaply, efficiently and safely
as possible

258
WELL PLANNING PROCESS
• Well Planning can be broken down into:
– Definition of Well Objectives
– Obtaining Consent to drill from Authorities
– Collection and Scrutiny of Data
– Estimation of Formation Pressure Regimes
– Estimation of Formation Fracture Gradients
– Drilling Programme Preparation
– Rig Specification
– Authorization for Expenditure (AFE)
Preparation

259
DEFINITION OF WELL OBJECTIVES
• Wells can be exploratory, appraisal or
development
• Planning of the first two groups is initiated

by the exploration departments which will
also define objectives
• Planning of development wells is usually

initiated by the production departments
which will also define objectives

260
OBTAINING CONSENT TO DRILL FROM
AUTHORITIES
• The energy authorities in each country of
operation award exploration licenses to
operators
• The responsibility of each operator is to

comply with all the local rules and
regulations
• The well programme must accommodate all

the rules and regulations
261
COLLECTION AND SCRUTINY OF DATA
• The formation pore pressure must be estimated as accurately
as possible
• The two sources of well pressure data are:

– geophysical/geological data
– offset well data
• Structure maps are produced by the geologists from seismic

and offset well data.
• Interpretation of the seismic data can enable the geologist to

identify subsurface structures that have the potential to trap
hydrocarbon accumulations.
• By correlating formation tops from the lithological columns of

offset wells and interpolating at the point of interest, a
geological prognosis can be made of the proposed well.

262
ESTIMATION OF FORMATION PRESSURE
REGIMES
• Most sediments naturally have a pressure profile
similar to that of seawater since they were laid
down in a marine environment.
• Such sediments are said to have hydrostatic

pressures.
• Higher pressure can be encountered due to:
– artesian wells,
– gas caps,
– salt beds,
– sediment compression,
– mineralization, and
– surcharged formations.
263
ESTIMATION OF FORMATION PRESSURE
REGIMES
• Formations can also be sub-normally
pressured due to:
– depletion,
– faulting, and
– artesian wells.
• Formation pressures can be estimated:

– from local and regional geology,
– using production well data, and
– using offset well data.

264
ESTIMATION OF FORMATION
FRACTURE GRADIENTS
• It is vital to have a good estimate of the formation
fracture gradient so that the casing design can be
done in an effective manner
• Prediction can be based on anticipated geology and

offset well records. Most rocks of a certain type will
exhibit typical characteristics
• Once a leak off test has been carried out in the

well, equations such as Daines’ are used by
employing values of Poisson’s ratio for given
formations to estimate probable fracture gradients
at other depths in the well

265
DRILLING PROGRAMME PREPARATION
• Drilling Programmes can be broken into 14
main sections:
– Well Details
– Well Objectives
– Casing Design
– Wellhead Selection
– BOP Requirements
– Cementing Programme
– Deviation Programme
– Survey Requirements
– Mud Programme
266
DRILLING PROGRAMME PREPARATION
– Bits and Hydraulics Programme
– Evaluation Requirements
– Operational Procedure and Time-Depth Graph
Construction
– Site Plan
– Reporting Requirements and Contact Numbers
• All drilling programmes will contain the

above information in some form.
• Specialized wells could also contain other

relevant data.
267
WELL DETAILS
• This is a brief summary of the well location, type, depth,
operatorship and ownership
• A typical layout of this is given below:
– Well Name: Gondwana 3
– Well Type: Appraisal
– Country: Moldavia
– Block: 20/12
– Surface Co-ordinates: N:225,710 m; E:364,800 m
– Target Size: 200 ft radius
– Target Depth TVDSS: 10, 000 ft
– Target Depth AHSS: 10, 000 ft
– Water Depth: 200 ft
– Operator: Alpha Oil Co. (60 %)
– Partner Interest: Beta Oil Co. (40 %)
– Name of Rig: Humble 12
– Type of Rig: 15M Jack-up
– Seabed Condition: Sand/Silt Flat
– Expected Spud Date: 3rd Quarter, 2007
268
WELL OBJECTIVES
• A typical format for setting out the well objectives
is as follows:
– The Gondwana 3 is an appraisal well whose
objective is to establish the presence of the Heuy,
Louey and Doney sandstones at about 10, 000
ft.
– All three sands will be cored and depending on

findings, be production and injectivity tested.
– After testing, the well will be either plugged back

and abandoned or suspended for later use as an
injection well.
269
CASING DESIGN
• A major part of the design work involves the
construction of the Pressure Profile Chart showing
expected pore pressures and fracture gradients
• The following minimum data is required:

– The prognosed lithological column
– Offset wells pore pressure data
– Offset wells fracture gradient data
– Wellhead selection
• The pressures obtained must be depth matched to

the relevant information on the prognosed
geological column

270
CASING DESIGN
• The final hole size for logging and the likely
production string must both be given consideration.
• The gradient of the fluid within the reservoir is

important during casing burst design.
• A gas gradient is always used in the reservoir.
• The general criterion for the selection of casing

shoe depths is that the formation above it can be
drilled safely and successfully.

271
CASING DESIGN
• The following are the criteria which must be
considered when carrying out detailed
casing design:
– Burst
– Collapse
– Tension
– Compressional effects
• Burst is pipe failure which occurs when the

pressure inside the pipe is greater than the
internal yield of the pipe plus the pressure
outside the pipe.
272
CASING DESIGN
• Collapse will occur when the external force on the pipe is
greater than the combination of the internal forces plus
the collapse rating. It occurs as a result of either or a
combination of:
– Reduction in hydrostatic head exerted by the fluid inside
the pipe
– Increase in hydrostatic head exerted by the fluid outside
the pipe
– Mechanical forces created by plastic formations, squeezing
salts
• Tensile failure will occur if the pull exerted on the pipe is
too great for the tensile strength of the pipe or coupling
• Compressional forces occur in casing due to temperature
in landed casing and because of the weight of other
inner casing strings which must be supported by the
outer strings.
273
WELLHEAD SELECTION
• When the casing design is completed, we have all
the information to select the wellhead
• The wellhead must be of the correct pressure

rating, designed for the desired service (H2S or
whatever) and be capable of accommodating all
designed and contingent casing sizes
• The final choice is made based on:

– Cost
– Ease of operation
– Operator’s personal preferences
• After the choice is made, its specification should be

included in the Drilling Programme along with a
sectional view of its component stack up.
274
BOP SELECTION
• The BOP requirements for a given well depends on
company policy and anticipated bottomhole
pressures.
• The information should be presented in a format

such as:
Hole size BOP Rating
(inches) Requirements (psi)
26 Nil
171/2 Nil
121/4 2x Rams 10,000
1x Shear 10,000
1x Annular 5,000
275
CEMENTING PROGRAMME
• Cement is used for zonal isolation in the well.
• The effectiveness of this zonal isolation depends on:

– Slurry design
– Displacement methods
– Casing accessories selection
• All the three factors must be considered at the

planning stage.

276
WELL DEVIATION PROGRAMME
• To decide on the correct option for
a deviated well, the first
consideration is how much drift
from the surface location is
required.
• High drift wells need to be kicked

off high in the hole to achieve
extended reach without having too
high a hole angle.
Downhole Motor
COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND System
277
WELL DEVIATION PROGRAMME
• Small drift wells should be kicked off deeper
in the well due to the difficulty encountered
in trying to hold hole direction with a hole
direction of less than 15o.
• The most common method in both shallow

and deep kick-offs is the use of a drilling
motor mounted on a bent sub.
• Hole angles in the range of 15 - 65o are

common. Build-up rates are usually around
21/2o/100 ft. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND 278
SURVEY REQUIREMENTS
• Surveying is done to determine exactly
where the hole is.
• Surveying is done for two main reasons:

– Reservoir management
– Relief well planning
• In each country, the energy authorities set

the minimum survey requirements which
must be met by the operating company.

279
MUD PROGRAMME
• Mud Programming is broken down into:
– Determination of mud weight requirements to

maintain primary well control
– Determination of suitable ‘trip margin’ which is

added to the primary well control weight to give
a programmed mud weight
– Confirmation that this mud does not exceed

formation strengths when considered in a
dynamic (circulated mode)

280
MUD PROGRAMME
– Analysis of formations to be drilled and the likely
reaction of these to available drilling fluid
alternatives
– Determination of fluid loss requirements

– Determination of pH requirements
– Determination of viscosity requirements
– Determination of temperature stability
requirements
– Analysis of rig mud treatment equipment to
meet hole requirements with selected mud types

281
BIT AND HYDRAULICS
• To select a bit the following factors
are considered:
– Formation drillability and characteristics.

– Mud system in use.
– Directional implications.
– Bit drive methods.
– Bit availability and cost.

282
EVALUATION REQUIREMENTS
• The well evaluation requirements necessary
to meet the well objectives should treated
under the following headings:
– Drilling log requirements.

– Mud logging requirements.
– Coring requirements.
– Testing requirements.
– Electric logging requirements.
– Measurement-while-drilling (MWD) requirements.

283
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES AND TIME-
DEPTH GRAPH CONSTRUCTION
• If the Drilling Operations Manual is
comprehensively written, then no operational
procedures need be included in the Drilling
programme.
• If there is no manual available or the quality is

poor, then the operational procedure section of the
drilling programme should be a step-by-step guide
to what has to be done in the well.
• The Time-Depth graph is a tool used to show the

expected well status at any time from spud to
completion or plug back and abandon.
284
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES AND
TIME-DEPTH GRAPH CONSTRUCTION
• The time-depth graph uses
time along the x-axis
(usually in days) and depth
along the y-axis with zero
depth at the upper end of
the axis.
• Both axes should be

approximately 20 per cent
longer than initial time
and depth estimates would
indicate to allow
programme changes.
Drilling
COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND Time-Depth Graph 285
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES AND TIME-
DEPTH GRAPH CONSTRUCTION
• The phases of most exploration wells can be listed
along the following lines:
S/N Phase Time
1 Pre-spud preparation
2 Drilling top hole
3 Run and set surface casing
4 Drill
5 Set intermediate casing
6 Drill
7 Core
8 Drill
9 Log
10 Test
11 Plug back and abandon
286
SITE PLAN
• A site plan should be included in each programme
showing the following features:
– For all wells: The licence area in which the well is being
drilled. The position of the well relative to other outstep
wells.
– For land wells: Access roads and instructions on how to
reach the site.
– For offshore wells: Details of any seabed obstructions,
pipelines, etc., in the area that the well is being drilled in.
• In practice, to satisfy the above requirements, two

plans will need to be included in most Drilling
Programmes.
• Some operators include a reservoir map in this

section.

287
REPORTING REQUIREMENTS AND
CONTACT NUMBERS
• In this section, the reporting requirements
are listed.
• This lays down clearly who should receive

what information or samples, by what
means, when and how often.
• All relevant phone numbers and addresses

must be included in this section.

288
DRILLING COST
• To optimize drilling operations, we have to specify
the yardstick by which performance is measured
• The most relevant yardstick is cost per foot drilled
• Overall cost must be looked at since individual
costs can be misleading
• To optimize drilling economics, we must achieve
the objectives of the well as economically as
possible
• To do this, we must understand the cost
allocations and proportions in drilling operations
and use our technology to fine-tune these to
reduce expenditure without affecting safety or
efficiency
289
DRILLING COST SPECIFICATIONS
• Drilling costs can be broken down into three:
– Fixed.
– Daily.
– Unit.
• Fixed costs are those which are determined
mainly by the nature of the well:
– Wellheads.
– Site preparation.
– Casing, cement, packers and tubing.
• Effecting economics in fixed costs is the direct
responsibility of the Drilling Manager and the
Drilling Engineers who plan the well.
• The Drilling Supervisor has little impact on
fixed costs.
290
• Daily costs are related to the time spent on the
operation.
• On offshore rigs, there are usually the largest
items of expenditure and are listed below:
– Payments to drilling contractors (rig time).
– Tool rental.
– Payment to specialist services.
– Salaries and wages.
– Fuel.
– Lubricating oil and grease.
– Drilling consumables (dope, rope and soap).
– Transport of materials.
• The Drilling Supervisor on site, the Drilling
Manager and Drilling Engineers can all have an
effect on daily costs.
291
• Unit costs are the price of a unit of a
commodity such as the price of a tonne of
baryte or bentonite.
• Unit costs can usually be optimized during

the tendering process, which is usually the
responsibility of the Drilling Manager.
• Good site supervision can ensure that

consumption is not excessive.

292
COST BREAKDOWN OF DRILLING
OPERATIONS
• A typical average cost comparisons between
rig types is as follows:
Total daily drilling costs
Rig Type Drilling Costs ($/day)
Land rig (shallow) 15,000
Land rig (deep) 25,000
Platform rig 50,000
Jack-up rig 95,000
Semi-submersible 75,000

293
COST BREAKDOWN OF DRILLING
OPERATIONS
• For offshore wells, it is better to look at a
typical cost breakdown for a 1990 UK North
Sea exploratory well.
• This is based on a TD of 3500 m with 7-inch

casing to TD and includes 4 days of coring
and 4 days of testing.
• The total time spent on the well was 60

days.
294
COST BREAKDOWN
Cost Group Cost in US $ (‘000) % of Well Cost
Location Survey 160 3.0
Rig Mob/Demob 270 5.1
Rig Positioning 8 0.2
Casing 570 10.8
Wellheads 180 3.4
Rig Costs 1,400 26.6
Drilling Equipment Rental 50 0.9
Fishing Tools 9 0.2
Drill Bits 140 2.7
Mud 220 4.2
Cementing 170 3.2
Electric Logging 320 6.1
MWD 14 0.3
Mod Logging 160 3.0
295
COST BREAKDOWN
Cost Group Cost in US $ (‘000) % of Well Cost
Coring 60 1.1
Directional Control 240 4.5
Supply Boats 370 7.0
Standby Boats 160 3.0
Helicopters 212 4.0
Diving/ROV 130 2.5
Weather Forecasting 4 0.1
Medical Services 3 0.1
Testing Equipment 100 1.9
Storage/onshore 26 0.5
Transport
Contract Staff 250 4.8
Base Office 41 0.8
TOTAL 5,267 100.0
296
FIXED ITEMS COST BREAKDOWN
Fixed Item Cost in US $ (‘000) % of Well Cost
Location Survey 160 3.0
Rig Mobilization / 270 5.1
Demobilization
Casing 570 10.8
Wellheads 180 3.4
Drill Bits 140 2.7
Cementing 170 3.2
Electric Logging 320 6.1
Coring 60 1.1
Testing Equipment 100 1.9
Fixed Items Total 1,970 37.3

297
DAILY ITEMS COST BREAKDOWN
Daily Item Cost in US $ (‘000) % of Well Cost
Rig (56 days @ 25,000) 1,400 26.6
Drilling Equipment Rental 50 0.9
Mud Logging 160 3.0
Directional Control 240 4.5
Supply Boats 370 7.0
Standby Boats 160 3.0
Helicopters 212 4.0
Diving/ROV 130 2.5
Storage/onshore Transport 26 0.5
Contract Staff 250 4.8
Base Office 41 0.8
MWD 14 0.3
Daily Items Total 3,053 58.1
298
UNIT ITEM COST BREAKDOWN
Unit Item Cost in US $ (‘000) % of Well Cost
Mud 220 4.2
Unit Item Total 220 4.2

299
AUTHORIZATION FOR
EXPENDITURE (AFE)
• The AFE is the tool that is used to predict the cost
of a proposed well.
• Its accuracy depends on the amount of available

information used to construct it.
• The AFE is normally broken down into sections to

allow operators see at a glance how the various
well options compare financially.
• It is normal for most operators to have a 100-point

AFE for both onshore and offshore wells.
300
AUTHORIZATION FOR
EXPENDITURE (AFE)
• Onshore and offshore AFEs are broken
down into the following items:
– Preparation.
– Drilling and Abandonment.
– Testing.
– Completion.
• Preparation:
– It covers the costs incurred to the point at which
the rig is brought to location.
– It also includes the costs required to bring the
location back to its original condition.
301
AUTHORIZATION FOR
EXPENDITURE (AFE)
• Drilling and Abandonment:
– It assumes drilling to TD, logging and finding
nothing of interest.
– The well is proposed for abandonment and
costed accordingly.
• Testing:
– This covers the additional cost incurred by a
testing programme.
– It also includes all the ongoing daily costs
associated with the rig.
– The Time Depth Graph created for the Drilling
Programme provides an estimate of the days to
be spent on theCOMMITMENT
well. TO ACADEMIC AND
302
AUTHORIZATION FOR
EXPENDITURE (AFE)
– By costing in the charges for these days, the AFE
begins to take form.
– It is good practice to list the assumptions which

have been made in the preparation of the AFE.
• Completion:
– This is the additional cost incurred once the
decision to complete the well has been made.

303
AUTHORIZATION FOR
EXPENDITURE (AFE)
• Estimating Costs:
– If there are similar, recent wells in the area to be
drilled, most costs can be estimated fairly
readily.
– If you are planning a well in a new area, then

the task is much harder.
– By calling up service companies and asking for

budgetary figures, the main cost centres can be
addressed.

304
FORMATION PRESSURE
INTRODUCTION
• The magnitude of the pressure in the pores of a
formation, known as the formation pore pressure (or
simply formation pressure), is an important
consideration in many aspects of well planning and
operations.
• It will influence the casing design and mud weight
selection and will increase the chances of stuck pipe
and well control problems.
• It is particularly important to be able to predict and
detect high pressure zones, where there is the risk of
a blow-out.
• In addition to predicting the pore pressure in a
formation it is also very important to be able to
predict the pressure at which the rocks will fracture.
306
INTRODUCTION
• These fractures can result in losses of large
volumes of drilling fluids and, in the case of an
influx from a shallow formation, fluids flowing
along the fractures all the way to surface,
potentially causing a blowout.
• When the pore pressure and fracture pressure for
all of the formations to be penetrated have been
predicted the well will be designed, and the
operation conducted, such that:
– the pressures in the borehole neither exceed the
fracture pressure,
– nor fall below the pore pressure in the formations
being drilled.

307
FORMATION PORE PRESSURES
• During a period of erosion and sedimentation,
grains of sediment are continuously building up on
top of each other, generally in a water filled
environment.
• As the thickness of the layer of sediment increases,
the grains of the sediment are packed closer
together, and some of the water is expelled from
the pore spaces.
• However, if the pore throats through the sediment
are interconnecting all the way to the surface the
pressure of the fluid at any depth in the sediment
will be same as that which would be found in a
simple column of fluid.

308
• The pressure in the fluid in
the pores of the sediment will
only be dependent on the
density of the fluid in the
pore space and the depth
(equal to the height of the
column of liquid).
• The pressure of the fluid in
the pore space (the pore
pressure) can be measured
and plotted against depth as
shown on the right. P-Z Diagram representing
• This type of diagram is pore pressures
known as a P-Z diagram.
309
• The pressure in the formations to be drilled is often
expressed in terms of a pressure gradient.
• This gradient is derived from a line passing
through a particular formation pore pressure and
a datum point at surface and is known as the pore
pressure gradient.
• The reasons for this will become apparent
subsequently.
• The datum which is generally used during drilling
operations is the Drill Floor Elevation (DFE) but a
more general datum level, used almost universally,
is Mean Sea Level (MSL).

310
• When the pore throats through the sediment are
interconnecting, the pressure of the fluid at any
depth in the sediment will be same as that which
would be found in a simple column of fluid and
therefore the pore pressure gradient is a straight
line.
• The gradient of the line is a representation of the
density of the fluid.
• Hence the density of the fluid in the pore space is
often expressed in units of psi/ft.
• This is a very convenient unit of representation
since the pore pressure for any given formation
can easily be deduced from the pore pressure
gradient if the vertical depth of the formation is
known. INDUSTRIAL EXCELLENCE
311
• Representing the pore pressures in the formations
in terms of pore pressure gradients is also
convenient when computing the density of the
drilling fluid that will be required to drill through
the formations in question.
• If the density of the drilling fluid in the wellbore is
also expressed in units of psi/ft then the pressure
at all points in the wellbore can be compared with
the pore pressures to ensure that the pressure in
the wellbore exceeds the pore pressure.
• The differential between the mud pressure and the
pore pressure at any given depth is known as the
overbalance pressure at that depth.

312
• If the mud pressure is less
than the pore pressure
then the differential is
known as the underbalance
pressure.
• Fracture pressure gradient
of the formations is also
expressed in units of psi/ft.
• Most of the fluids found in
the pore space of
sedimentary formations
contain a proportion of salt
Mud density compared to
and are known as brines. pore pressure gradient

313
• The dissolved salt content may vary from 0 to over
200,000 ppm.
• Correspondingly, the pore pressure gradient
ranges from 0.433 psi/ft (pure water) to about
0.50 psi/ft.
• In most geographical areas the pore pressure
gradient is approximately 0.465 psi/ft (assumes
80,000 ppm salt content).
• This pressure gradient has been defined as the
normal pressure gradient.
• Any formation pressure above or below the points
defined by this gradient are called abnormal
pressures.
314
• The mechanisms by
which these
abnormal pressures
can be generated
will be discussed
below.
• When the pore
fluids are normally
pressured the
formation pore
pressure is also
said to be
hydrostatic.
Abnormal formation pressures plotted
against depth for 100 US wells
315
OVERBURDEN PRESSURES
• The pressures discussed above relate exclusively to
the pressure in the pore space of the formations.
• It is however also important to be able to quantify the
vertical stress at any depth since this pressure will
have a significant impact on the pressure at which
the borehole will fracture when exposed to high
pressures.
• The vertical pressure at any point in the earth is
known as the overburden pressure or geostatic
pressure.
• The overburden gradient is derived from a cross plot
of overburden pressure versus depth.
• The overburden pressure at any point is a function of
the mass of rock and fluid above the point of interest.
316
• In order to calculate
the overburden
pressure at any
point, the average
density of the
material (rock and
fluids) above the
point of interest must
be determined.
• The average density
of the rock and fluid
in the pore space is
known as the bulk
Pore Pressure, Fracture Pressure and
density of the rock. Overburden Pressures and Gradients for
a Particular Formation
317
• The overburden pressure is given by:
– where:
• ρb = bulk density of porous sediment,
• ρm = density of rock matrix,
• ρf = density of fluid in pore space, and
• Ø = porosity.
• Since the matrix material, porosity and fluid content
vary with depth, the bulk density also varies with depth.
• The overburden pressure at any point is therefore the
integral of the bulk density from surface down to the
point of interest.
• The specific gravity of the rock matrix may vary from
2.1 (sandstone) to 2.4 (limestone).
318
• Therefore, using an average of 2.3 and converting to
units of psi/ft, it can be seen that the overburden
pressure gradient exerted by a typical rock, with zero
porosity would be:
• This figure is normally rounded up to 1 psi/ft and is

commonly quoted as the maximum possible overburden
pressure gradient, from which the maximum
overburden pressure, at any depth, can be calculated.
• It is unlikely that the pore pressure could exceed the
overburden pressure.
• The overburden pressure may vary with depth, due to
compaction and changing lithology and so the gradient
cannot be assumed to be constant.
319
ABNORMAL PRESSURES
• Pore pressures which are found to lie above or below
the “normal” pore pressure gradient line are called
abnormal pore pressures.
• These formation pressures may be either subnormal
(i.e. less than 0.465 psi/ft) or overpressured (i.e.
greater than 0.465 psi/ft).
• The mechanisms which generate these abnormal pore
pressures can be quite complex and vary from region
to region.
• In order for abnormal pressures to exist the pressure
in the pores of a rock must be sealed in place i.e. the
pores are not interconnecting.
• The seal prevents equalization of the pressures which
occur within the geological sequence.
320
ABNORMAL PRESSURES
Overpressured Formation
Underpressured (Subnormally
pressured) Formation
321
ABNORMAL PRESSURES
• The seal is formed by a permeability barrier resulting
from physical or chemical action.
• A physical seal may be formed by gravity faulting
during deposition or the deposition of a fine
grained material.
• The chemical seal may be due to calcium carbonate
being deposited, thus restricting permeability.
• Another example might be chemical diagenesis
during compaction of organic material.
• Both physical and chemical action may occur
simultaneously to form a seal (e.g. gypsum-
evaporite action).

322
ORIGIN OF SUBNORMAL PRESSURES
• (a) Thermal Expansion
– As sediments and pore fluids are buried the temperature
rises.
– If the fluid is allowed to expand the density will decrease,
and the pressure will reduce.
• (b) Formation Foreshortening
– During a compression process there is some bending of
strata.
– The upper beds can bend upwards, while the lower beds
can bend downwards.
– The intermediate beds must expand to fill the void and so
create a subnormally pressured zone.
– This is thought to apply to some subnormal zones in
Indonesia and the US.
– Notice that this may also cause overpressures in the top
and bottom beds.
323
• (c) Depletion
– When hydrocarbons or water are produced from a
competent formation in which no subsidence occurs a
subnormally pressured zone may result.
– This will be important when drilling development wells
through a reservoir which has already been producing for
some time.
– Some pressure gradients in Texas aquifers have been as
low as 0.36 psi/ft.
• (d) Precipitation
– In arid areas (e.g. Middle East) the water table may be
located hundreds of feet below surface, thereby reducing
the hydrostatic pressures.

324
• (e) Potentiometric Surface
– This mechanism refers to the structural relief of a
formation and can result in both subnormal and
overpressured zones.
– The potentiometric surface is defined by the height to
which confined water will rise in wells drilled into the same
aquifer.
– The potentiometric surface can therefore be thousands of
feet above or below ground level.
The effect of the

potentiometric
surface in
relationship to the
ground
surface causing
overpressures and
subnormal pressures
325
• (f) Epeirogenic Movements
– A change in elevation can cause abnormal pressures in
formations open to the surface laterally, but otherwise
sealed.
– If the outcrop is raised this will cause overpressures, if
lowered it will cause subnormal pressures.
Section through a
sedimentary basin
showing two
potentiometric
surfaces relating to
the two reservoirs A
and B
326
ORIGIN OF OVERPRESSURED
FORMATIONS
• These are formations whose pore
pressure is greater than that
corresponding to the normal
gradient of 0.465 psi/ft.
• As shown in on the right these
pressures can be plotted between the
hydrostatic gradient and the
overburden gradient (1 psi/ft).
• The following examples of
overpressures have been reported:
– Gulf Coast: 0.8 - 0.9 psi/ft
– Iran: 0.71 - 0.98 psi/ft
– North Sea: 0.5 - 0.9 psi/ft
– Carpathian Basin: 0.8 - 1.1 psi/ft
327
FORMATIONS
• There are numerous mechanisms which cause such
pressures to develop.
• Some, such as potentiometric surface and
formation foreshortening have already been
mentioned under subnormal pressures since both
effects can occur as a result of these mechanisms.
• The other major mechanisms are summarized
below:
• (a) Incomplete Sediment Compaction
– Incomplete sediment compaction or undercompaction is
the most common mechanism causing overpressures.
– In the rapid burial of low permeability clays or shales there
is little time for fluids to escape.
328
FORMATIONS
• (a) Incomplete Sediment
Compaction (contd.)
– Under normal conditions the initial
high porosity (+/- 50 %) is
decreased as the water is expelled
through permeable sand structures
or by slow percolation through the
clay/shale itself.
– If however the burial is rapid and
the sand is enclosed by
impermeable barriers, there is no Barriers to flow and
time for this process to take place generation of overpressured
and the trapped fluid will help to sand
support the overburden.

329
• (b) Faulting
FORMATIONS
– Faults may redistribute sediments, and place permeable
zones opposite impermeable zones, thus creating barriers
to fluid movement.
– This may prevent water being expelled from a shale, which
will cause high porosity and pressure within that shale
under compaction.
• (c) Repressuring from Deeper Levels
– This is caused by the migration of fluid from a high to a
low presssure zone at shallower depth.
– This may be due to faulting or from a poor casing/cement
job.
– The unexpectedly high pressure could cause a kick, since
no lithology change would be apparent.
– High pressures can occur in shallow sands if they are
charged by gas from lower formations.
330
FORMATIONS
• (d) Phase Changes during Compaction
– Minerals may change phase under increasing pressure,
e.g. gypsum converts to anhydrite plus free water.
– It has been estimated that a phase change in gypsum
will result in the release of water.
– The volume of water released is approximately 40 % of
the volume of the gypsum.
– If the water cannot escape then overpressures will be
generated.
– Conversely, when anhydrite is hydrated at depth it will
yield gypsum and result in a 40 % increase in rock
volume.
– The transformation of montmorillonite to illite also
releases large amounts of water.
331
FORMATIONS
• (e) Massive Rock Salt Deposition
– Deposition of salt can occur over wide areas. Since
salt is impermeable to fluids the underlying
formations become overpressured.
– Abnormal pressures are frequently found in zones
directly below a salt layer.
• (f) Salt Diaperism
– This is the upwards movement of a low density salt
dome due to buoyancy which disturbs the normal
layering of sediments and produces pressure
anomalies.
– The salt may also act as an impermeable seal to
lateral dewatering of clays.
332
FORMATIONS
• (g) Tectonic Compression
– The lateral compression of sediments may result either in
uplifting weathered sediments or fracturing/faulting of
stronger sediments.
– Thus formations normally compacted at depth can be
raised to a higher level.
– If the original pressure is maintained the uplifted
formation is now overpressured.
• (h) Generation of Hydrocarbons
– Shales which are deposited with a large content of organic
material will produce gas as the organic material degrades
under compaction.
– If it is not allowed to escape the gas will cause
overpressures to develop.

333
DRILLING PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED
WITH ABNORMAL PRESSURES
• When drilling through a formation sufficient hydrostatic
mud pressure must be maintained to:
– Prevent the borehole collapsing, and
– Prevent the influx of formation fluids.
• To meet these 2 requirements the mud pressure is kept
slightly higher than formation pressure.
• This is known as overbalance.
• However, if the overbalance is too great this may lead
to:
– Reduced penetration rates (due to chip hold down effect).
– Breakdown of formation (exceeding the fracture gradient)
and subsequent lost circulation (flow of mud into
formation).
– Excessive differential pressure causing stuck pipe.
334
• The formation pressure will also influence the design
of casing strings.
• If there is a zone of high pressure above a low
pressure zone the same mud weight cannot be used to
drill through both formations otherwise the lower
zone may be fractured.
• The upper zone must be “cased off”, allowing the mud
weight to be reduced for drilling the lower zone.
• A common problem is where the surface casing is set
too high, so that when an overpressured zone is
encountered and an influx is experienced, the influx
cannot be circulated out with heavier mud without
breaking down the upper zone.
335
• Each casing string should be set to the maximum
depth allowed by the fracture gradient of the exposed
formations.
• If this is not done an extra string of protective casing
may be required.
• This will not only prove expensive, but will also reduce
the wellbore diameter.
• This may have implications when the well is to be
completed since the production tubing size may have
to be restricted.
• Having considered some of these problems it should
be clear that any abnormally pressured zone must be
identified and the drilling programme designed to
accommodate it. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
336
•
TRANSITION
The pore pressure profile in
ZONES
a region where
overpressures exist will look
something like the P-Z
diagram shown on the right.
• It can be seen that the pore
pressures in the shallower
formations are “normal”.
• There is then an increase in
pressure with depth until the
“overpressured” formation is
entered.
• The zone between the
normally pressured zone and
the overpressured zone is
known as the transition Transition from normal pressures to
overpressures
zone.
337
TUTORIAL 1
• The following pore pressure information has been supplied for
the well you are about to drill.
Depth below Drillfloor (ft) Pressure (psi)
0 0
1000 465
6800 2325
8000 3720
8500 6800
9000 6850
9500 6900
– (a) Plot the following pore pressure/depth information on a P-Z

diagram. Calculate the pore pressure gradients in the formations
from surface to 8000 ft; to 8500 ft and to 9500 ft. Plot the
overburden gradient (1 psi/ft) on the above plot. Determine the
mud weight required to drill the hole section: down to 8000 ft;
down to 8500 ft and down to 9500 ft. Assume that 200 psi
overbalance on the formation pore pressure is required.
338
TUTORIAL 1
– (b) If the mud weight used to drill down to 8000 ft were used to
drill into the formation pressures at 8500 ft what would be the
over/underbalance on the formation pore pressure at this depth?
– (c) Assuming that the correct mud weight is used for drilling at
8500 ft but that the fluid level in the annulus dropped to 500 ft
below drillfloor, due to inadequate hole fill up during tripping,
what would be the effect on bottom hole pressure at 8500 ft ?
– (d) What type of fluid is contained in the formations below 8500
ft?
• Note that 1 psi/ft = 19.22 ppg.

339
SOLUTION TO TUTORIAL 1
(a Pore Pressure Profile Plots
) 0
1000
1 psi/ft. Overburden Gradient

2000
3000
4000
Depth (ft)
5000
6000 0.465 psi/ft. "Normal

Pressure" Gradient Mud Weight designed for 8500 ft
7000
8000
Gas Gradient
Mud Weight designed for 9500 ft
9000
10000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Pressure (psi)

340
• (a) (contd.) The pore pressure gradients in the formations
from surface are:
– 0 - 8000 ft: 3720 - 0/8000 - 0 = 0.465 psi/ft
– 0 - 8500 ft: 6800 - 0/8500 - 0 = 0.800 psi/ft
– 0 - 9500 ft: 6900 - 0/9500 - 0 = 0.726 psi/ft
The required mud weights are as follows:
– At 8000 ft:
• 3720 + 200 = 3920 psi
• 3920/8000 = 0.49 psi/ft = 9.42 ppg
– At 8500 ft:
• 6800 + 200 = 7000 psi
• 7000/8500 = 0.82 psi/ft = 15.77 ppg
– At 9500 ft:
• 6900 + 200 = 7100 psi
• 7100/9500 = 0.75 psi/ft = 14.42 ppg
341
• (b) If the mud weight of 9.42 ppg were used to drill at 8500 ft
the underbalance would be:
– 6800 - (8500 x 9.42 x 0.052) = 2636 psi.
– Hence the borehole pressure is 2636 psi less than the formation
pressure.
• (c) If, when using 0.82 psi/ft (or 15.77 ppg) mud for the
section at 8500 ft, the fluid level in the hole dropped to 500 ft
the bottom hole pressure would fall by:
– 500 x 0.82 = 410 psi.
– Hence the pressure in the borehole would be 210 psi below the
formation pressure.
• (d) The density of the fluid in the formation between 8500 and
9500 ft is:
– The fluid in the formations below 8500 ft is therefore gas.

342
PREDICTION AND DETECTION OF
ABNORMAL PRESSURES
• The techniques which are used to predict (before
drilling), detect (whilst drilling) and confirm (after
drilling) overpressures are summarized:
Source of Data Parameters Time of Recording
Formation Velocity (Seismic)
Gravity
Geophysical Prior to spudding
Magnetics
Methods Well
Electrical Prospecting
Methods
Gas Content
Flowline Mudweight Kicks
Flowline Temperature
Chlorine Variation
Drilling Mud During Drilling
Drillpipe Pressure
Pit Volume
Flowrate
Hole Fillup
343
ABNORMAL PRESSURES
drilling) overpressures are summarized (contd.):
Drilling Rate During Drilling.
d and dc exponents Delayed by the
Drilling
Drilling Rate Equations Time
Parameters
Torque required for Mud
Drag Return
Shale Cuttings
Bulk Density
During Drilling.
Shale Factor
Delayed by the
Electrical Resistivity
Drilling Cuttings Time
Volume
required for Sample
Shape and Size
Return
Novel Geochemical and Physical
Techniques
344
ABNORMAL PRESSURES
drilling) overpressures are summarized (contd.):
Electrical Survey
Resistivity
Conductivity
Shale Formation Factor
Salinity Variations
Well Logging Interval Transit Time After Drilling
Bulk Density
Hydrogen Index
Thermal Neutron Capture Cross Section
Downhole Gravity Data
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Pressure Bombs
Direct Pressure During Well Testing or
Drill Stem Test (DST)
Measuring Devices Completion
Wireline Formation Test (WFT)
345
PREDICTION TECHNIQUES
• The predictive techniques are based on measurements that
can be made at surface, such a geophysical measurements,
or by analysing data from wells that have been drilled in
nearby locations (offset wells).
• Geophysical measurements are generally used to identify
geological conditions which might indicate the potential for
overpressures such as salt domes which may have
associated overpressured zones.
• Seismic data has been used successfully to identify
transition zones and fluid content such as the presence of
gas.
• Offset well histories may contain information on mud
weights used, problems with stuck pipe, lost circulation or
kicks.
• Any wireline logs or mudlogging information is also
valuable when attempting to predict overpressures.
346
DETECTION TECHNIQUES
• Detection techniques are used whilst drilling the
well.
• They are basically used to detect an increase in
pressure in the transition zone.
• They are based on three forms of data:
– Drilling parameters - observing drilling parameters
(e.g.ROP) and applying empirical equations to
produce a term which is dependent on pore
pressure.
– Drilling mud - monitoring the effect of an overpressured
zone on the mud (e.g. in temperature, influx of oil
or gas).
– Drilled cuttings - examining cuttings, trying to identify
cuttings from the sealing zone.
347
CONFIRMATION TECHNIQUES
• After the hole has been successfully drilled certain
electric wireline logs and pressure surveys may be
run to confirm the presence of overpressures.
• The logs which are particularly sensitive to

undercompaction are the sonic, density and
neutron logs.
• If an overpressured sand interval has been

penetrated then the pressure in the sand can be
measured directly with a repeat formation tester or
by conducting a well test.

348
FRACTURE PRESSURE GRADIENT
• When planning the well, both the formation pore
pressure and the formation fracture pressure for
all of the formations to be penetrated must be
estimated.
• The well operations can then be designed such that
the pressures in the borehole will always lie
between the formation pore pressure and the
fracture pressure.
• If the pressure in the borehole falls below the pore
pressure then an influx of formation fluids into the
wellbore may occur.
• If the pressure in the borehole exceeds the fracture
pressure then the formations will fracture and
losses of drilling fluid will occur.
349
FORMATION INTEGRITY TESTS
• The pressure at which formations will fracture
when exposed to borehole pressure is determined
by conducting one of the following tests:
– Leak-off Test.
– Limit Test.
– Formation Breakdown Test.
• The basic principle of these tests is to conduct a

pressure test of the entire system in the wellbore
and to determine the strength of the weakest part
of this system on the assumption that this
formation will be the weakest formation in the
subsequent open hole.
350
• The wellbore is comprised of (from bottom to top):
the exposed formations in the open hole section of
the well (generally only 5-10 ft of formation is
exposed when these tests are conducted); the
casing (and connections); the wellhead; and the BOP
stack.
• The procedure used to conduct these tests is
basically the same in all cases.
• The test is conducted immediately after a casing
has been set and cemented.
• The only difference between the tests is the point at
which the test is stopped.

351
The Configuration during Formation Integrity Tests

352
• The procedure is as follows:
– Run and cement the casing string.
– Run in the drillstring and drillbit for the next hole section
and drill out of the casing shoe.
– Drill 5 - 10 ft of new formation below the casing shoe.
– Pull the drillbit back into the casing shoe (to avoid the
possibility of becoming stuck in the openhole).
– Close the BOPs (generally the pipe ram) at surface.
– Apply pressure to the well by pumping a small amount of
mud (generally 1/2 bbl) into the well at surface. Stop
pumping and record the pressure in the well. Pump a
second, equal amount of mud into the well and record the
pressure at surface. Continue this operation, stopping
after each increment in volume and recording the
corresponding pressure at surface.
353
• The procedure is as follows (contd.):
– Plot the volume of mud pumped and the corresponding
pressure at each increment in volume.
– Note: the graph shown on the graph represents the
pressure all along the wellbore at each increment. This
shows that the pressure at the formation at leak off is the
sum of the pressure at surface plus the hydrostatic
pressure of the mud).
– When the test is complete, bleed off the pressure at
surface, open the BOP rams and drill ahead.
• It is assumed in these tests that the weakest part of the
wellbore is the formations which are exposed just below
the casing shoe.
• When these tests are conducted, the pressure at surface,
and throughout the wellbore, initially increases linearly
with respect to pressure.
354
• At some pressure the
exposed formations start to
fracture and the pressure
no longer increases linearly
for each increment in the
volume of mud pumped
into the well (see point A in
the Figure on the right).
• If the test is conducted until
the formations fracture
completely (see point B in
the figure), the pressure at
the surface will often drop
dramatically, in a similar P-V Behaviour of a Rock during
manner to that shown in Formation Integrity Tests
the figure.
355
THE LEAK-OFF TEST
• The “Leak-off test” is used to determine the
pressure at which the rock in the open hole section
of the well just starts to break down (or “leak off”).
• In this type of test the operation is terminated
when the pressure no longer continues to increase
linearly as the mud is pumped into the well.
• In practice the pressure and volume pumped is
plotted in real time, as the fluid is pumped into
the well.
• When it is seen that the pressure no longer
increases linearly with an increase in volume
pumped (Point C) it is assumed that the formation
is starting to breakdown.

356
THE LEAK-OFF TEST
• When this happens a
second, smaller amount of
mud (generally 1/4 bbl) is
pumped into the well just to
check that the deviation
from the line is not simply
an error (Point D).
• If it is confirmed that the
formation has started to
“leak off” then the test is
stopped and the
calculations below are
carried out.
P-V Behaviour during a Leak-off
Test.

357
THE LIMIT TEST
• The “Limit Test” is used to
determine whether the rock in
the open hole section of the
well will withstand a specific,
predetermined pressure.
• This pressure represents the
maximum pressure that the
formation will be exposed to
whilst drilling the next
wellbore section.
• The pressure to volume
relationship during this test is
shown in Figure 25.
• This test is effectively a P-V Behaviour during a Limit
limited version of the leak-off Test.
test.
358
THE FORMATION BREAKDOWN TEST
• The “Formation
Breakdown Test” is used
to determine the pressure
at which
• the rock in the open hole
section of the well
completely breaks down.
If fluid is
• continued to be pumped
into the well after leak off
and breakdown occurs
the pressure
• in the wellbore will
P-V Behaviour during a Formation
behave as shown on the Breakdown Test.
right.
359
LEAK-OFF TEST CALCULATIONS
• In a Leak-Off test the formation below the casing
shoe is considered to have started to fracture at
Point A.
• The surface pressure at Point A is known as the leak

off pressure and can be used to determine the
maximum allowable pressure on the formation
below the shoe.
• The maximum allowable pressure at the shoe can

subsequently be used to calculate:
– The maximum mud weight which can be used in the
subsequent openhole section
– The Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure
(MAASP).

360
LEAK-OFF TEST CALCULATIONS
• The maximum allowable pressure on the formation just
below the casing shoe is generally expressed as an
equivalent mud gradient (EMG) so that it can be
compared with the mud weight to be used in the
subsequent hole section.
• Given the pressure at surface when leak off occurs just
below the casing shoe, the maximum mud weight that
can be used at that depth, and below, can be
calculated from:
• Usually a safety factor of 0.5 ppg (0.026 psi/ft) is

subtracted from the allowable mudweight.
361
TUTORIAL 2
• While performing a leak off test the surface
pressure at leak off was 940 psi. The casing shoe
was at a true vertical depth of 5010 ft and a mud
weight of 10.2 ppg was used to conduct the test.
Calculate the Maximum bottom hole pressure
during the leak-off test and the maximum allowable
mud weight.

362
• The Maximum Bottomhole Pressure during the
leakoff test can be calculated from:
– Hydrostatic Pressure of Mud Column + Leak-off Pressure at
Surface
– = {(0.052)(10.2)(5010) + 940} psia
– =3597 psia.
• The Maxximum Allowable Mud Weight at this Depth
is therefore:
– =3597 psi/5010 ft = 0.718 psi/ft = 13.8 ppg
• Allowing a Factor of Safety of 0.5 ppg, the
Maximum Allowable Mud Weight is (13.8 – 0.5) ppg
= 13.3 ppg.

363
FORMATION EVALUATION

364
• Experience over the years has led to a fairly
consistent evaluation philosophy for
designing programs to estimate recoverable
hydrocarbons.
• The usual objective is for the most economic

array of measurements that will give
estimates of satisfactory accuracy for
thickness, porosity, permeability and water
saturation of all zones of potential economic
interest in the well.
365
• The choice of specific measurements depends on
the particular problem and the accuracies
required.
• The basic approach to setting up an evaluation

program is to:
– Use wireline logs as the basic device where possible.

– Supplement the wireline logs with cutting samples
and perhaps borehole fluid logs
– Use cores for calibration of logs and for needed
geologic data.
– Add productivity tests as necessary for help in
important borderline cases that cannot be
satisfactory resolved.
366
• Borehole measurements are used for the:
– Determination of recoverable hydrocarbon

volumes
– Location of reservoir fluid contacts
– Development of reservoir quality maps
– Determination of water salinities
– Projection of bottomhole fluid pressures while
drilling
– Monitoring of reservoir fluid movement
– Checking of feasibility of waterfloods and other
enhanced oil recovery mechanisms
367
S/N Borehole Results
Measurement
1 Cutting Samples Lithology, oil and gas shows, rock
type
2 Mud Logging Measurement of hydrocarbon
components within the drilling mud
3 Acoustic Devices Transit time, amplitude, cement bond
logs, wave form displays, variable
intensity, shear wave velocity,
borehole televiewer
4 Radioactivity Natural gamma ray emission,
Devices neutron density, chlorine, nuclear
magnetism, neutron lifetime, spectral
logging
368
Measurement
5 Spontaneous Potential Self-potential, water resistivity,
(SP) Device shale content
6 Resistivity Devices Electrical resistivity, focused
resistivity, induction, conductivity,
resistivity and conductivity of
flushed and uninvaded zones
7 Production Logging Measurement of pressure in the
borehole, fluid flow rates, reservoir
fluid composition, borehole
temperature

369
Measurement
8 Dip Meter Devices Dip angle and direction of
formations penetrated by the
borehole
9 Coring Lithology, porosity, permeability,
grain density, formation factor,
saturation exponent and other
basic rock parameters

370
MECHANICS OF DRILLING
A HOLE

371
PREPARING THE DRILL SITE
• The drill site must be prepared to accommodate the
rig and equipment.
• At the exact spot on the surface where the well will
be, the crew digs a rectangular pit called a cellar
or drives a culvert-like pipe into the ground.
• In the middle of the cellar, the crew starts the top
of the well.
• The conductor hole is large in diameter (as large as
36 inches or more) and about 20 to 100 feet (6 to
30 metres).
• The conductor hole is lined with pipe called
conductor pipe or conductor casing.
372
A Cellar COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

373
• Usually, the crew also digs another hole smaller in
diameter than the conductor hole next to the cellar.
• Called the rathole, it is used to store the kelly when

it is temporarily out of the main hole during certain
operations.
• On small rigs, the crew digs a third hole called the

mousehole.
• It is used to hold a joint of pipe ready for makeup.

374
RIGGING UP
• Rigging up begins with centering the
substructure over the conductor pipe in the
cellar.
• If the rig uses a mast, the crew places the

mast into the substructure in a horizontal
position and hoists it upright.
• If the rig uses a derrick, the crew assembles

it piece by piece on the substructure.

375
RIGGING UP
• Other rigging-up operations include erecting
stairways; handrails and guardrails; installing
auxiliary equipment to supply electricity,
compressed air and water; and setting up
storage facilities and living quarters for the
tool pusher and company representative.
• Finally, the contractor must bring drill pipe,

drill collars, bits, mud supplies and many other
pieces of equipment and supplies to the site
before the rig can make hole.

376
DRILLING SURFACE HOLE
• To begin drilling, the crew attaches a large bit, say
171/2 inches in diameter to the first drill collar
• It lowers the bit into the conductor pipe by adding

drill collars and drill pipe one joint at a time until
the bit reaches the bottom
• With the kelly attached to the top joint of pipe, the

driller begins making hole by:
– Starting the pump to circulate mud,
– Engaging the rotary table or top drive to rotate the drill
stem, and
– Setting the drill stem down with the drawworks to apply
weight on the bit
377
• As the bit drills ahead, the kelly moves downward
through the kelly bushing
• At some time, the entire length of the kelly reaches

a point just above the bushingTo drill the hole
deeper, the crew adds more pipe to the string to
make it longer
• To add pipe, the driller uses the hoisting system to

pick up the kelly and attached drill string off
bottom.
• When the tool joint of the topmost joint of pipe

clears the rotary, the crew sets the slips around the
pipe and into the opening in the master bushing
378
Crewmen grasp the slips by the handles as they set

them in the masterCOMMITMENT
bushing TO ACADEMIC AND
379
• The slips grip the pipe and keep it from falling back
into the hole while the crew unscrews the kelly from
the drill string (breaks out).
• To break out the kelly requires two sets of tongs.

The rotary helpers latch one set (breakout tongs)
around the bottom of the kelly.
• The helpers latch the other set (backup tongs)

around the tool joint of the drill pipe. The crew
removes the tongs and the driller spins the drill
pipe out of the kelly by turning the rotary table and
move the kelly over to a 30-foot joint of drill pipe
resting in the mousehole.

380
• The crew then stab the pin of the kelly into the box
of the new joint and screw them together, or make
them up.
• The driller picks them up and moves them from the

mousehole to the rotary table.
• The crew stabs the bottom of the new joint of pipe

into the top of the joint of pipe coming out of the
borehole and again make up the joints.
• With the new joint made up, they pull the slips and
the driller lowers the pipe until the bit nears the
bottom.

381
• The driller starts the pumps, begins rotation,
applies weight to the bit and drills another 40 feet
or so of hole, depending on the length of the kelly
• At a depth that could range from hundreds of feet

to a few thousand feet, drilling comes to a
temporary halt
• The crew pulls the drill stem from the hole for
surface casing to be run and cemented in place.
• Cementing is the process of placing cement

between the casing and borehole in a well
immediately after the casing is run.

382
• The main objectives of cementing are:
• to seal the annulus.

• to obtain zonal isolation.
• to support axial load of casing strings and tubing strings
to be run later.
• to bond the casing to the formation.
• to protect the wellbore in the event of problems.
• to seal off troublesome zones.
• to protect casing from corrosive fluids in the formations.
• Zonal isolation is accomplished if cement in the

annulus prevents the flow of formation fluids from
the well into the wellbore.

383
DRILLING INTERMEDIATE HOLE
• To resume drilling, the crew begins tripping the
drill stem and a new, smaller bit that fits inside the
surface casing back into the hole.
• When the bit reaches bottom, the driller resumes
circulation resumes circulation and rotation.
• The bit drills through the small amount of cement
left in the casing, the plugs and the guide shoe and
into the new formation below the cemented casing.
• As drilling progresses and hole depth increases,
formation tends to get harder.
• As a result, the crew will need to make several
round trips (trips in and out of hole) to replace
worn bits.

384
DRILLING INTERMEDIATE HOLE
• At a predetermined depth, drilling stops again in
order to set another string of casing.Depending
upon the depth of the hydrocarbon reservoir, this
string of casing may be the final or the
intermediate one.
• In general, wells in relatively shallow reservoirs,

say 10,000 ft (3,048 m) or less, only require one
more casing string.
• Wells where the reservoir is deep, perhaps up to

20,000 ft (6,096 m) or more, usually need at least
one intermediate casing string. The crew runs and
cements it in much the same way as surface
casing.
385
DRILLING TO FINAL DEPTH
• Using a still smaller bit that fits inside the
intermediate casing, the crew drills the next part of
the hole. The crew trips in the bit and drill stem,
drill out the intermediate string shoe and resume
drilling.
• The crew drills with the pay zone in mind, a

formation capable of producing enough oil gas or
oil to make it profitable for the operating company
to complete the well.
• After the operator has evaluated the formations,

the company decides whether to set the final string
of casing, the production casing or to plug and
abandon the well.COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
386
• If the evaluation reveals that commercial amounts
of hydrocarbons exist:
– Casing will be hauled in.

– The drilling crew will pull the drill stem from the well and
lay it down one joint at a time so that they can easily be
transported to the rig’s next drilling location.
– A cementing company will run and cement the production
casing in the well.
• The drilling contractor’s job is nearly finished after

drilling the hole to total depth and setting and
cementing production casing.
• Sometimes, the rig and crew remain on the location

and complete the well.
387
• In other cases, the drilling contractor moves the rig
and equipment to the next location after cementing
the production casing.
• In such cases, the operator hires a special

completion rig and crew to finish the job.
• Completion involves:
– Running tubing (a string of small-diameter pipe inside the
casing through which the hydrocarbons flow out of the
well)
– Setting the wellhead (steel fittings that support the tubing
and a series of valves and pressure gauges to control oil
flow.
388
DRILLING PROBLEMS

389
DRILLING PROBLEMS
• Major Drilling Problems are:
– Shallow Gas.
– Stuck Pipe.
– Loss of Equipment.
– Loss of Hole.
– Formation Fracture.
– Kicks.
– Blowouts

390
SHALLOW GAS
• Shallow gas is usually defined as pockets of gas
found less than 1000 m or 3000 ft in depth.
• It is usually at high pressure but will be slightly

overpressured due to its relative buoyancy
compared with other fluids.
• Shallow gas is usually biogenic in origin and

consists predominantly of methane. It is derived
from recently buried organic material
• It is possible for gas generated non-biogenically

from depth to be transmitted up through a conduit
such as a fault or an old wellbore. Transmitted gas
is potentially more dangerous as it may be at a
higher pressure.
391
SHALLOW GAS
• The gas accumulates in poorly consolidated but
relatively high porosity and permeability sands.
• Once one of these beds is penetrated by the bit, the

gas may flow only if there is a negative pressure or
it is swabbed (sucked) into the hole.
• Once the gas starts to flow into the borehole it is

almost impossible to stop.
• The formation at this depth is usually not strong

enough to handle any sort of imposed pressure
even if casing has been set.

392
SHALLOW GAS
• Offshore, these zones are drilled with returns to
the seabed and the gas rises, expands and flows
into the sea.
• In whatever location the gas obviously poses a

serious fire risk and offshore large amounts of gas
entrained in the sea reduces the buoyancy effect
and boats and rigs can sink.
• Large volumes of escaping gas can erode large

holes so that the legs of a jack-up may become
unstable.

393
BLOWOUTS AND FIRES
• In blowouts, you see oil gushing (a blowout), and
perhaps even a fire, when drillers reach the final
depth.
• These are actually dangerous conditions, and are

(hopefully) prevented by the blowout preventers
and the pressure of the drilling mud.
• In most wells, the oil flow must be started by

acidizing or fracturing the well

394
WELL ABANDONMENT
• Also called well decomissioning.
• Decommissioning of offshore installations

came to international prominence as a
result of Shell's proposals to dispose of the
Brent Spar oil storage tank by dumping it in
deep water beyond the edge of the
Continental Shelf.

395
DRILLING CONTRACTS

396
DRILLING CONTRACTS
• Drilling contracts generally fall under
four main categories:
– Daily Rate Contracts.

– Modified Daily Rate (Footage Bonus)
Contracts.
– Footage Contracts.
– Turnkey Contracts.

397
DRILLING CONTRACTS
• Daily Rate Contracts:
– This is the most common type of contract used
worldwide.
– The drilling contractor is paid by the operator
for each day that he spends on the well.
– The contractor can be penalized for negligence.
– Day rates are usually broken down into four
groups:
• Operating.
• Reduced.
• Special.
• Zero.

398
DRILLING CONTRACTS
• Operating Rate:
o Operating rate is applied to rig utilisation.
o This means that the contractor’s equipment and personnel
are fully utilised.
o This rate covers activities such as drilling, tripping and
casing runs.
• Reduced Rate:
o Reduced rate used when the contractor’s equipment and
personnel are not being fully utilised.
o Other operations can fall in this category such as rig
mobilisation.
o This rate is usually a few per cent cheaper than the
operating rate.

399
DRILLING CONTRACTS
• Special Rate:
o Special rate applied in many circumstances.
o
o An example are the allowances given in specific
month due to the repairs in downtime period.
• Reduced Rate:
o No payment is given to the drilling contractor.
o The main reason behind that is negligence by the

contractor which causing operational delays.

400
DRILLING CONTRACTS
• Modified Daily Rate (Footage Bonus) Contracts:
– The purpose of this is to encourage the drilling
contractor to reach TD more quickly than the
daily rate contract.
– There will be a bonus for the contractor if he

reaches a certain depth within an agreed time
scale.
– This type of contract can be attractive to both

the operator and drilling contractor but is not
applied very often in practice.

401
DRILLING CONTRACTS
• Footage Contracts:
– These are given in reasonably well-known areas.
– A specified rate per foot drilled is negotiated for a well of a
certain depth.
– With this contract style the drilling contractor has a direct

incentive to drill the well faster.
– When offering a drilling contractor a footage contract the

operator should clearly list any special terms that
contractor must to comply for the specific well.
– An example would be the an agreement of a maximum

tripping speed to prevent pressure surges.

402
DRILLING CONTRACTS
• Turnkey Contracts:
– With this kind of contract the operator pays the
drilling contractor a lump sum to drill a well of a
certain depth in a given area.
– It is up to the drilling contractor to comply with

the well head and casing requirements, organise
the third party services and generally fulfil all
the normal operator’s roles on the well.
– It is probable that the operator will insist on

rights of inspection at any time on the well.

403
DRILLING CONTRACTS
• Turnkey Contracts:
– Since in most areas of the world the operator

can never give away the responsibility for oil
spills in his license block, then turnkey drilling
has had a limited impact on the market.
– Notable exception, to this are USA and China

where local legislation makes turnkey drilling
attractive.

404
CONTRACT FORMAT AND MANAGEMENT
• The cost of the rig contract represents 30-40 per
cent of the overall well costs.
•
• To ensure that the operator’s interests are best
protected, the drilling contract is set up by the
operator.
• Drilling contractors submit their bids for the work,

based on the issued contract.
• Upon signing by both partners, the contract then

forms the basis of the working relationship
between operator and drilling contractor.
405
• Both partners are bound by the contract, therefore

it is vital that the design of the contract is such
that there are no loopholes or deficiencies.
• Note that the operator writes the contract, so if he

has cause to criticize the contract during its
execution then he only has himself to blame.
• The contract must cover all aspects of the

operator/contractor relationship. In a well-written
contract there are no ‘grey areas’, everything
should be in ‘black and white’. Contract formats
vary from area toCOMMITMENT
area to suit local conditions.
TO ACADEMIC AND
406
• However, certain clauses are common to all
drilling contracts.
• Examples of these clauses are:
– Agreement – Personnel, Equipment and
– Supplies Services
– Manner of – Compensation
Compensation – Quality Control of
– Liabilities Performance
– Insurance – Drilling Methods and
– Confidentiality Practices
– Assignment of – Special Conditions
Contract – Patents
– Arbitration – Laws, Rules and Regulations
407
– Signatures
• The following clauses are common to all
Contracts:
• Agreement:
o The Agreement should describe the objective of
the Contract.
o It should clearly state when the contract will
begin, its duration and termination date.

408
Contracts:
• Personnel, equipment, services and supplies:

o This clause lays down what the contractor is
expected to supply.
o Most contractors refer to Appendices which are
included with the contract, where a list of
equipment or personnel is offered by the
contractor and included in the Tender
Document.

409
Contracts:
• Personnel, equipment, services and supplies:

o The Operator should clearly state what
personnel and equipment will provide.
o A format should cover any additional
equipment which might be required.
o This format allowing the Contractor to add on a
charge if purchases additional equipment to
fulfil the purposes of the Contract.

410
Contracts:
• Compensation:
o This details how much money the contractor will
receive for the services.
o All aspects of the operation must be covered in

this Section and it is better to apply too much
rather than too little detail to describe the
grouping into which services will come.

411
• Compensation:
o A typical breakdown of the groups would be:
• Mobilisation • Rates
Charges • Repair
• Operating • Maintenance
• Inspection • Force Majeure
• Negligence • Taxes
• Demobilisation
Charges
• If the rates are adjustable then any
adjustments should be explained.
412
Contracts:
• Manner of Compensation:
o This clause explains how invoicing must take
place.
o The clause should also state when the payment
will be made.

413
Contracts:
• Quality Control of Performance:
o The Operator reserves the right to insist that
the Contractor’s equipment and personnel
should fulfil the commitment made in the
Tender Document.
o In practice,this means providing access to the
hardware and to records.
o For a semi-submersible rig, structural surveys,
inclining test records and certificates and
planned maintenance records would have to be
available for inspection.
414
Contracts:

o Usually, a rig audit team will visit the rig prior
to awarding the Contract to inspect all of the
above.
o Most operators will include in this Section an

opportunity for the operator to take over the
operation and Contractor’s personnel for
reasons which will be defined.
415
Contracts:

o The Operator will normally reserve the right to
insist that the Drilling Contractor removes
undesirable crew members.
o The method by which the operator wishes to

effect this must be clearly defined.

416
Contracts:
• Liabilities:
o This section defines the operator’s and the
contractor’s liabilities.
o The bulk of this Section will represent the
Contractor holding the Operator harmless in
respect of damage to his equipment and vice
versa.
o There must be details of how the Operator's
equipment must be serviced under the Contract
by the Contractor.
417
Contracts:
• Liabilities:
o To cover the cost of any Contractor’s equipment
lost downhole, the Contract will define the formula
by which the present value of the equipment is
determined.
o Generally speaking, the Contractor’s liabilities
tend to be limited in most cases, whilst those of the
Operator are considerable.
o An average pollution liability would be limited to
$100,000 for the Contractor, whilst the Operator’s
liability to the licensing authority or government
would be unlimited.
418
Contracts:
• Drilling Methods and Practices:

o This defines the safe working practices that are
expected from the Contractor.
o Details such as special BOP testing, tripping, mud
monitoring and reporting are clearly defined.
• Insurance:
o This establishes the level of insurance cover that
the Operator and Contractor will have to carry.
419
Contracts:
• Special Conditions:
o Any possible unexpected circumstances should
be clearly defined in this Section.
o The actions and responsibilities must be made
clear in each case.
o Force majeure will come under this section and
will cover all eventualities which are beyond the
control of the Operator or Contractor.

420
Contracts:
• Confidentiality:
o The Contract must clearly lay down what the
Contractor may disclose about the well it is
drilling.
• Patents:
o This Section indemnifies each party from patent
infringement by the other party for the duration
of the Contract.
421
Contracts:
• Assignment of Contract:
o This Section can give the Operator the right to

assign the Contract to another Operator (farm
out agreement) or can prevent this from
happening.

422
Contracts:
• Assignment of Contract:
o This defines under which government laws the
Contract will operate.
o Usually, this will be the area where the drilling
is taking place.
o However, in frontier areas, another country’s
laws might be used.
o Typically, this would be the home country of the
operator, for example, NAOC - Italy, SPDC –
Holland and MPNU – United States.
423
Contracts:
• Arbitration:
o In the event of dispute of the Contract, the
arbitration process should be clearly defined in
this Section.
• Signatures:
o This Section has space for Signatures and
Witnesses for the Operator and Contractor.
o Note that each page of the Contract should be
initialled by both parties as well as any changes
to the Contract.COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
424
DRILLING COST ANALYSIS

425
• The main function of the drilling engineer is to
recommend drilling procedures that will result
in the successful completion of the well as
safely and economically as possible.
• The drilling engineer must make
recommendations concerning routine rig
operations such as:
• drilling fluid treatment,
• pump operation.
• bit selection, and
• any problems encountered in the drilling
operation.
426
• In many cases, the use of a drilling cost
equation can be useful in making these
recommendations.
• The usual procedure is to break the drilling
costs into:
• variable drilling costs,
• fixed operating expenses that are
independent of alternatives being evaluated.

427
DRILLING COST FORMULA
• The most common application of a drilling cost
formula is in evaluating the efficiency of a bit
run.
• A large fraction of the time required to
complete a well is spent either drilling or
making a trip to replace the bit.
• The total time required to drill a given depth,
∆D, can be expressed as the sum of:
• the total rotating time during the bit run, tb,
• the nonrotating time during the bit run, tc,
and
• the trip time, tt
428
• The drilling cost formula is given by:
• where:
• Cf = drilled cost per unit length,
• Cb = cost of bit,
• Cr = the fixed operating cost of the rig per unit
time independent of the alternatives being
evaluated,
• tb = the total rotating time during the bit run,
• tc = the nonrotating time during the bit run,
• tt = the trip time, and
• ∆D = a givenCOMMITMENT
depth TOinterval.
ACADEMIC AND
429
• Since this drilling cost function ignores risk
factors, the results of the cost analysis
sometimes must be tempered with engineering
judgement.
• Reducing the cost of a bit run will not
necessarily result in lower well costs if the risk
of encountering drilling problems such as stuck
pipe, hole deviation, hole washout, etc., is
increased greatly.

430
TUTORIAL 1
• A recommended bit program is being prepared for a
new well using bit performance records from nearby
wells. Drilling performance records for bits are shown
for a thick limestone formation at 9,000 ft. Determine
which bit gives the lowest drilling cost if the operating
cost of the rig is $400/hr, the trip time is 7 hours and
connection time is 1 minute per connection. Assume that
each of the bits was operated at near the minimum cost
per foot attainable for that bit.
Bit Cost Rotating Connection Mean Penetration
Bit
($) Time (Hours) Time (Hours) Rate (ft/hr)
A 800 14.8 0.1 13.8
B 4,900 57.7 0.4 12.6
C 4,500 95.8 0.5 10.2

431
• The cost per foot drilled for each bit type can be
computed using the Drilling Cost Equation.
• For Bit A, the cost per foot is:
• Similarly, for Bit B, the cost per foot is:
• Finally, for Bit C, we have:
• The lowest drilling cost was obtained using Bit B.

432
TUTORIAL 2
• The following bit records are taken from the offset
wells used in the design of the well shown on the
next slide. Assuming: that the geological conditions
in this well are the same as those in the offset wells
below; that the 121/4” section will be drilled from
around 7000 ft; an average trip time of 8 hrs and a
rig rate of £400/hr. Select the best bit type to drill
the 121/4" hole section.
Well Bit Cost Depth In Depth Out Time on Bottom
(₤) (ft) (ft) (Hrs.)
1 A 350 7100 7306 14.9
2 B 1600 7250 7982 58.1
3 C 1600 7000 7983 96.3
COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND INDUSTRIAL

433
EXCELLENCE
TUTORIAL 2

434
EXCELLENCE
• The process of selection of the best bit type from a
number of offset wells requires a number of
assumptions:
– a. The lithology encountered in the offset bit runs must be
similar to that lithology expected in the proposed well.
– b. The depth of the offset bit runs are similar to that in the
proposed well.
– c. The bit runs in the offset wells were run under optimum
operating conditions (hydraulics, WOB, RPM etc.).
• On the strength of the above assumptions, the ‘best bit’
will be selected on the basis of footage drilled, ROP and
most importantly Cost per Foot of bit run.
• The results of these numerical criteria are shown on the
next slide. The ‘best’ bit is considered to be bit B since
this bit had the most economical bit run (£/ft).
435
EXCELLENCE
• Solution (contd.):
– It is worth noting that bit A would have been selected
on the basis of ROP and bit C would have been
selected on the basis of footage drilled.
Rig Rate (₤/ft) 400
Trip Time (Hours) 8
Bit Bit Cost Footage Time on ROP Cost/ft

(₤) Drilled (ft.) Bottom (Hrs.) (ft/Hr.) (₤/ft)
A 350 206 14.90 13.83 46.17
B 1600 732 58.10 12.60 38.31
C 1600 983 96.30 10.21 44.07

436
EXCELLENCE
TUTORIAL 3
• A recommended bit programme is being prepared for a
new well using bit performance records from nearby
wells. Drilling records for three (3) bits are shown below
for a thick shale section encountered at 12,000 ft.
Determine which bit gives the lowest drilling cost if the
hourly operating cost of the rig is $1,000/hr and the
trip time is 10 hours. The connection times are included
in the rotating times given below.
Bit Cost Interval Drilled Rotating Time
Bit
($) (ft) (Hours)
A 700 106 9
B 4,000 415 62
C 8,000 912 153
• Answer: Bit B ($183.13/ft).

437
EXCELLENCE
TUTORIAL 4
• The following bit records were obtained on a well drilled
in Maverick County, Texas, U. S. Compare the
performance of Bits 2 and 3. Assume a daily operating
cost of $24,000/day, a bit cost of $3,000 for Bit 2 and a
bit cost of $12,000 for Bit 3.
Depth Out Time Bit Size
Bit
(ft) (Hours) (Inches)
1 7,988 26.8 12.0
2 8,060 25.8 12.0
3 8,494 270.0 12.0
4 8,614 35.1 12.0
• Answer: $565/ft and $679/ft.

438
EXCELLENCE
TUTORIAL 5
• During the drilling of the 121/4" hole section of a new
well the following drilling data is being recorded and
provided to the Company Man. At what point in time
would you have suggested that the bit be pulled and
why? Assume an average trip time of 8 hours and a rig
rate of £400/hr. Also assume that the bit type selected
IN Tutorial 2had been run in hole.
Time on Footage Time on Footage
Bottom (Hrs.) Drilled (Feet) Bottom (Hrs.) Drilled (Feet)
1 34 7 180
2 62 8 210
3 86 9 216
4 110 10 226
5 126 11 234
6 154 12 240
439
EXCELLENCE
Rig Rate (₤/Hr.) 400
Bit Cost (₤) 1600
Trip Time (Hrs.) 8
Drilling Time Footage Drilled Total Cost of Run Cost per Foot
(Hrs.) (Feet) (₤) (₤/ft)
1 34 5200 152.94
2 62 5600 90.32
3 86 6000 69.77
4 110 6400 58.18
5 126 6800 53.97
6 154 7200 46.75
7 180 7600 42.22
8 210 8000 38.10
9 216 8400 38.89
10 226 8800 38.94
11 234 9200 39.32
12 240 TO ACADEMIC AND INDUSTRIAL
COMMITMENT 9600 40.00
440
EXCELLENCE
• The decision to pull a bit Bit Run Cost
should be based on the 160
performance of the bit 140
Cost per Foot (₤/ft)

120
over a period of time. 100
• The Table on the 80
previous slide and the 60
Figure on the right show 40

20
that after 8 hours the 0
cost per foot of the bit 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
run had reached its Time (Hours)
minima and started to Bit Run Evaluation

increase.
 It should be noted that only ‘consideration’ is given to
pulling the bit at this point. The engineer should first check
with the mud loggers that the bit had not entered a new
type of formation, since this may affect the performance of
the bit. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND INDUSTRIAL
441
EXCELLENCE
• The engineer should also consider the proximity to the next
casing or logging point and the consequent cost of running
a new bit to drill what may be a relatively short section of
hole.
• This must be weighed against the possibility of the bit
breaking up and losing teeth or even a cone.
• Note that:

442
EXCELLENCE
INTRODUCTION TO
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

443
INTRODUCTION
• At one time, it was assumed all oil wells were
essentially vertical or the bottom of the hole was
directly under the drilling rig.
• Unfortunately, this is not true.
• The petroleum industry did not become fully
aware of deviated well problems until the
development of the Seminole Field, Oklahoma,
United States.
• The wells in this field were drilled very close
together.
• As a result of the deviation tendencies, wells were
drilled into other drilling wells and wells which
were already producing.
444
INTRODUCTION
• Also, wells were encountering the producing
formation at different measured depths.
• The true vertical depths were similar, but
measured depths varied significantly.
• In the late 1920's, survey instruments were
developed that could measure both inclination and
azimuth.
• Deviations as high as 46º from the vertical were
measured in the Seminole Field wells.
• The average deviation from the vertical was
approximately 13°.
• The first controlled directional well was drilled in
California in 1930 to tap offshore oil reserves.
445
INTRODUCTION
• Unfortunately, there was a dispute as to who
owned the oil offshore.
• Operators were drilling across lease lines in order
to drain oil owned by someone else, resulting in
legal problems.
• In the 1930's, wells were directionally drilled to tap
oil reserves that would otherwise be inaccessible.
• Directional drilling was employed to produce oil
from under a cemetery.
• Oil was produced from under the ocean by placing
the rig on the shore and directionally drilling into
the offshore oil deposits.
• Little attention was paid to directional drilling until
a relief well was drilled to kill a blowout near
Conroe, Texas. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND 446
INTRODUCTION
• In that instance, a blowout had occurred while
drilling; and as a result, a 170 foot diameter crater
was created around the well.
• The drilling rig sank and was lost. Approximately
6,000 barrels of oil per day were flowing from the
crater.
• A relief well was drilled near the surface location of
the blowout.
• Directional drilling techniques were used to
intersect the producing formation near the blowout
and the blowout was killed by pumping fluid down
the relief well and into the blowout well.
• Since then, directional drilling has been widely
accepted.
447
INTRODUCTION
• Today, the on-going research and development of
new tools and techniques are making directional
drilling more accurate and economical.
• Controlled directional drilling is defined by the API
as: The art and science involving the intentional
deflection of a wellbore in a specific direction in
order to reach a predetermined objective below
the surface of the earth.
• Today, it is much more science than art.

448
USES OF DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
• Sidetracking is one of the
primary uses for
directional drilling.
• Sidetracking is an
operation which deflects
the borehole by starting
a new hole at any point
above the bottom of the
old hole.
• The primary reason for
sidetracking is to bypass
a fish which has been
lost in the hole; however,
there are several other
reasons for sidetracking.
449
• A sidetrack can be
performed in an old well
to move the location of
the bottom of the hole
from a depleted portion
of the reservoir to a
portion that is
productive, such as,
across a fault or
permeability barrier.
• Sidetracking an
exploration well can lead
to a better geologic
understanding of an
area especially where the
geology is complicated.
450
• Straight hole drilling is a
special case of
directional drilling
where an attempt is
made to keep the hole
vertical.
• Some reasons for wanting
to keep the hole vertical
are:
• To keep from crossing
lease lines;
• To stay within the
specifications of a drilling
contract;
• To stay within the well
spacing requirements in a
developed field.
451
• Controlled directional
drilling is used when
drilling multiple wells
from an artificial
structure such as
offshore platforms,
drilling pads, or man
made islands.
• The economics of
building one offshore
platform for each well
would be prohibitive in
most cases.

452
• There are special
cases when multiple
sands are drilled with
a single wellbore.
• Where steeply dipping
sand zones are sealed
by an unconformity,
fault or salt dome
overhang, a number of
vertical wells would be
required to produce
each sand, which are
separated by a
permeability barrier.
453
• There are times when
oil deposits lie under
inaccessible locations
such as towns, rivers,
shorelines, mountains
or even production
facilities.
• When a location
cannot be constructed
directly above the
producing formation,
the wellbore can be
horizontally displaced
by directional drilling.
454
• Directional drilling is
also applicable in fault
drilling.
• In fault drilling, often,
the bit will deflect when
passing through the
fault plane, and
sometimes the bit will
follow the fault plane.
• To avoid the problem,
the well can be drilled
on the upthrown or
downthrown side of the
fault and deflected into
the producing
formation.
455
• Many oil fields are
associated with the
intrusion of salt domes.
• Directional drilling has
been used to tap some of
the oil which has been
trapped by the intrusion
of the salt.
• Instead of drilling
through the salt
overhangs, the wells can
be directionally drilled
adjacent to the salt
dome and into the
underlying traps as
shown in the figure.
456
• A highly specialized
application for directional
drilling is the relief well.
• If a well blows out and is
no longer accessible from
the surface, then a relief
well is drilled to intersect
the uncontrolled well
near the bottom.
• Water or mud are then
pumped through the
relief well and into the
uncontrolled well.
457
• Horizontal drilling is
another special
application of directional
drilling and is used to
increase the productivity
of various formations.
• One of the first
applications for
horizontal drilling was in
vertically fractured
reservoirs.
• Horizontal drilling is also
used to produce thin oil
zones with water or gas
coning problems.
458
• Directional drilling can
also be used to drill
multilateral wells.
• Multilaterals are
additional wells drilled
from a parent wellbore
as illustrated in the
figure.
• Multilaterals can be as
simple as an open hole
sidetrack or it can be
more complicated with a
junction that is cased and
has pressure isolation
and reentry capabilities.
459
TYPES OF DIRECTIONAL WELLS
• There are four basic types of directional wells.
• Most wells can be categorized by one of the four
basic types or a combination thereof.
• The types of Directional Wells are:
• Type 1 Directional Well.

460
TYPE 1 DIRECTIONAL WELL
• A Type I well is often
called a build and hold.
• The Type 1 well is drilled
vertically from the
surface to kickoff point at
a relatively shallow
depth.
• At that point, the well is
steadily and smoothly
deflected until a
maximum angle and the
desired direction are
achieved.
• The established angle and
direction are maintained
while drilling toCOMMITMENT
the TO ACADEMIC AND
target depth. INDUSTRIAL EXCELLENCE
461
• The Type II well is often
called an “S” curve.
• The angle and direction
are maintained until a
specified depth and
horizontal departure
has been reached.
• Then, the angle is
steadily and smoothly
dropped until the well
is near vertical.
• Drilling continues in
the vertical hole below
the intermediate
casing to the target.
462
• The Type III well is a
continues build to
target.
• It is similar to the Type
I well except the kickoff
point is at a deeper
depth, and surface
casing is set prior to
deflecting the well.
• The well is deflected at
the kickoff point, and
inclination is
continually built
through the target
interval. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
463
• Type IV wells can be
categorized as
horizontal or extended
reach wells.
• Design of these wells
can vary significantly,
but they will have high
inclinations and large
horizontal departures.
• Horizontal wells will
have an inclination
greater than 80°.

464
PLANNING A DIRECTIONAL WELL
• The geometry of a directional well can be defined
with three parameters:
• Build Rate,
• Hold Inclination, (Drop Inclination), and
• Kickoff Point (KOP).
• The directional well configuration can be
determined by assuming any two of the above
three parameters and then, calculating the third.
• The assumption of a particular parameter requires
good understanding for an intelligent selection.
• Hold inclination and kickoff point are easier to
calculate than the build rate.

465
• The build-rate can be chosen to minimize fatigue in drill
pipe, minimize keyseat possibility, or help to minimize
torque and drag.
• If drilling a horizontal well, the build rate may be
selected based on steerability of the bottomhole
assembly.
• The hold inclination can be chosen based on any
number of concerns.
• At low inclinations, it may be difficult to maintain the
direction of the wellbore.
• Bit walk is greater at low inclinations because the
direction can change significantly with small changes in
dogleg severity.
• Above 30 degrees, it is more difficult to clean the hole
with 45o to 60o being the hardest to clean.
466
• Above 60o, open hole logs may no longer fall. If the
hole is not very clean, open hole logs may not fall at
inclinations above 50o.
• In cased hole, wireline tools will not fall at inclinations
greater than 70o.
• Tubing conveyed perforating or coiled tubing
conveyed perforating will be required.
• The kickoff point may be selected based on hole
conditions and target constraints.
• Many times it is desirable to case the build curve to
minimize the possibility of a keyseat; therefore, the
kickoff point may be based on casing seats.
• It may be desirable to drill some troublesome
formations such as lost circulation or sloughing
before kicking the COMMITMENT
well off. TO ACADEMIC AND
467
• MWD tools do not tolerate large quantities of LCM
for extended periods of time. In sloughing
formations, stuck pipe may lead to loss of very
expensive directional tools.
• If the troublesome formations are too deep, it may
be desirable to be drilling a hold section in these
formations.
• Generally, the build rate is chosen trying to keep
below the endurance limit of the drill string in order
to minimize the possibility of fatigue damage.
• The higher in the hole the kickoff point, the lower
the dogleg severity needs to be in order to minimize
fatigue in the drill string through the build section.
468
• It may not always be possible to drill a directional
well and not cause some fatigue in the drill string
or to keep the inclination below 30o.
• It depends upon the target departure.
• With high departure targets, high inclinations will
be required.
• After all, the objective of the directional well is to
hit the target or to hit multiple targets.

469
DEPTH REFERENCE AND GEOLOGICAL
REFERENCE SYSTEMS
• The trajectory of a deviated well must be carefully
planned so that the most efficient trajectory is used to
drill between the rig and the target location and ensure
that the well is drilled for the least amount of money
possible.
• When planning, and subsequently drilling the well, the
position of all points along the wellpath and therefore
the trajectory of the well must be considered in three
dimensions.
• This means that the position of all points on the
trajectory must be expressed with respect to a three
dimensional reference system.
REFERENCE SYSTEMS
• The three dimensional system that is generally used to
define the position of a particular point along the
wellpath is:
– the vertical depth of the point below a particular
reference point,
– the horizontal distance traversed from the wellhead in a
Northerly direction, and
– the distance traversed from the wellhead in an Easterly
direction.
• The depth of a particular point in the wellpath is
expressed in feet (or meters) vertically below a
reference (datum) point and the Northerly and Easterly
displacement of the point is expressed in feet (or
meters) horizontally from TOthe
COMMITMENT wellhead.
ACADEMIC AND
REFERENCE SYSTEMS
Well Planning
Reference Systems
DEPTH REFERENCE SYSTEMS
• There are a number of datum systems used in the depth
reference systems.
• The datum systems which are most widely used are :
– Mean Sea Level, MSL.
– Rotary Table Elevation, RTE.
– 20” Wellhead Housing.
• The Mean Sea Level, MSL is a permanent, national and
well documented datum whereas datum such as the
Rotary Table Elevation, RTE only exists when the
drilling rig is on site.
• The top of the 20” Wellhead Housing is only available
when the wellhead housing has been installed and will
be removed when the well is abandoned.
• Hence, since the only permanent datum is the MSL (the
rig will be removed and the wellhead may be removed
on abandonment), the distance between the MSL and
the rotary table on the drillfloor and the MSL and the
wellhead housing must be measured and recorded
carefully on the well survey documents.
• The elevation of the rotary table above the MSL will be
measured when the drilling rig is placed over the
drilling location.
• The depths of the formations to be penetrated are
generally referenced, by the geologists and reservoir
engineers, to MSL since the Rotary Table Elevation will
not be known until the drilling rig is in place.

• In most drilling operations the Rotary Table Elevation
(RTE) is used as the working depth reference since it is
relatively simple to measure depths relative to this
point.
• The elevation of the RTE is also referred to as Derrick
Floor Elevation (DFE).
• Depths measured from these references are often
called depths below rotary table (BRT) or below derrick
floor (BDF).
• The top of the kelly bushing is also used as a datum for
depth measurement.
• In this case the depths are referred to as depths below
rotary kelly bushing (RKB).
• The depth of any point in the wellpath can be
expressed in terms of the Along Hole Depth (AHD) and
the True Vertical Depth (TVD) of the point below the
reference datum.
• The AHD is the depth of a point from the surface
reference point, measured along the trajectory of the
borehole.
• The TVD is the vertical depth of the point below the
reference point.
• The AHD will therefore always be greater than the TVD
in a deviated well.
• Since there is no direct way of measuring the TVD, it
must be calculated from the information gathered
when surveying the well.
• The position of a point in the well can only be defined
in three dimensions when, in addition to the TVD of the
point, its lateral displacement and the direction of that
displacement is known.
• The lateral displacement is expressed in terms of feet
(or meters) from the wellhead in a Northerly and
Easterly direction or in degrees of latitude and
longitude.
• All displacements are referenced to the wellhead
position.
• The position of the wellhead is determined by land or
satellite surveying techniques and quoted in latitude
and longitude or an international grid co-ordinate
system (e.g. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
system). COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
GEOGRAPHICAL REFERENCE SYSTEMS
• Due to the large number of digits in some grid co-
ordinate systems, a local origin is generally chosen and
given the co-ordinates zero, zero (0,0).
• This can be the location of the well being drilled, or
the centre of an offshore platform.
• When comparing the position of points in a well, and in
particular for anti-collision monitoring, it is important
that all coordinate data are ultimately referenced to a
single system.

DEPTH REFERENCES
MD - TVD - TVDSS
Deviated Well
On Land Offshore
Kelly Bushing KB
DF Drill Floor DF or Rotary Table RT
GL Ground Level DF
MSL
MSL
MSL Mean Sea Level
TVD TVDSS
MD GL
TVD TVDSS
MD
RESERVOIR

PLANNING THE PROFILE OF THE WELL
• The S-shaped well is more complex but is often
required to ensure that the well penetrates the target
formation vertically.
• This type of trajectory is often required in exploration
and appraisal wells since it is easier to assess the
potential productivity of exploration wells, or the
efficiency of stimulation treatments when the
productive interval is entered vertically, at right angles
to the bedding planes of the formation.
• The deep kick-off profile may be required when drilling
horizontal wells or if it is necessary to drill beneath an
obstacle such as the flank of a salt diapir.
• This well profile is the most difficult trajectory to drill
since it is necessary to initiate the deviated trajectory
in deeper, well compacted
COMMITMENT TOformations.
ACADEMIC AND
DEFINING THE POINTS ON THE WELL PATH
• After the target and the rig position, the next stage is
to plan the geometrical profile of the well to reach the
target.
• The most common well trajectory is the build and hold
profile, which consists of 3 sections - vertical, build-up
and tangent.
• The trajectory of the wellbore can be plotted when the
following points have been defined:
– KOP (selected by designer).
– TVD and horizontal displacement of the end of the build
up section.
– TVD and horizontal displacement of the target (defined
by position of rig and target).

• Since the driller will only be able to determine the
along hole depth of the well the following information
will also be required:
– AHD of the KOP (same as TVD of KOP),
– Buildup Rate for the build up section (selected by
Designer),
– Direction in which the well is to be drilled after the KOP
in degrees from North (defined by position of rig and
target),
– AHD at which the build up stops and the tangent section
commences, and
– AHD of the target.

• These depths and
distances can be defined
by a simple geometrical
analysis of the well
trajectory.
• Radius of the Buildup
Section:
– The radius R of the
Buildup section of the
well can be calculated
from the build-up rate
(γo/100 ft):

• Tangent Angle:
• The tangent angle, α of the well can be calculated
as follows:
• Note that it is possible for angle x to be negative if d

< R, but these equations are still valid.
• Once the tangent angle is known the other points on
the wellpath can be calculated as follows:
• AHD at the end of Build Section:
• The measured depth at end of build section, AE:
– AE = AB + BE (curved length)
– BE can be calculated from
• TVD at the end of the Build Section:

– The TVD at end of build section, AX is given by:
– AX = AB + PE
• where PE = R sin α
– Thus, AX = AB + R sin α

• Displacement at the end of Build Section:
– The horizontal deviation at end of build, XE is
– XE = OB - OP
• where OB = R and OP = R cos α
– Thus, XE = R - R cos α = R(1 – cos α)
• AHD of the target:
– The total measured depth, AT is given by:
– AT = AE + ET

TUTORIAL 6
• Design a well with the following data:
– KOP (BRT) - 2000 ft
– TVD of Target (BRT) - 10000 ft
– Horizontal Displacement of Target - 3000 ft
– Build-up Rate - 2 degrees/100 ft

• (A) Using Scaled Diagrams:
– Using a scaled diagram, this information can simply
be plotted on a piece of graph paper using a
compass and a ruler.
– Point A represents the rig location on surface.
– Point B is the KOP at 2000'. Point T is the target.
Point O defines the centre of the arc which forms
the buildup section.
– The radius OB can be calculated from the build-up
rate:

• (A) Using Scaled Diagrams (contd.):
– An arc of this radius can be drawn to define the
build-up profile. A tangent from T can then be drawn
to meet this arc at point E.
– The drift angle TEY can then be measured with a
protractor.
– Note that TEY = BOE.
– From this information the distances BX, XE, BE and
EY can be calculated.
– This method of defining the well trajectory is not
however very accurate, since an error of 1 degree or
2 degrees in measuring TEY with a protractor may
mean that the tangent trajectory is imprecise and
that the target may be missed by the driller.
• (B) Geometrical Calculation Technique:
– The drift angle TEY can alternatively be calculated
as follows:
– AE (Measured Depth at end of Build Section is given

by:
• AE = AB + BE
• From
• AE = (2000 + 1097.50) ft = 3097.50 ft.

• (B) Geometrical Calculation Technique (contd.):
– AX (TVD at end of Build Section is given by:
• AX = AB + PE
– where PE = R sin α = 1071.39 ft
• AX = (2000 + 1071.39) ft = 3071.39 ft.
– XE (Horizontal Deviation at end of Build) is given by:
• XE = OB – OP
– where OB = R and OP = R cos α = 2658.47 ft.
• XE = (2866.24 – 2658.47) ft = 207.77 ft.
– AT (Total Measured Depth) is given by:
• AT = AE + ET
• From
• AT = 3097.5 + 7470.12) ft = 10567.62 ft.
TUTORIAL 7
• It has been decided to sidetrack a well from 1500 ft.
The sidetrack will be a build and hold profile with the
following specifications:
– Target Depth: 10000 ft.
– Horizontal Departure: 3500 ft.
– Buildup Rate: 1.5o per 100 ft.
• Calculate the following:
– a. the Drift Angle of the well.
– b. the TVD and Horizontal Deviation at the end of the
Buildup Section.
– c. the Total Measured Depth to the Target.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

493
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Abandon a well v : to stop producing hydrocarbons when the well becomes
unprofitable. A wildcat may be abandoned after poor results from a well
test. Mechanical and cement plugs are placed in the wellbore to prevent
fluid migration to surface and between different zones.
Abnormal pressure n : a formation pressure which is greater or less than

the "normal“ formation fluid hydrostatic pressure. Such pressures may be
classified as "subnormal“ (lower than normal) or "overpressured" (higher
than normal).
Accelerometer n : a surveying instrument which measures components of

the Earth's gravitational field.
Acidize v : to apply acids to the walls of oil and gas wells to remove any
material which may obstruct flow into the wellbore.
Adjustable choke n : a choke in which the rate of flow is controlled by

adjusting a conical needle and seat.
Air drilling n : a method of drilling that uses compressed air as the

circulating medium.
494
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Angle unit n : the component of a survey instrument used to measure
inclination.
Annular preventer n : a large BOP valve that forms a seal in the

annular space between the wellbore and the drillpipe. It is usually
installed above the ram type preventers in the BOP stack.
Annulus n : the space between the drillstring and open hole or

drillstring and cased hole in the wellbore.
Anticline n : a configuration of folded and stratified rock layers in the

shape of an arch. Often associated with a trap.
A.P.I. abbr : American Petroleum Institute. The leading standardising

organisation on oilfield drilling and production equipment.
A.P.I. gravity n : a measure of the density of liquid petroleum products,

expressed in degrees. It can be derived from the following equation:
API Gravity (degrees) = 141.5 - 131.5
Specific Gravity
495
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Azimuth n : used in directional drilling as the direction of the trajectory
of the wellbore measured in degrees (0-359) clockwise from True North
or Magnetic North.
Back off v : to disconnect a section of stuck drillpipe by unscrewing one
of the connections above the stuckpoint.
Back up :
1. v - to hold one section of pipe while another is being screwed into or
out of it (as in back up tongs).
2. n - a piece of equipment held in reserve in case another piece fails.
Badger bit n : a specially designed bit with one large nozzle, which can
be used as a deflecting tool in soft formations.
Bail n : a rounded steel bar which supports the swivel and connects it to
the hook. May also apply to the steel bars which connect the elevators
to the hook (links).
Ball up v : buildup of a mass of sticky material (drill cuttings) on
components of drillstring (especially bits and stabilisers).
496
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Barge n : a flat decked, shallow draft vessel which may accommodate a
drilling rig, or be used to store equipment and materials or for living
quarters.
Barite (Baryte) n : Barium Sulphate (BaSO4), a mineral used as a

weighting material to increase mud weight (specific gravity = 4.2).
Barrel n : a measure of volume for fluids. One barrel (bbl) = 42 U.S.

gallons = 0.15899 cubic metres. The term bbl is derived from the blue
barrels in which oil was originally transported.
Bed n : a geological term to specify one particular layer of rock.
Bell nipple n : In marine drilling, the uppermost component of the

marine riser attached to the telescopic joint. The top of the nipple is
expanded to guide drilling tools into the well.
Bentonite n : a finely powdered clay material (mainly montmorillonite)

which swells when mixed with water. Commonly used as a mud
additive, and sometimes referred to as "gel".
497
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Bent sub n : a short piece of pipe whose axis is deviated 1°-3° off vertical. Used
in directional drilling as a deflecting tool.
Bit n : the cutting element at the bottom of the drillstring, used for boring
through the rock.
Bit breaker n : a heavy metal plate which fits into the rotary table and holds the
bit while it is being connected to or disconnected from the drillstring.
Bit record n : a report containing information relating to the operating

parameters and performance of the bits run in a well.
Bit sub n : a short length of pipe installed immediately above the bit. The
threads on the bit sub accept the pin thread on the bit and the pin thread for the
drillcollars.
Bit walk n : the tendency for the bit and drillstring to wander off course by
following the direction of rotation (usually to the right) in a directionally drilled
well.
Blind rams n : one of the valves on the BOP stack. It is designed to close off the
wellbore when the drillstring is out of the hole.
Blocks n : an assembly of pulleys on a common framework.
498
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Blooey line n : the discharge pipe from a well being drilled with compressed air.
Blowout n : an uncontrolled flow of formation fluids into the atmosphere at

surface.
BOP abbr : Blow Out Preventer. A valve installed on top of the wellhead to
control wellbore pressure in the event of a kick.
BOP stack n : an assembly of BOPs consisting of annular preventers and ram

type preventers. For land drilling the BOP stack is installed just below the rig
floor, while for floating rigs the stack is positioned on the seabed.
Borehole n : the hole made by the drill bit.
Bottom hole assembly (BHA) n : the part of the drillstring which is just above
the bit and below the drillpipe. It usually consists of drill collars, stabilisers and
various other components.
Bottom hole pressure (bhp) n : the pressure,

1. at the bottom of the borehole, or
2. at a point opposite the producing formation.
Box n : the female section of a tool joint or other connection.

499
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Brake n: the device operated by the driller to stop the downward motion of the
travelling block and therefore the drillstring.
Breakout v : to unscrew one section of pipe from another.
Bridge n : an obstruction in the borehole usually caused by the borehole wall

caving in.
BRT abbr : Below Rotary Table. Reference point for measuring depth.
Building assembly n : a BHA specially designed to increase the inclination (drift

angle) of the wellbore.
Build up rate n : the rate at which drift angle is increasing as the wellbore is
being deviated from vertical. Usually measured in degrees per 100 ft drilled.
Build up section n : that part of the wellbore's trajectory where the drift angle is
increasing.
Bumper sub n : a drilling tool, placed in the BHA, consisting of a short stroke
slip joint which allows a more constant WOB to be applied when drilling from a
floating rig.
500
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Cable tool drilling n : an earlier method of drilling used before the
introduction of modern rotary methods. The bit was not rotated but
reciprocated by means of a strong wire rope.
Caliper log n : a tool run on electric wireline which measures the diameter
of the wellbore. It may be used for detecting washouts, calculating cement
volumes, or detecting internal corrosion of casing.
Cap rock n : an impermeable layer of rock overlying an oil or gas reservoir

and preventing the migration of fluids.
Cased hole n : that part of the hole which is supported by a casing which
has been run and cemented in place.
Casing n : large diameter steel pipe which is used to line the hole during
Casing head Housing n : a large recepticle which is installed on top of the

surface casing string. It has an upper flanged connection. Once it is installed
it provides: a landing shoulder for the next casing string; and a flanged
connection for the BOP stack to be connected to the well.
501
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Casing head spool n : a large receptacle which is installed on top of
the casing head housing or a previous spool. It has both an upper and
lower flanged connection. Once it is installed it provides: a landing
shoulder for the next casing string; access to the annulus between the
casing strings and a flanged connection for the BOP stack to be
connected to the well.
Casing hanger n : a special component which is made up on top of the

casing string to suspend the casing from the previous casing housing or
spool.
Casing shoe n : a short section of steel pipe filled with concrete and
rounded at the bottom. This is installed on the bottom of the casing
string to guide the casing past any ledges or irregularities in the
borehole. Sometimes called a guide shoe.
Casing string n : the entire length of all the casing joints run into the
borehole.
Cathead n : a spool shaped attachment on a winch, around which rope

is wound. This can be usedCOMMITMENT
for hoisting operations on the rig floor.
TO ACADEMIC AND
502
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Caving: 1. v: collapse of the walls of the borehole. Also referred to as
"sloughing".
2. n: a small part of the borehole wall that has collapsed into the hole.
Centraliser n : a device secured around the casing which is designed to

support and centralise the casing in deviated wellbores.
Centrifugal pump n : a pump consisting of an impellor, shaft and

casing which discharges fluid by centrifugal force. Often used for
mixing mud.
Centrifuge n : a piece of solids control equipment which separates out

particles of varying density.
Cement Slurry n: A mixture of cement powder, water and additives

which harden to form a cement sheath or cement plug in a well.
Cementing v : the placement of a liquid slurry of cement and water

inside or outside of the casing. Primary cementing is carried out
immediately after the casing is run. Secondary cementing is carried out
when remedial work is required.
503
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Cement channeling v : the irregular displacement of mud by cement,
leaving voids in the cement sheath between the casing and the borehole,
thereby reducing the effectiveness of the cement sheath.
Cement head n : a manifold system installed on the top of the casing

which allows the cement slurry to be pumped from the cement unit
down the casing string. The cement head is also used for releasing the
top and bottom cement plugs.
Cement plug n :
1. A specific volume of cement placed at some point in the wellbore to
seal off the well.
2.A device used during a primary cement job to separate the cement
slurry from contaminating fluids in the casing. A wiper plug is pumped
ahead of the slurry and a shut off plug behind the slurry.
Chain tongs n : a tool used by roughnecks on the rig floor to tighten or

loosen a connection. The tool consists of a long handle and an
adjustable chain which will fit a variety of pipe sizes.

504
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Choke line n : a pipe connected to the BOP stack which allows fluids to be
circulated out of the annulus and through the choke manifold when a well kiling
operation is beimg performed.
Choke manifold n : an arrangement of pipes, valves and chokes which allows

fluids to be circulated through a number of routes.
Christmas tree n : an assembly of control valves and fittings installed on top of

the wellhead. The Christmas tree is installed after the well has been completed
and is used to control the flow of oil and gas.
Circulate v : to pump drilling fluid through the drillstring and wellbore,

returning to the mud pits. This operation is carried out during drilling and is
also used to improve the condition of the mud while drilling is suspended.
Clay n : a term used to describe the aluminium silicate minerals which are
plastic when wet and have no well-developed parting along bedding planes. Such
material is commonly encountered while drilling a well.
Clay minerals n : the constituents of a clay which provide its plastic properties.
These include kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite and vermiculite.

505
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Closure n : the shortest horizontal distance from a particular survey station
back to the reference point.
Combination string n : a casing string which is made up of various different

grades or weights of casing (sometimes referred to as a tapered string when
different sizes of casing are used).
Company man n : an employee of an operating company whose job is to

represent the operator's interests on the drilling rig (sometimes referred to as
"drilling supervisor“ or "company man").
Compass unit n : the component of a survey instrument used to measure

azimuth.
Completion
1. v : the activities and methods used to prepare a well for the production of oil
or gas.
2. n: the tubing and accessories installed in the production casing and through
which the produced fluid flows to surface.
Conductor line n : a small diameter wireline which carries electric current. This
is used for logging tools and steering tools.

506
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Conductor pipe n : a short string of casing of large diameter which is normally
the first casing string to be run in the hole.
Connection v : the joining of a section of drillpipe to the top of the drillstring as

drilling proceeds.
Core n : a cylindrical rock sample taken from the formation for geological
analysis.
Core barrel n : a special tool which is installed at the bottom of the drillstring to
capture and retain a core sample which is then recovered when the string is
pulled out of the hole.
Core Bit (Core Head) n: A donut shaped drilling bit used just below the core
barrel to cut a cylindrical sample of rock.
Correction run n : a section of hole which must be directionally drilled to bring

the well path back onto the planned course.
Crater n : a large hole which develops at the surface of a wellbore caused by the
force of escaping gas, oil or water during a blowout.
Cross-over n : a sub which is used to connect drill string components which have
different types or sizes of threads.
507
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Crown block n : an assembly of sheaves or pulleys mounted on beams at the top
of the derrick over which the drilling line is reeved.
Cuttings n : the fragments of rock dislodged by the bit and carried back to
surface by the drilling fluid.
Deadline n : that part of the drilling line between the crown block and the
deadline anchor. This line remains stationary as the travelling block is hoisted.
Deadline anchor n : a device to which the deadline is attached and securely

fastened to the derrick substructure.
Defecting tool n : a piece of drilling equipment which will change the inclination
and/or direction of the hole.
Degasser n : a piece of equipment used to remove unwanted gas from the

drilling mud.
Density n : the mass of a substance per unit volume. Drilling fluid density is
usually expressed in psi/ft, kg/m3, g/cc or ppg.
Departure n : one of the coordinates used to plot the path of the well on the
horizontal plane (along the x axis).
508
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Derrick n : a large load-bearing structure from which the hoisting system
and therefore the drillstring is suspended.
Derrickman n : a member of the drilling crew whose work station is on

the monkey board high up in the derrick. From there he handles the upper
end of the stands of drillpipe being raised or lowered. He is also
responsible for maintaining circulation equipment and carrying out
routine checks on the mud.
Desander n : a hydrocyclone used to remove sand from the drilling mud.
Desilter n : a hydrocyclone used to remove fine material (silt size) from

the drilling mud.
Development well n : a well drilled in a proven field to exploit known

reserves. Usually one of several wells drilled from a central platform.
Deviation n : a general term referring to the horizontal displacement of

the well. May also be used to describe the change in drift angle from
vertical (inclination).
509
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Diamond bit n : a bit which has a steel body surfaced with diamonds to
increase wear resistance.
Directional drilling : n the intentional deviation of a wellbore in order to

reach a certain objective some distance from the rig.
Directional surveying n : a method of measuring the inclination and

direction of the wellbore by using a downhole instrument. The well must
be surveyed at regular intervals to accurately plot its course.
Discovery well n : the first well drilled in a new field which successfully
indicates the presence of oil or gas reserves.
Displace v : to move a liquid (e.g. cement slurry) from one position to

another by means of pumping another fluid behind it.
Displacement fluid n : the fluid used to force cement slurry or some

other material into its intended position. (e.g. drilling mud may be used to
displace cement out of the casing into the annulus).
Dog house n : a small enclosure on the rig floor used as an office by the
driller and as a storage place for small
COMMITMENT items.AND
TO ACADEMIC
510
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Dog leg n : a sharp bend in the wellbore which may cause problems tripping in
and out of the hole.
Dog leg severity n : a parameter used to represent the change in inclination

and azimuth in the well path (usually given in degrees per 100 ft).
Dope n : a lubricant for the threads of oilfield tubular goods.
Double n : a section of drillpipe, casing or tubing consisting of two single lengths

screwed together.
Downhole motor n : a special tool mounted in the BHA to drive the bit without
rotating the drill string from surface (see positive displacement motor).
Downhole telemetry n : the process whereby signals are transmitted from a

downhole sensor to a surface readout instrument. This can be done by a
conductor line (as on steering tools) or by mud pulses (as in MWD tools).
Drag n : The force required to move the drillstring due to the drillstring being in
contact with the wall of the borehole.

511
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Drag bit n : a drilling bit which has no cones or bearings but consists of a single
unit with a cutting structure and circulation passageways. The fishtail bit was an
early example of a drag bit, but is no longer in common use. Diamond bits are
also drag bits.
Drawworks n : the large winch on the rig which is used to raise or lower the drill
string into the well.
Drift angle n : the angle which the wellbore makes with the vertical plane (see
inclination).
Drill collar n : a heavy, thick-walled steel tube which provides weight on the bit
to achieve penetration. A number of drill collars may be used between the bit
and the drillpipe.
Driller n : the employee of the drilling contractor who is in charge of the drilling
rig and crew. His main duties are to operate the drilling equipment and direct
rig floor activities.
Drilling contractor n : an individual or company that owns the drilling rig and
employs the crew required to operate it.

512
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Drilling crew n : the men required to operate the drilling rig on one
shift or tour. This normally comprises a driller, derrickman and 2 or 3
roughnecks.
Drilling fluid n : the fluid which is circulated through the drillstring

and up the annulus back to surface under normal drilling operations.
Usually referred to as mud.
Drilling line n : the wire rope used to support the travelling block,
swivel, kelly and drillstring.
Drill pipe n : a heavy seamless pipe which is used to rotate the bit and
circulate the drilling fluid. Lengths of drill pipe 30ft long are coupled
together with tool joints to make the drillstring.
Drill ship n : a specially designed ship which is used to drill a well at an

offshore location.
Drill stem n : used in place of drillstring in some locations. Describes

all the drilling components from the swivel down to the bit.
513
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Drill stem test (DST) n : a test which is carried out on a well to determine
whether or not oil or gas is present in commercial quantities. The downhole
assembly consists of a packer, valves and a pressure recording device, which are
run on the bottom of the drill stem.
Drillstring n : the string of drill pipe with tool joints which transmits rotation
and circulation to the drill bit. Sometimes used to include both drill collars and
drill pipe.
Drop off section n : that part of the well's trajectory where the drift angle is
decreasing (i.e. returning to vertical).
Duplex pump n : a reciprocating positive displacement pump having 2 pistons

which are double acting. Used as the circulating pump on some older drilling
rigs.
Dynamic positioning n : a method by which a floating drilling rig or drill ship is

kept on location. A control system of sensors and thrusters is required.
Easting n : one of the co-ordinates used to plot a deviated well's position on the
horizontal plane (along the x axis).

514
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Electric logging v : the measurement of certain electrical characteristics of
formations traversed by the borehole. Electric logs are run on conductor line to
identify the type of formations, fluid content and other properties.
Elevators n : a lifting collar connected to the travelling block, which is used to

raise or lower pipe into the wellbore. The elevators are connected to the
travelling block by links or bails.
Emulsion n : a mixture in which one liquid (dispersed phase) is uniformly

distributed in another liquid (continuous phase). Emulsifying agents may be
added to stabilise the mixture.
Exploration well n : a well drilled in an unproven area where no oil and gas
production exists (sometimes called a "wildcat").
Fastline n : the end of the drilling line which is attached to the drum of the
drawworks.
Fault n : a geological term which denotes a break in the subsurface strata. On

one side of the fault line the strata has been displaced upwards, downwards or
laterally relative to its original position.

515
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Field n : a geographical area in which oil or gas wells are producing
from a continuous reservoir.
Filter cake n : the layer of concentrated solids from the drilling mud
that forms during natural filtration on the sides of the borehole.
Sometimes called "wall cake" or "mud cake".
Filter press n : a device used in the measurement of the mud's filtration

properties.
Filtrate n : a fluid which has passed through a filter. In drilling it

usually refers to the liquid part of the mud which enters the formation.
Filtration v : the process by which the liquid part of the drilling fluid is
able to enter a permeable formation, leaving a deposit of mud solids on
the borehole wall to form a filter cake.
Fish n : any object accidentally left in the wellbore during drilling or

workover operations, which must be removed before work can proceed.
516
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Fishing v : the process by which a fish is removed from the wellbore. It
may also be used for describing the recovery of certain pieces of
downhole completion equipment when the well is being reconditioned
during a workover.
Fishing tool n : a specially designed tool which is attached to the drill

string in order to recover equipment lost in the hole.
Flange up v : to connect various components together (e.g. in wellheads

or piping systems).
Flare n : an open discharge of fluid or gas to the atmosphere. The flare

is often ignited to dispose of unwanted gas around a completed well.
Flex joint n : a component of the marine riser system which can

accommodate some lateral movement when drilling from a floater.
Float collar n : a special device inserted one or two joints above the
bottom of a casing string. The float collar contains a check valve which
permits fluid flow in a downward direction only. The collar thus
prevents the back flow of cement once it has been displaced.
517
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Floater n : general term used for a floating drilling rig.
Float shoe n : a short cylindrical steel component which is attached to the

bottom of a casing string. The float shoe has a check valve and functions in the
same manner as the float collar. In addition the float shoe has a rounded bottom
which acts as a guide shoe for the casing.
Float sub n : a check valve which prevents upward flow through the drill string.
Flocculation v : the coagulation of solids in a drilling fluid produced by special

additives or contaminants in the mud.
Fluid loss v : the transfer of the liquid part of the mud to the pores of the
formation. Loss of fluid (water plus soluble chemicals) from the mud to the
formation can only occur where the permeability is sufficiently high. If the pores
are large enough the first effect is a "spurt loss", followed by the build up of
solids (filter cake) as filtration continues.
Formation n : a bed or deposit composed throughout of substantially the same

kind of rock to form a lithologic unit.

518
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Formation fluid n : the gas, oil or water which exists in the pores of the
formation.
Formation pressure n : the pressure exerted by the formation fluids at a

particular point in the formation. Sometimes called "reservoir pressure" or "pore
pressure".
Formation testing v : the measurement and gathering of data on a formation to

determine its potential productivity.
Fracture n : a break in the rock structure along a particular direction. Fractures

may occur naturally or be induced by applying downhole pressure in order to
increase permeability.
Fracture gradient n : a measure of how the strength of the rock (i.e. its
resistance to break down) varies with depth.
Fulcrum assembly n : a bottom hole assembly which is designed to build hole

inclination.
Gas cap n : the free gas phase which is sometimes found overlying an oil zone
and occurs within the same formation as the oil.
Gas cut mud n : mud which has been contaminated

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND by formation gas.
519
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Gas show n : the gas that is contained in mud returns, indicating the presence
of a gas zone.
Gas injector n : a well through which produced gas is forced back into the
reservoir to maintain formation pressure and increase the recovery factor.
Gel n : a semi-solid, jelly-like state assumed by some colloidal dispersions at rest.

When agitated the gel converts to a fluid state.
Gel strength n : the shear strength of the mud when at rest. Its ability to hold
solids in suspension. Bentonite and other colloidal clays are added to the mud to
increase gel strength.
Geostatic pressure n : the pressure exerted by a column of rock. Under normal

conditions this pressure is approximately 1 psi per foot. This is also known as
"lithostatic pressure" or "overburden pressure".
Guideline tensioner n : a pneumatic or hydraulic device used to provide a

constant tension on the wire ropes which run from the subsea guide base back to
a floating drilling rig.
Guide shoe n : See Float Shoe.

520
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Gumbo n : clay formations which contaminate the mud as the hole is
being drilled.
The clay hydrates rapidly to form a thick plug which cannot pass
through a marine riser or mud return line.
Gunk n : a term used to describe a mixture of diesel oil, bentonite and

sometimes cement which is used to combat lost circulation.
Gusher n : an uncontrolled release of oil from the wellbore at surface.
Gyro multi-shot n : a surveying device which measures and provides a

series of photographic images showing the inclination and direction of
the wellbore. It measures direction by means of a gyroscopic compass.
Gyro single-shot n : a surveying device which measures the inclination

and direction of the borehole at one survey station. It measures
direction by means of a gyroscopic compass.

521
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Gyroscope n : a wheel or disc mounted on an axle and free to spinto spin rapidly
about one axis, but free to rotate about one or both of the other two axes. The
inertia of the wheel keeps the axis aligned with the reference direction (True
North in directional survey tools).
Hole opener n : a special drilling tool which can enlarge an existing hole to a
larger diameter.
Hook n : the large component attached to the travelling block from which the
drill stem is suspended via the swivel.
Hopper n : a large funnel shaped device into which dry material (e.g. cement or
powdered clay) can be poured. The purpose of the hopper is to mix the dry
material with liquids injected at the bottom of the hopper.
H.W.D.P. abbr : heavy weight drill pipe. Thick walled drill pipe with thick walled
sections used in directional drilling and placed between the drill collars and drill
pipe.
Hydrostatic pressure n : the load exerted by a column of fluid at rest.

Hydrostatic pressure increases uniformly with the density and depth of the fluid.

522
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Inclination n : a measure of the angular deviation of the wellbore from
vertical. Sometimes referred to as "drift angle".
Injection n : usually refers to the process whereby gas, water or some other
fluid is forced into the formation under pressure.
Impermeable adj : preventing the passage of fluid through the pores of the
rock.
Insert bit n : a type of roller cone bit where the cutting structure consists of
specially designed tungsten carbide cutters set into the cones.
Intermediate casing n : a string of casing set in the borehole to keep the

hole from caving and to seal off troublesome formations.
Invert oil emulsion mud n : a drilling fluid which contains up to 50% by

volume of water, which is distributed as droplets in the continuous oil phase.
Emulsifying agents and other additives are also present.
Iron roughneck n : an automated piece of rig floor equipment which can be

used to make connections.
523
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Jack-up rig n : an offshore drilling structure which is supported on steel legs.
Jet deflection n : a technique used in directional drilling to deviate the wellbore

by washing away the formation in one particular direction. A special bit (badger
bit) is used which has one enlarged nozzle which must be orientated towards the
intended inclination.
Jet sub n : a tool used at the bottom of the drill pipe when the conductor pipe is
being jetted into position (this method of running the conductor is only suitable
where the surface formations can be washed away by the jetting action).
Joint n : a single length of pipe which has threaded connections at either end.
Junk n : debris lost in the hole which must be removed to allow normal
operations to continue.
Junk sub n : a tool run with the BHA, which is designed to recover pieces of
debris left in the hole.
Kelly n : the heavy square or hexagonal steel pipe which runs through the rotary
table and is used to rotate the drillstring.

524
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Kelly bushing n : a device which fits into the rotary table and through which the
kelly passes. The rotation of the table is transmitted via the kelly bushing to the
kelly itself. Sometimes called the “drive bushing”.
Kelly cock n : a valve installed between the kelly and the swivel. It is used to
control a backflow of fluid up the drillstring and isolate the swivel and hose from
high pressure.
Kelly spinner n : a pneumatically operated device mounted on top of the kelly

which, when actuated, causes the kelly to rotate. It may be used to make
connections by spinning up the kelly.
Key seat n : a channel or groove cut into the side of the borehole due to the
dragging action of the pipe against a sharp bend (or dog leg).
Key seat wiper n : a tool made up in the drillstring to ream out any key seats
which may have formed and thus prevent the pipe from becoming stuck.
Kick n : an entry of formation fluids (oil, gas or water) into the wellbore caused
by the formation pressure exceeding the pressure exerted by the mud column.

525
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Liner hanger n : a slip type device which suspends the liner inside the previous
casing shoe.
Location n : the place at which a well is to be drilled.
Log n : a systematic recording of data (e.g. driller’s log, electric log, etc.)
Lost circulation n : the loss of quantities of whole mud to a formation due to

caverns, fractures or highly permeable beds. Also referred to as “lost returns”.
Magnetic declination n : the angle between True North and Magnetic North.
This varies with geographical location, and also changes slightly each year.
Magnetic multi-shot n : a surveying instrument which provides a series of

photographic discs showing the inclination and direction of the wellbore. It
measures direction by means of a magnetic compass and so direction is
referenced to Magnetic North.
Magnetic North n : the northerly direction in the earth’s magnetic field indicated
by the needle of a magnetic compass.

526
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Magnetometer n : a surveying device which measures the intensity and direction
of the earth’s magnetic field.
Make up v : to assemble and join components together to complete a unit (e.g. to

make up a string of casing).
Make hole v : to drill ahead
Marine riser n : the pipe which connects the subsea BOP stack with the floating
drilling rig. The riser allows mud to be circulated back to surface, and provides
guidance for tools being lowered into the wellbore.
Mast n : a portable derrick capable of being erected as a unit unlike a standard

derrick which has to be built up.
Master bushing n : a sleeve which fits into and protects the rotary table and
accommodates the slips and drives the kelly bushing.
Measured depth (MD) n : the distance measured along the path of the wellbore
(i.e. the length of the drillstring).
Mill n : a downhole tool with rough, sharp cutting surfaces for removing metal
by grinding or cutting.
527
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Milled tooth bit n : a roller cone bit whose cutting surface consists of a
number of steel teeth projecting from the surface of the cones.
Monel n : term used for a non-magnetic drill collar made from specially
treated steel alloys so that it does not affect magnetic surveying
instruments.
Monkey board n : the platform on which the derrickman works when

handling stands of pipe.
Moon pool n : the central slot under the drilling floor on a floating rig.
Motion compensator n : a hydraulic or pneumatic device usually

installed between the travelling block and hook. Its function is to keep a
more constant weight on the drill bit when drilling from a floating vessel.
As the rig heaves up and down a piston moves within the device to cancel
out this vertical motion.
Mousehole n : a small diameter pipe under the derrick floor in which a

joint of drill pipe is temporarily stored for later connection to the
drillstring.
528
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
M.S.L. abbr : Mean Sea Level.
Mud n : common term for drilling fluid.
Mud balance n : a device used for measuring the density of mud or cement slurry.
It consists of a cup and a graduated arm which carries a sliding (counterbalanced)
weight and balances on a fulcrum.
Mud conditioning v : the treatment and control of drilling fluid to ensure that it
has the correct properties. This may include the use of additives, removing sand or
other solids, adding water and other measures. Conditioning may also involve
circulating the mud prior to drilling ahead.
Mud engineer n : usually an employee of a mud service company whose main

responsibility on the rig is to test and maintain the mud properties specified by the
operator.
Mudline n : the seabed.
Mudlogging n : the recording of information derived from the examination and

analysis of drill cuttings. This also includes the detection of oil and gas. This work is
usually done by a service company which supplies a portable laboratory on the rig.

529
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Mud motor n : a downhole component of the BHA which rotates the bit
without having to turn the rotary table. The term is sometimes applied
to both positive displacement motors and turbodrills.
Mud pits n : a series of open tanks in which the mud is mixed and
conditioned. Modern rigs are provided with three or more pits, usually
made of steel plate with built-in piping, valves and agitators.
Mud pump n : a large reciprocating pump used to circulate the drilling

fluid down the well. Both duplex and triplex pumps are used with
replaceable liners. Mud pumps are also called “slush pumps”.
Mud return line n : a trough or pipe through which the mud being
circulated up the annulus is transferred from the top of the wellbore to
the shale shakers. Sometimes called a “flowline”.
Mud screen n : shale shaker.

530
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Mule shoe n : the guide shoe on the lower end of a survey tool which locates into
the key way of the orienting sub. The survey tool can then be properly aligned
with the bent sub.
M.W.D. abbr : Measurements While Drilling. A method of measuring

petrophysical properties of formations, drilling parameters (WOB, torque etc.)
and environmental parameters downhole and sending the results to surface
without interrupting routine drilling operations. A special tool containing
sensors, power supply and transmitter is installed as part of the BHA. The
information is transmitted to surface by a telemetry system using mud pulses or
signals through the pipe.
Nipple n : a short length of tubing (generally less than 12") with male threads at
both ends.
Nipple up v : to assemble the components of the BOP stack on the wellhead.
Normal pressure n : the formation pressure which is due to a normal deposition

process where the pore fluids are allowed to escape under compaction. The
normal pressure gradient is usually taken as 0.465 psi per foot of depth from
surface.

531
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Northing n : one of the co-ordinates used in plotting the position of the wellbore
in the horizontal plane along the y axis.
Offshore drilling n : drilling for oil or gas from a location which may be in an
ocean, gulf, sea or lake. The drilling rig may be on a floating vessel (e.g. semi-
submersible, drill ship) or mounted on a platform fixed to the seabed (e.g. jack
up, steel jacket).
Oil based mud n : a drilling fluid which contains oil as its continuous phase with
only a small amount of water dispersed as droplets.
Open hole n : any wellbore or part of the wellbore which is not supported by
casing.
Operator n : the company which carries out an exploration or development

programme on a particular area for which they hold a license. The operator may
hire a drilling contractor and various service companies to drill wells, and will
provide a representative (company man) on the rig.
Orientation v : the process by which a deflection tool is correctly positioned to

achieve the intended direction and inclination of the wellbore.

532
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Orienting sub n : a special sub which contains a key or slot, which must be
aligned with the scribe line of the bent sub. A surveying instrument can then be
run into the sub aligning itself with the key to give the orientation of the scribe
line, which defines the tool face.
Overburden n : the layers of rock lying above a particular formation.
Overshot n : a fishing tool which is attached to the drill pipe and is lowered
over, and engages, the fish externally.
Packed hole assembly n : a BHA which is designed to maintain hole inclination

and direction of the wellbore.
Packer n : a downhole tool, run on drillpipe, tubing or casing, which can be set
hydraulically or mechanically against the wellbore. Packers are used extensively
in DSTs, cement squeezes and completions.
Pay zone n : the producing formation.
Pendulum assembly n : a BHA which is designed to reduce hole inclination by

allowing the drill collars to bend towards the low side of the hole.

533
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Perforate v : to pierce the casing wall and cement, allowing formation fluids to
enter the wellbore and flow to surface. This is a critical stage in the completion
of a well. Perforating may also be carried out during workover operations.
Perforating gun n : a device fitted with shaped charges which is lowered on

wireline to the required depth. When fired electrically from the surface the
charges shoot holes in the casing and the tool can then be retrieved.
Permeability n : a measure of the fluid conductivity of a porous medium (i.e. The

ability of fluid to flow through the interconnected pores of a rock). The units of
permeability are darcies or millidarcies.
pH value n : a parameter which is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a

substance.
Pilot hole n : a small diameter hole which is later opened up to the required
diameter. Sometimes used in directional drilling to control wellbore deviation
during kick off.
Pin n : the male section of a threaded connection.

534
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Pipe ram n : a sealing device in a blowout preventor which closes off the annulus
around the drill pipe. The size of ram must fit the drillpipe which is being used.
Polycrystalline diamond compact bit (PDC bit) n : a PDC bit is a type of drag
bit which uses small discs of man-made diamond as the cutting surface.
P.O.H. abbr : Pull Out of Hole.
Pore n : an opening within a rock which is often filled with formation fluids.
Porosity n : a parameter used to express the pore space within a rock (usually
given as a percentage of unit volume).
Positive displacement motor (PDM) n : a drilling tool which is located near the
bit and is used to rotate the bit without having to turn the entire drillstring. A
spiral rotor is forced to rotate within a rubber sleeved stator by pumping mud
through the tool. Sometimes called a “Moineau pump” or “screw drill”.
Pressure gradient n : the variation of pressure with depth. Commonly used

under hydrostatic conditions (e.g. a hydrostatic column of salt water has a
pressure gradient of 0.465 psi/ft).

535
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Primary cementing n : placing cement around the casing immediately after it has
been run into the hole.
Prime mover n : an electric motor or internal combination engine which is the

source of power on the drilling rig.
Production casing n : the casing string through which the production tubing and
accessories are run to complete the well.
Propping agent n : a granular material carried in suspension by the fracturing

fluid which helps to keep the cracks open in the formation after fracture treatment.
Protective casing n : an intermediate string of casing which is run to case off any
troublesome zones.
p.s.i. abbr : pounds per square inch. Commonly used unit for expressing pressure.
Pup joint n : a short section of pipe used to space out casing or tubing to reach the
correct landing depths.
Rathole n :
1. A hole in the rig floor 30'-60' deep and lined with pipe. It is used for storing the
kelly while tripping.
2. That part of the wellbore which is below the bottom of the casing or completion
zone. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
536
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Reactive torque n : the tendency of the drillstring to turn in the opposite
direction from that of the bit. This effect must be considered when setting the
toolface in directional drilling.
Ream v : to enlarge the wellbore by drilling it again with a special bit.
Reamer n : a tool used in a BHA to stabilise the bit, remove dog legs or enlarge
the hole size.
Reeve v : to pass the drilling line through the sheaves of the travelling block and
crown block and onto the hoisting drum.
Relief well n : a directionally drilled well whose purpose is to intersect a well

which is blowing out, thus enabling the blow out to be controlled.
Reservoir n : a subsurface porous permeable formation in which oil or gas is

present.
Reverse circulate v : to pump fluid down the annulus and up the drillstring or
tubing back to surface.
Rig n : the derrick, drawworks, rotary table and all associated equipment
required to drill a well.
537
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
R.I.H. abbr : Run In Hole.
Riser tensioner n : a pneumatic or hydraulic device used to provide a constant

strain in the cables which support the marine riser.
R.K.B. abbr : Rotary Kelly Bushing. Term used to indicate the reference point for
measuring depths.
Roller cone bit n : a drilling bit with 2 or more cones mounted on bearings. The
cutters consist of rows of steel teeth or tungsten carbide inserts. Also called a
“rock bit”.
R.O.P. abbr : rate of penetration, normally measured in feet drilled per hour.
Rotary hose n : a reinforced flexible tube which conducts drilling fluid from the
standpipe to the swivel. Also called "kelly hose" or “mud hose”.
Rotary table n : the main component of the rotating machine which turns the
drillstring. It has a bevelled gear mechanism to create the rotation and an
opening into which bushings are fitted.

538
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Roughneck n : an employee of a drilling contractor who works on the drill floor
under the direction of the driller.
Round trip v : the process by which the entire drillstring is pulled out the hole
and run back in again (usually to change the bit or BHA).
Roustabout n : an employee of the drilling contractor who carries out general

labouring work on the rig.
R.P.M. abbr : revolutions per minute. Term used to measure the speed at which
the drillstring is rotating.
Safety joint n : a tool which is often run just above a fishing tool. If the fishing
tool has gripped the fish but cannot pull it free the safety joint will allow the
string to disengage by turning it from surface.
Salt dome n : an anticlinal structure which is caused by an intrusion of rock salt

into overlying sediments. This structure is often associated with traps for
petroleum accumulations.
Sand n : an abrasive material composed of small quartz grains. The particles

range in size from 1/16 mm to 2 mm. The term is also applied to sandstone.
539
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Sandline n : small diameter wire on which light-weight tools can be lowered
down the hole (e.g. surveying instruments).
Scratcher n : a device fastened to the outside of the casing which removes mud
cake and thus promote a good cement job.
Semi-submersible n : a floating drilling rig which has submerged hulls, but not
resting on the seabed.
Shale n : a fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of silt and clay sized

particles.
Shale shaker n : a series of trays with vibrating screens which allow the mud to
pass through but retain the cuttings. The mesh must be chosen carefully to
match the size of the solids in the mud.
Shear ram n : the component of the BOP stack which cuts through the drillpipe
and forms a seal across the top of the wellbore.
Sheave n : (pronounced “shiv”) a grooved pulley.
Sidetrack v : to drill around some permanent obstruction in the hole with some
kind of deflecting tool.
540
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Single n : one joint of pipe.
Slips n : wedge-shaped pieces of metal with a gripping element used to suspend

the drillstring in the rotary table.
Slug n : a heavy viscous quantity of mud which is pumped into the drillstring
prior to pulling out. The slug will cause the level of fluid in the pipe to fall, thus
eliminating the loss of mud on the rig floor when connections are broken.
Slurry (cement) n : a pumpable mixture of cement and water. Once in position

the slurry hardens and provides an impermeable seal in the annulus and
supports the casing.
Spear n : a fishing tool which engages the fish internally and is used to recover
stuck pipe.
Specific gravity n : the ratio of the weight of a substance to the weight of the
same volume of water.
S.P.M. abbr : Strokes Per Minute. Rate of reciprocation of a Mud Pump.
Spool n : a wellhead component which is used for suspending a string of casing.

The spool also has side outlets for allowing access to the annulus between casing
strings. COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND
541
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Spud v : to commence drilling operations.
Squeeze cementing v : the process by which cement slurry is forced into place
in order to carry out remedial work (e.g. shut off water producing zones, repair
casing leaks).
Stab v : to guide the pin end of a pipe into the tool joint or coupling before
making up the connection.
Stabbing board n : a temporary platform erected in the derrick 20'-40' above

the drill floor. While running casing one man stands on this board to guide the
joints into the string suspended on the rig floor.
Stabiliser n : a component placed in the BHA to control the deviation of the

wellbore. One or more stabilisers may be used to achieve the intended well path.
Stage collar n : a tool made up in the casing string which is used in the second
stage of a primary cement job. The collar has side ports which are opened by
dropping a dart from surface. Cement can then be displaced from the casing
into the annulus. Also called a “DV collar”.

542
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Stand n : three joints of pipe connected together, usually racked in the derrick.
Standpipe n : a heavy wall pipe attached to one of the legs of the derrick. It
conducts high pressure mud from the pumps to the rotary hose.
Standpipe manifold n : a series of lines, gauges and valves used for routing
mud from the pumps to the standpipe.
Steering tool n : surveying instrument used in conjunction with a mud motor to

continuously monitor azimuth, inclination and toolface. These measurements are
relayed to surface via conductor line, and shown on a rig floor display.
Stimulation n : a process undertaken to improve the productivity of a formation

by fracturing or acidising.
Stripping v : movement of pipe through closed BOPs.
Stuck pipe n : drillpipe, collars, casing or tubing which cannot be pulled free
from the wellbore.

543
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Sub n : a short threaded piece of pipe used as a crossover between pipes of
different thread or size. Subs may also have special uses (e.g. bent subs,
lifting subs, kelly saver sub).
Subsea wellhead n : the equipment installed on the seabed for suspending

casing strings when drilling from a floater.
Suction pit n : the mud pit from which mud is drawn into the mud pumps for
circulating down the hole.
Surface casing n : a string of casing set in a wellbore to case off any fresh
water sands at shallow depths. Surface casing is run below the conductor pipe
to depth of 1000‘-4000' depending on particular requirements).
Surge pressures n : excess pressure exerted against the formation due to

rapid downward movement of the drillstring when tripping.
Survey v : to measure the inclination and direction of the wellbore at a

particular depth.
Survey interval n : the measured depth between survey stations.

Survey station n : the point at which a survey is taken.
544
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Swabbing n : a temporary lowering of the hydrostatic head due to pulling pipe
out of the hole.
Swivel n : a component which is suspended from the hook. It allows mud to

flow from the rotary hose through the swivel to the kelly while the drillstring is
rotating.
Syncline n : a trough-shaped, folded structure of stratified rock.
Target n : the objective defined by the geologist which the well must reach.
Target area n : a specified zone around the target which the well must
intersect.
Target bearing n : the direction of the straight line passing through the
target and the reference point on the rig. This is used as the reference
direction for calculating vertical section.
T.D. abbr : Total Depth.
Telescopic joint n : a component installed at the top of the marine riser to

accommodate vertical movement of theTOfloating
COMMITMENT drilling rig.
ACADEMIC AND
545
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Thread protectors n : a device made of metal or plastic which is screwed onto
pipe threads to prevent damage during transport or movement around the rig.
Tight formation n : a formation which has low porosity and permeability.
Tongs n : the large wrenches used to connect and disconnect sections of pipe.
The tongs have jaws which grip the pipe and torque is applied by pulling
manually or mechanically using the cathead. Power tongs are pneumatically or
hydraulically operated tools which spin the pipe.
Tool face n : the part of the deflection tool which determines the direction in
which deflection will take place. When using a bent sub the tool face is defined by
the scribe line.
Tool joint n : a heavy coupling device welded onto the ends of drill pipe. Tool
joints have coarse tapered threads to withstand the strain of making and
breaking connections and to provide a seal. They also have seating shoulders
designed to suspend the weight of the drillstring when the slips are set. On the
lower end the pin connection is stabbed into the box of the previous joint.
Hardfacing is often applied in a band on the outside of the tool joint to resist
abrasion.

546
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Tool pusher n : an employee of the drilling contractor who is responsible for the
drilling rig and the crew. Also called rig superintendent.
Torque n : the turning force which is applied to the drillstring causing it to

rotate. Torque is usually measured in ft-lbs.
Tour n : (pronounced “tower”) an 8 hour or 12 hour shift worked by the drilling

crew.
Trajectory n : the path of the wellbore.
Trap n : the geological structure in which petroleum reserves may have

accumulated.
Travelling block n : an arrangement of pulleys through which the drilling line is

reeved, thereby allowing the drillstring to be raised or lowered.
Trip v : to pull the drillstring out of the hole, or to run in back in.
Trip gas n : a volume of gas (usually a small amount) which enters the wellbore
while making a trip.

547
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Triplex pump n : a reciprocating mud pump with three pistons which are single
acting.
True North n : the direction of a line joining any point with the geographical
North pole. Corresponds with an azimuth of 000°.
Tugger line n : a small diameter cable wound on an air operated winch which
can be used to pick up small loads around the rig floor.
Turbodrill n : a drilling tool located just above the bit which rotates the bit
without turning the drillstring. The tool consists of a series of steel bladed rotors
which are turned by the flow of drilling fluid through the tool.
T.V.D. abbr : True Vertical Depth. One of the co-ordinates used to plot the
wellpath on the vertical plane.
Twist off v : to sever the drillstring due to excessive force being applied at the
rotary table.
Underground blow out v : this situation arises when lost circulation and a kick
occur simultaneously. Formation fluids are therefore able to enter the wellbore
at the active zone and escape through an upper zone which has been broken
down. (Sometimes called an “internal blow
COMMITMENT out"). AND
TO ACADEMIC
548
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Under ream v : to enlarge the size of the wellbore below casing.
Upset n : the section at the ends of tubular goods where the OD is increased to
give better strength.
Valve n : a device used to control or shut off completely, the rate of fluid flow
along a pipe. Various types of valve are used in drilling equipment.
V door n : an opening in one side of the derrick opposite the drawworks. This
opening is used to bring in pipe and other equipment onto the drill floor.
Vertical section n : the horizontal distance obtained by projecting the closure

onto the target bearing. This is one of the co-ordinates used in plotting the
wellpath on the vertical plane of the proposed wellpath.
Viscometer n : a device used to measure the viscosity of the drilling fluid.
Viscosity n : a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. The resistance is due to

internal friction from the combined effects of cohesion and adhesion.
Vug n : geological term for a cavity in a rock (especially limestone).

549
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Washout n :
1. Wellbore enlargement due to solvent or erosion action of the drilling fluid.
2. A leak in the drillstring due to abrasive mud or mechanical failure.
Water back v : to reduce the weight and solids content of the mud by adding
water. This is usually carried out prior to mud treatment.
Water based mud n : a drilling fluid in which the continuous phase is water.
Various additives will also be present.
Water injector n : a well which is used to pump water into the reservoir to
promote better recovery of hydrocarbons.
Wear bushing n : a piece of equipment installed in the wellhead which is

designed to act as a bit guide, casing seat protector and prevent damage to the
casing hanger already in place. The wear bushing must be removed before the
next casing string is run.
Weight indicator n : an instrument mounted on the driller’s console which gives

both the weight on bit and the hook load.
Wellbore n : a general term to describe both cased hole and open hole.

550
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Wellhead n : the equipment installed at the top of the wellbore from which
casing and tubing strings are suspended.
Whipstock n : a long wedge-shaped pipe that uses an inclined plane to cause the
bit to deflect away from its original position.
Wildcat n : an exploration well drilled in an area where no oil or gas has been
produced.
Wiper trip n : the process by which the drill bit is pulled back inside the previous
casing shoe and then run back to bottom. This may be necessary to improve the
condition of the wellbore (e.g. smooth out any irregularities or dog legs which
could cause stuck pipe later).
Wireline n : small diameter steel wire which is used to run certain tools down
into the wellbore. Also called slick line. Logging tools and perforating guns
require conductor line.
W.O.B. abbr : Weight On Bit. The load put on the bit by the drill collars to
improve penetration rate.
W.O.C. abbr : Waiting On Cement. The time during which drilling operations are
suspended to allow the cement to harden before drilling out the casing shoe.
551
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
W.O.W. abbr : Waiting On Weather. The time during which drilling operations
must stop due to rough weather conditions. Usually applied to offshore drilling.
Workover n : the carrying out of maintenance and remedial work on the

wellbore to increase production.

552
THANK YOU

553

Basic Drilling Technology: Rizki Akbar - Drilling Engineering - Universitas Trisakti - 2020

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BASIC DRILLING

Rizki Akbar – Drilling Engineering – Universitas Trisakti -

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

• The first oilwell in the U.S. was a 69-foot hole

• More than 20,000 wells have now been drilled

• Ocean-floor completions have been made below

• The essential functions of rotary drilling rigs are

• The rigs consist of portable machinery and

• Rigs can be mounted on wheels or built on barges

• The pipe is carefully designed to withstand the

• Drill collars are heavy-walled steel tubes placed

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

• Roller cone bits may be of milled-tooth construction

• Diamond bits have various configurations, but

• High-pressure fluid streams (jets) are used on roller

• They do not change direction abruptly, and they

• Large-diameter drill collars and properly placed

• Various types of deflection tools are used to

• Downhole measurements and survey

• The operation requires various catch tools,

• Blowout prevention involves using the entire

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

• Well logging is used to evaluate oil or gas zones

• Electric logs can make estimates of what kind

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

• Acoustic and radioactivity logs make accurate

• Cased-hole logs can obtain much of the same

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

• The purpose of casing is to prevent the wall of the

• Several strings of casing (heavy pipe) are set before

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

• Cementing is an operation that prevents fluid flow

• The cement is pumped around the casing to seal

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

• It is usually performed in open hole before

• Well testing may involve wireline formation test

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

• Completing a well may involve setting a screen

• Running and setting a packer and tubing may

• Deep wells with extremely high pressures

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

 Exploration wells require geological and

• The objectives of exploratory wells are:

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

 Drilling mud is circulated through

 At the surface, the mud is channeled

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

 The mud then travels back up the annular space

 Cuttings are then filtered out at the shale shaker

COMMITMENT TO ACADEMIC AND

2. Maintain hole stability

3. Prevent inflow of fluids

4. Form a thin, low permeability,

5. Carry cuttings up to the surface

6. Cool and clean the bit

7. Assist in collection and interpretation