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Chapter 8 Acids and Bases

8.1 Theories of acids and bases
A Brønsted–Lowry acid is a proton (H+ ) donor, while a Brønsted–Lowry base is a
proton (H+ ) acceptor.

A conjugate acid-base pair only differ by one proton: an acid donates a proton and
becomes a conjugate base, while a base accepts a proton and becomes a conjugate acid.

Amphiprotic substances can act as both Brønsted–Lowry acids and Brønsted–Lowry

bases.

Must have both a lone pair and hydrogen, e.g., hydrogencarbonate ion

8.2 Properties of acids and bases

Bases (e.g. metal oxides/hydroxides, NH3 , and metal carbonates/hydrogencarbonates) all
accepts H+ . Alkalis are soluble bases that form OH− in solutions.

Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen

Acid + base → salt + water (neutralization reaction)

Acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide

Acid-base titration are based on neutralization reactions, when the equivalence point is
reached and an indicator changes color (e.g. litmus, phenolphthalein)

Chapter 8 Acids and Bases 1

 8.3 The pH scale

pH = − log 10 [H+ ]

[H+ ] = 10-pH

pH is a measure of proton concentration, ranging from 0-14. Solutions with a higher [H+
] have a lower pH and vice versa. An increase in 1 pH equals to a 10 times increase in [H
+
].

The no. of significant figures in [H+ ] = the no. of decimal places of pH

The ionic product constant of water

Kw = [H+ ][OH− ] = 1.00 × 10−14 at 298K

[H+ ] = [OH− ] ⇒ [H+ ] = Kw

8.4 Strong and weak acids and bases

Strong acids and bases dissociate completely in solutions, while weak acids and bases
only partially dissociate in solutions.

Stronger the acid, weaker the conjugate base and vice versa; stronger the base, weaker
the conjugate acid and vice versa. In terms of ability to accept/donate protons.

Strong and weak acids/bases can be distinguished by differences in conductivity, rate of

reaction (e.g. neutralization, salt formation), and pH.

18.1 Lewis acids and bases

A Lewis acid is a lone pair acceptor, while a Lewis base is a lone pair donor.

Lewis acid-base reactions result in forming coordinate bonds.

A nucleophile is an electron-rich species that donates a lone pair to form a new covalent
bond (Lewis base), while an electrophile is an electron-deficient species that accepts a
lone pair to form a new covalent bond (Lewis acid).

18.2 Calculations involving acids and bases

Chapter 8 Acids and Bases 2

 Since Kw is temperature-dependent, and the self ionization of water is endothermic, as
temperature increases, Kw increases → [H+ ] and [OH− ] increases. Consequently, pH
increases as well.

Note that [H+ ] = [OH− ] regardless of temperature, so water is always neutral.

pH + pOH = pKw = 14 (at 298K)

The acid dissociation constant Ka and the base dissociation constant Kb have specifc
values at specific temperatures. The higher the Ka /Kb , the stronger the acid/base.

💡 Ka =
[H 3 O + ][A − ]
[HA]

💡 Kb =
[OH − ][[BH + ]
[B]

Calculations involving Ka /Kb are simiar to those in equilibrium calculations in 17.1.

💡 \text{p}K_a=-\log_{10}K_a\text{ and }\text{p}K_b=-\log_{10}K_b

💡 pKa + pKb = pKw = 14 (at 298K)

Stronger the acid/base, smaller the pKa/b and vice versa.

18.3 pH curves

Buffer
A buffer solution is resistant to changes in pH on the addition of small amounts of acid or
alkali.

An acidic buffer consists of a weak acid and a salt of its conjugate base, e.g. CH3 COOH
(weak acid) and NaCH3 COO (salt w/ strong alkali). It therefore contains high conc. of
both the weak acid and its strong conjugate base.

Chapter 8 Acids and Bases 3

 When H+ is added, it reacts with the conjugate base to form the weak acid, i.e.
CH3 COO− + H+ ⇌ CH3 COOH

When OH- is added, it reacts with the acid to form the conjugate base, i.e.
OH− + CH3 COOH ⇌ CH3 COO− + H2 O

A basic buffer consists of a weak base and a salt of its conjugate acid, e.g. NH3 (weak
base) and NH4 Cl (salt w/ strong acid). It therefore contains high conc. of both the weak
base and its strong conjugate acid.

When H+ is added, it reacts with the weak base to form the conjugate acid, i.e.
NH3 + H+ ⇌ NH+ 4

When OH- is added, it reacts with the conjugate acid and form the base, i.e.
NH+ −
4 + OH ⇌ NH3 + H2 O

The pH of a buffer is determined by the pKa/b of its acid/base, and the ratio of the initial
conc. of acid/base and salt.

Diluting a buffer doesn’t change the pH but lowers its buffering capacity.

Salt hydrolysis
Strong acid + strong base - no hydrolysis. E.g. HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2 O, pH = 7

Weak acid + strong base - anion hydrolysis. E.g. CH3 COOH + NaOH → CH3 COO− +
H2 O ⇌ CH3 COOH + OH− , pH > 7

Strong acid + weak base - cation hydrolysis. E.g. HCl + NH3 → Cl− + NH+
4 + H2 O ⇌
+
NH4 OH + H , pH < 7

Weak acid + weak base - both anion and cation hydrolysis. pH cannot be generalized.

pH curve
The equivalence point occurs when stoichiometrically equivalent amounts of acid and
base have reacted together. This is also the point of inflection of the pH curve when a big
jump in pH occurs at the equivalence point.

Strong acid + strong base:

initial pH = 1; pH at equivalence = 7;
flats out at high pH ~ 13; sharp jump in
pH at equivalence.

Chapter 8 Acids and Bases 4

 Weak acid + strong base:

high initial pH; pH > 7 at equivalence

(due to anion hydrolysis); flats out at
high pH ~ 13; jump at equivalence from
pH 7-11

pH relatively constant in the buffer

region before equivalence

The half-equivalence point has half of

the acid neutralized and converted to
salt; this mixture has equal quantities of
a weak acid and its salt and is therefore a
buffer

Since at half-equivalence [acid] = [salt],

pKa = pH

Strong acid + weak base:

Initial pH = 1; pH at equivalence < 7

(due to cation hydrolysis); flats out at
low pH ~ 10; jump at equivalence in pH
3-7

Buffer region before equivalence of

weak base + salt

At half equivalence [base] = [salt], so

pKb = pOH

Weak acid + weak base:

Chapter 8 Acids and Bases 5

 high initial pH and low final pH; less
sharp change in pH at equivalance,
which is hard to determine

Indicator
Indicators change color at their end-points, when pKa = pH, due to a shift in
equilibrium

An effective indicator has its end-point coincide with the pH at equivalence

8.5 Acid deposition

Acid deposition is processes which precipitates acidic substances from the atmosphere

Acid rain (pH < 5.6): H2 O + CO2 ⇌ H2 CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO−

3

Sulfur oxides: H2 O + SO2 → H2 SO3 and H2 O + SO3 → H2 SO4

Nitrogen oxides: H2 O + 2NO2 → HNO2 + HNO3

Impacts on materials

Marble: CaCO3 + H2 SO4 → CaSO4 + H2 O + CO2 and CaCO3 + 2HNO3 →

Ca(NO3 )2 + H2 O + CO2

Corrosion: Fe + H2 SO4 → FeSO4 + H2 and Al2 O3 + 6HNO3 → 2Al(NO3 )3 + 3H2

O

Impacts on plant life

Leaching of minerals Mg2+ , Ca2+ and K+ and releases toxic Al3+

Impact on water

Leaching of Al(OH)3 makes water dead: Al(OH)3 + 3H+ → Al3+ + 3H2 O

Eutrophication - algal blooms leading to oxygen depletion

Reducing SO2 emissions:

Chapter 8 Acids and Bases 6

 Hydroresulfurization: S + H2 → H2 S

Flue-gas resulfurization: CaCO3 + SO2 → CaSO3 + CO2 (+O2 )→ CaSO4

Reducing NOx emissions: Catalytic converters 2CO + 2NO → 2CO2 + N2

Neutralizing acid with CaO or Ca(OH)2

Chapter 8 Acids and Bases 7