DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

DIGITAL FLUENCY

UNIT I
Introduction to Computers - Introduction to Computers, Applications, Evolution of Computers.
Basics of Hardware - Components of a Computer, Central Processing Unit, Input devices, Output
devices, Computer Memory & storage.
Basics of Software - Application Software, Systems Software. Utility Software. Open source and
Proprietary Software, Mobile Apps, DBMS.
Operating System - Introduction Basics of Operating system, Types of User interface of OS –
Functions of OS - Types of file Extensions, Introduction to Virus and types of virus.

NOTES
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
The term computer is derived from the word compute. The word compute means to calculate. A
computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by performing
calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output results. Computer performs both
simple and complex operations, with speed and accuracy.
A computer along with additional hardware and software together is called a computer system. A
computer system primarily comprises a central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output
devices and storage devices. All these components function together as a single unit to deliver the
desired output. A computer system comes in various forms and sizes. It can vary from a high-end
server to personal desktop, laptop, tablet computer, or a smartphone.
FUNCTIONALITIES OF A COMPUTER/LAPTOP/ GADGETS
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
1. Takes data as input
2. Stores the data/ instructions in its memory and use them when required
3. Processes the data and converts it into useful information
4. Generates the output
5. Controls all the above four steps
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key characteristics
of a computer.
A brief overview of these characteristics are—
 Speed The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions per second.
Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete otherwise, can be completed
in a few seconds using the computer. For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of
thousands of employees of an organization, weather forecasting that requires analysis of a large
amount of data related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various places, etc.
 Accuracy Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer can
accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places.
 Diligence When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or fatigued. It
can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy from the start till
the end.
 Storage Capability Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and
also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the
primary memory. Secondary storage devices can store a large amount of data permanently.
 Versatility Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the
same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in the next
moment you may play music or print a document.
Computers have several limitations too. Computer can only perform tasks that it has been
programmed to do. Computer cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It executes
instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own decisions.
1. APPLICATIONS
Nowadays computers are being used in all the fields. There is no place we could say it cannot be
installed or used. Some of the applications where it is currently being used are:
1.1 Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
has made it an integrated part in all business organizations. Computer is used in business
organizations for –
Payroll calculations
• Budgeting
• Sales analysis
• Financial forecasting
• Managing employee database
• Maintenance of stocks, etc.
1.2 Banking
Computers are used in bank for online accounting facility, which includes checking current
balance, making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
ATM machines and EFTS (Electronic Fund Transfer System) are completely automated for
customers to deal with banks.
1.3 Education
Computer is a very effective tool which can be used for teaching and learning, result processing,
student data processing, question preparation, handouts and note preparation, etc and also online
education. Many universities provide online education through internet. The CAL (Computer
Aided Learning), CAI (Computer Aided Instruction), multiple choice examination paper, result
processing are done through internet.
1.4 Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. Computers in
healthcare is applied to medicine, surgery and research. The multimedia kits for surgeon are also
available to learn surgery on virtual patients. The concept of expert system is also introduced in
computer system which is a computer program designed to operate at the level of expert in
particular field. They are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is
also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans,
etc. are also done by computerized machines.
1.5 Industry and Engineering
Industrial research, budgeting, process control, all are computer based. Nowadays robots are used
in complicated industrial process which is dangerous for human. CAD (Computer Aided Design)
is used in manufacture sector to design model of electrical, electronics, mechanical models of
machines and it is more popular among architect engineers also. CAM (Computer Aided
Manufacture) and CADMPT (Computer Aided Design, Process, Manufacture and Testing) are
also more popular terms in industries.
1.6 Entertainment
Different types of entertainment fields such as multimedia, film making with animation, graphics,
audio and visual design are done with the help of computer. Pictures, paintings, poetry and more
are just a click away. Popular browsers offer specific image search options to quickly browse
through art with a single keyword. Computer games are a quickly growing market just like all
other forms of video games.
2. EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
Evolution of computer technology can be divided into five generations. Computer generations are
based on when major technological changes in computers occurred, like the use of vacuum tubes,
transistors, and the microprocessor. As of 2020, there are five generations of the computer.
 First generation (1940 - 1956)
 Second generation (1956 - 1963)
 Third generation (1964 - 1971)
 Fourth generation (1972 - 2010)
 Fifth generation (2010 to present)
 Sixth generation (future generations)
2.1 First generation (1940 - 1956)
The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes as a major piece of technology. Vacuum
tubes were widely used in computers from 1940 through 1956. Vacuum tubes were larger
components and resulted in first-generation computers being quite large in size, taking up a lot of
space in a room. Some of the first-generation computers took up an entire room.
The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) is a great example of a first-
generation computer. It consisted of nearly 20,000 vacuum tubes, 10,000 capacitors, and 70,000
resistors. It weighed over 30 tons and took up a lot of space, requiring a large room to house it.
Other examples of first-generation computers include the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage
Automatic Calculator), IBM 701, and Manchester Mark.
2.2 Second generation (1956 - 1963)
The second generation of computers saw the use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes. Transistors
were widely used in computers from 1956 to 1963. Transistors were smaller than vacuum tubes
and allowed computers to be smaller in size, faster in speed, and cheaper to build.
The first computer to use transistors was the TX-0 and was introduced in 1956. Other computers
that used transistors include the IBM 7070, Philco Transac S-1000, and RCA 501.

2.3 Third generation (1964 - 1971)

The third generation of computers introduced the use of IC (integrated circuits) in computers.
Using IC's in computers helped reduce the size of computers even more than second-generation
computers, and also made them faster. Nearly all computers since the mid to late 1960s have
utilized IC's..
IBM-360 series
Honeywell-6000 series
2.4 Fourth generation (1972 - 2010)
The fourth generation of computers took advantage of the invention of the microprocessor, more
commonly known as a CPU. Microprocessors, with integrated circuits, helped make it possible for
computers to fit easily on a desk and for the introduction of the laptop. IBM introduced its first
personal computer (PC) for the home user in 1981 and Apple introduced Macintosh machines in
1984.
Today's computers still use a microprocessor, despite the fourth generation being considered to
have ended in 2010.
2.5 Fifth generation (2010 to present)
The fifth generation of computers is beginning to use AI (artificial intelligence), an exciting
technology with many potential applications around the world. Leaps have been made in AI
technology and computers, but there is still room for much improvement.
One of the more well-known examples of AI in computers is IBM's Watson, which was featured
on the TV show Jeopardy as a contestant. Other better-known examples include Apple's Siri on
the iPhone and Microsoft's Cortana on Windows 8 and Windows 10 computers. The Google search
engine also utilizes AI to process user searches.
2.6 Sixth generation (future generations)
As of 2021, most still consider us to be in the fifth generation as AI continues to be developed.
One possible contender for a future sixth generation is the quantum computer. However, until
quantum computing becomes more developed and widely used, it's still only a promising
technology.
3.COMPUTERS CLASSIFICATION
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows:
3.1 Personal computer/Desktop computer: A small, single-user computer based on a
microprocessor. In addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer has a keyboard for entering
data, a monitor for displaying information, and a storage device for saving data. A desktop
computer is a personal computer designed for regular use at a single location on or near a desk or
table due to its size and power requirements.
 Lenovo Idea Centre AIO 330/ A340
 Acer AIO Z5210G
 HP Pavilion 24 df021 All in one
 Apple iMac 27 inch 2020
 Asus M241
 Intel NUC pro kit

3.2 Workstation: Workstation, a high-performance computer system that is basically designed

for a single user and has advanced graphics capabilities, large storage capacity, and a powerful
central processing unit. A workstation is more capable than a personal computer (PC) but is less
advanced than a server (which can manage a large network of peripheral PCs or workstations and
handle immense data-processing and reporting tasks). Workstations are used primarily to perform
computationally intensive scientific and engineering tasks.
 HP Z2 Mini G4 Workstation
 Dell Precision 7920 (2020)
 Apple Mac Pro
 Corsair One Pro i180

3.3 Minicomputer: A minicomputer is a type of computer that possesses most of the features
and capabilities of a large computer but is smaller in physical size. A multi-user computer
capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users simultaneously. These computers are not
designed for a single user. Individual departments of a large company or organizations use
Minicomputers for specific purposes. Minicomputers are mainly used as small or mid-range
servers operating business and scientific applications. However, the use of the term
minicomputer has diminished and has merged with servers.

For example, a production department can use Mini-computers for monitoring certain production
process.
Popular Minicomputers are
1. K-202
2. Texas Instrument TI-990
3. SDS-92
4. IBM Midrange computers
3.4 Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously. Banks educational institutions & insurance companies use
mainframe computers to store data about their customers, students & insurance policy holders
Popular Mainframe computers are
 1. IBM Z mainframe
2. Fujitsu’s ICL VME
3. Hitachi’s Z800.
3.5 Supercomputer: Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number crunching).
For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in
petrochemical prospecting). It is an extremely fast computer which can execute hundreds of
millions of instructions per second.
Popular Supercomputers are
1. IBM’s Sequoia, in United States
2. Fujitsu’s K Computer in Japan
3. IBM’s Mira in United States
4. IBM’s Super MUC in Germany
5. NUDT Tianhe-1A in China
3.6 LAPTOP AND MOBILE DEVICES
3.6.1 Laptop: A laptop is a battery or AC-powered personal computer that can be easily carried
and used in a variety of locations. Many laptops are designed to have all of the functionality of a
desktop computer, which means they can generally run the same software and open the same types
of files. Laptops range greatly in size, featuring screen sizes measuring anywhere from 10 inches
to 18 inches. Depending on the manufacturer brand, laptops can be either slim or bulky.
3.6.2 Mobile Device: A mobile device is basically any handheld computer. It is designed to be
extremely portable, often fitting in the palm of your hand or in your pocket. Some mobile devices
are more powerful, and they allow you to do many of the same things you can do with a desktop
or laptop computer. These include tablet computers, e-readers, and smartphones.
3.6.2.1 Tablet Computers: Like laptops, tablet computers are designed to be portable.
However, they provide a very different computing experience. The most obvious
difference is that tablet computers don't have keyboards or touchpads. Instead, the
entire screen is touch-sensitive, allowing you to type on a virtual keyboard and use your
finger as a mouse pointer. Tablet computers are mostly designed for consuming media,
and they are optimized for tasks like web browsing, watching videos, reading e-books,
and playing games. For many people, a "regular" computer like a desktop or laptop is
still needed in order to use some programs. However, the convenience of a tablet
computer means that it may be ideal as a second computer.
3.6.2.2 Smartphones: A smartphone is a powerful mobile phone that is designed to run a
variety of applications in addition to phone service. They are basically small tablet
computers, and they can be used for web browsing, watching videos, reading e-books,
playing games and more.
 3.6.2.3 E-Readers: An e-reader, also called an e-book reader or e-book device, is a mobile
electronic device that is designed primarily for the purpose of reading digital e-books
and periodicals. Their main advantage over printed books is portability. This is because
an e-reader is capable of holding thousands of books while weighing less than one
book, and the convenience provided due to add-on features.
3.7 Embedded Systems: Specialized computers that are part of another device.
 Gasoline pump
 Home appliances
 Traffic lights
 Self-checkout at grocery store

4 COMPUTER COMPONENTS
Any kind of computers consists of HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE.
4.1 Hardware:
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system.
Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as the monitor,
mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic cards, sound
cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of which are physical objects that can be touched.
Desktop computers and laptops are made up of a lot of different parts that work together to perform
for you.
4.2 Motherboard
The motherboard is the main circuit board inside your computer. It is the “common ground” that
allows all of the other components to communicate with one another. A number of other parts
are attached to the motherboard, such as the memory RAM chips, the ROM, the CPU, PCI slots,
USB ports etc, and it has controllers for your hard drive, DVD drive, keyboard, mouse etc. The
motherboard is the part that connects everything so that your computer can run. It has empty
slots on which you can connect additional components if needed (e.g extra RAM, separate
Graphics Card, additional disk storage etc).
4.3 CPU
The CPU is the central processing unit of the computer. It is considered the “brain” of the computer
and is the part that processes all of the instructions. It runs the operating system, and it receives
input and instructions from software and the other hardware. Then it processes the input data and
creates output which is either displayed on the screen or send to other components such as the
Storage devices, printers etc.
4.3.a Microprocessor Specifications
Speed measurement: The speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is measured by Hertz (Hz),
Which represent a CPU cycle. The speed of CPU is known as Computer Speed.

Microprocessors are classified on the basis of different features which include chip type, word
size, memory size, clock speed, etc. These features are briefly explained below:
(A) Word Size
Word size is the maximum number of bits that a microprocessor can process at a time.
Earlier, a word was of 8 bits, as it was the maximum limit at that time. At present, the
minimum word size is 16 bits and maximum word size is 64 bits.
(B) Memory Size
Depending upon the word size, the size of RAM varies. Initially, RAM was very small
(4MB) due to 4/8 bits word size. As word size increased to 64 bits, it has become feasible
to use RAM of size upto 16 Exabytes (EB).
(C) Clock Speed
Computers have an internal clock that generates pulses (signals) at regular intervals of time.
Clock speed simply means the number of pulses generated per second by the clock inside a
computer. The clock speed indicates the speed at which the computer can execute
instructions. Earlier, it was measured in Hertz (Hz) and Kilohertz (kHz). But with
advancement in technology and chip density, it is now measured in Gigahertz (GHz),
i.e.,billions of pulses per second.
(D) Cores
Core is a basic computation unit of the CPU. Earlier processors had only one computation
unit, thereby capable of performing only one task at a time. With the advent of multicore
processor, it has become possible for the computer to execute multiple tasks, thereby
increasing the system’s performance. CPU with two, four, and eight cores is called dual-
core, quad-core and octa-core processor, respectively.
4.4 RAM
RAM stands for random access memory. It is hardware that is found in many different electronic
devices, including a computer.
The amount of RAM in the computer determines how much memory applications that are open
for your use. If a computer has more RAM, the user can open more programs without the speed
slowing down. Each program runs inside RAM which is a very high-speed memory area, so the
program runs faster inside RAM. When you switch off the computer, all data in RAM is erased.
RAM is in the form of “chip modules” as shown on the picture above. Usually we have 2-4 RAM
chip modules which are inserted in slots on the motherboard. For example, if you have 2x4GB
RAM modules, your computer will have a total of 8 GB RAM.
4.5 GPU (Video Card)
A graphics card is what your computer uses to convert data in your machine to useful images on
your monitor. Graphics cards—also known as video cards.
GPU stands for graphics processing unit. It is a processor that handles graphics operations,
including 2D and 3D calculations, and it excels at 3D graphics. This is an important component
for gaming because the GPU can render graphics more efficiently than the CPU can.
For lower-end computers, the GPU is embedded on the motherboard. For high-end computers or
for gaming desktop PCs, the GPU comes as a separate “Video Card” which is inserted in a
motherboard slot.
4.6 Storage (Mechanical Hard Disk or SSD) –Secondary memory
The storage device, or hard disk, is the hardware that stores data which is not erased when you
power-off the computer. It stores the operating system, applications, files, and folders for the user.
People often are referring to the storage when they talk about how much memory a computer has.
This is the capacity of the hard disk to store files. Nowadays, almost all computers come with SSD
disk (Solid State Drive) which is a much faster disk compared to a mechanical hard disk.
4.6.1 Hard Disk Drives
Hard disk drives are commonly used as the main storage device in a computer. HDDs often store
operating system, software programs and other files, and can be found in desktop computers,
mobile devices, consumer electronics and enterprise storage arrays in data centers. Most basic hard
drives consist of a number of disk platters that are positioned around a spindle inside a sealed
chamber. The chamber also includes read-and-write heads and motors. The motor is used to spin
the platters, which hold the data. As the platters spin, a second motor controls the position of the
read-and-write heads that magnetically record information to, and read information from, tracks
on each platter.
External hard drives can be used to expand the storage capacity, or act as a portable place to back
data up to. An external hard drive can connect to a computer or device through a USB 2.0 interface
or with eSATA. External hard drives may also have slower data transfer rates compared to internal
HDDs.
4.6.2 Solid-state drive (SSD)
A solid-state drive (SSD) is a new generation of storage device used in computers. SSDs use flash-
based memory, which is much faster than a traditional mechanical hard disk. Upgrading to an SSD
is one of the best ways to speed up your computer.
A hard disk drive (HDD) is a traditional storage device that uses mechanical platters and a moving
read/write head to access data. A solid state drive (SSD) is a newer, faster type of device that stores
data on instantly-accessible memory chips.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1cyMTl_QXSc
4.7 Power Supply
The power supply is the component that supplies power to the whole Desktop computer system. It
plugs in and receives power from an electrical outlet. It then converts the current from an
alternating current (AC) to a direct current (DC). It regulates current and smooths-out any spikes
in voltage which enters the computer at any given time and prevents damage to the sensitive
electronic components.
4.8 Optical Drive (DVD/CD ROM)
The optical drive uses a laser that writes and reads data on optical discs, such as a DVD or CD.
They are made up of millions of small dips and bumps, and the optical drive reads them as zeros
and ones. The optical drive can read and write data on these discs. When the laser writes data onto
the disc, it burns it in. For this reason, people “burn” CDs.
4.9 Network Interface Card or WiFi Card
A Network interface card (also known as a NIC, network card, or network interface controller) is
an electronic device that connects a computer to a computer network, usually a LAN. It is
considered a piece of computer hardware. Most modern computers support an internal network
interface controller embedded in the motherboard directly rather than provided as an external
component.
The network interface card is also called the NIC (pronounced Nick). This part is what gives a
computer its networking capabilities. It can allow a wired Ethernet connection or a wireless WiFi
connection to a LAN (local area network).
Today, most computers have wireless NICs that are designed for WiFi connection. Also, you can
insert a wired Ethernet NIC card in a motherboard slot to get additional network connectivity ports
if needed.
4.10 Cooling Fan
The cooling fan is an important component of a laptop/desktop that prevents the machine from
overheating and damaging the computer’s other parts. Without a cooling fan, laptops/desktops can
reach an internal temperature up to 200°F or higher!
4.11 Desktop Case
The desktop case is the mount that houses all of the components of the computer, including the
motherboard, the hard drive, the optical drive, and more. Many of them are made of metal, and
they are important because they protect the computer components from damage due to dust,
accidents, liquids, and more. It also helps to keep the components cool enough and usually has
airflow through vents to make sure that the computer doesn’t overheat. Finally, it helps to cut down
on the noise made by computer parts.
4.12 INPUT DEVICES
4.12.1 Keyboard
Keyboards are a human interface device which is represented as a layout of buttons. Each button,
or key, can 20 be used to either input a linguistic character to a computer, or to call upon a particular
Keyboards function of the computer. Traditional keyboards use spring-based buttons, though
newer variations employ virtual keys, or even projected keyboards. It is typewriter like device
composed of a matrix of switches. The Figure shows a 104-key Saitek keyboard with arrows
pointing to each section including the control keys, function keys, LED indicators, wrist pad, arrow
keys, and keypad.
4.12.2 Mouse
The mouse is another important input device. A mouse moves the graphical pointer by being slid
across a smooth surface. The conventional roller-ball mouse uses a ball to create this action.
However, most mouse are wireless today. They usually have two buttons and can have more. You
can scroll up and down on a scroll wheel if the mouse has one. The mouse moves an arrow that
allows you to open applications.
4.12.3Joystick
A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or
direction to the device it is controlling. A joystick, also known as the control column, Joysticks
are often used to control video games, and usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can
also be read by the computer. A popular variation of the joystick used on modern video game
consoles is the analog stick. Joysticks are also used for controlling machines.
4.12.4 Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a
digital form that can be stored on the disk. These images can also be edited.
4.12.5 Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil.
It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for
checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.
4.12.6 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed
every day. The bank’s code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special
type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading
process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is
that it is fast and less error prone.
4.12.7 Bar code reader
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark lines).
Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand
held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image,
converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader
is connected.
4.12.8 Card reader
A card reader is a data input device that reads data from a card-shaped storage medium. The first
were punched card readers, which read the paper or cardboard punched cards that were used during
the first several decades of the computer industry to store information and programs for computer
systems. Modern card readers are electronic devices that can read plastic cards embedded with
either a barcode, magnetic strip, computer chip or another storage medium.
A memory card reader is a device used for communication with a smart card or a memory card. A
magnetic card reader is a device used to read magnetic stripe cards, such as credit cards. A business
card reader is a device used to scan and electronically save printed business cards.
4.12.9 Camera
A camera that stores the pictures or video it takes in electronic format instead of to film. A webcam
is a hardware camera connected to a computer that allows anyone connected to the Internet to view
either still pictures or motion video of a user or other object.
4.13 OUTPUT DEVICES
4.13.1 Printers
A printer is basically an output device which prints a hard copy of the electronic data that is stored
in the computer or any other devices. There are different types of printers.
4.13.1.a Impact Printers
Impact Printers print the characters by pressing an inked ribbon against the paper using a hammer
or pins.
a. Character printers: Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
b. Dot Matrix Printer: These printers are popular because of their ease of printing and
economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of dots and head consists of
a Matrix of Pins which comes out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix
Printer.
c. Line printers: Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
4.13.1.b Non-Impact Printers
Non-impact printers do not use a striking device to produce characters on the paper and because
these printers do not hammer against the paper they are much quieter. These printers print a
complete page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.
a. Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers are the de-facto standard for consumer/home-use printers. They’re
inexpensive and use liquid ink that is relatively inexpensive to replace. They can produce
high-quality color printing or fairly fast monochrome (aka B&W) prints. Inkjets are the
most common type of home printer for a reason, though, as they tend to offer a good
balance of quality, speed, and price.
b. Laser printers,
Laser printers, as their name suggests, use a laser beam to heat a toner material that embeds
itself onto the paper. Most business-oriented models are monochrome, but there are color
laser printers as well. Toner cartridges are typically more expensive than ink, but also
usually last longer.
Laser printers, on average, have a faster print speed than inkjet printers, and usually have
a higher print quality. The most affordable models are more expensive than even budget
inkjet models, but many people who print a lot find their strengths worth that premium.
c. All-in-one printers
An all-in-one multifunction printer combines the functionality of a printer, a scanner, and
usually a fax. They can copy documents, send and receive documents, save them on your
computer, and of course, print them out. All-in-one printers can be inkjet or laser. All-in-
ones are larger than many regular printers, but they’re ideal for a small office or small
business, as they take up less space and cost less than a separate printer, fax, and scanner.
d. Supertank printers
Supertank printers are more a subcategory of inkjet and all-in-ones. They feature large,
refillable ink tanks instead of replaceable ink cartridges. If your printing needs are high-
volume, or you don’t like the environmental impact caused by countless disposable
cartridges, a supertank printer may be a better option for you.
4.13.2 Plotters
The plotter is a computer printer for printing vector graphics. A plotter is a graphics printer that
literally uses ink pens to draw the images. Plotters are used in applications such as computer-aided
design such as diagrams, layouts, specification sheets and banners. Plotters differ from printers in
that they draw lines using a pen.
4.13.3 Projector
An output device that can take the display of a computer screen and project a large version of it
onto a flat surface. Projectors are often used in meetings and presentations so that everyone in the
room can view the presentation.
4.13.4 Speakers
Speaker is a hardware device that converts analog audio signals into the equivalent air vibrations
in order to make audible sound. It is connected to a computer’s sound card. The signal used to
produce the sound that comes from a computer speaker is created by the computer’s sound card.
4.13.5 Computer Monitor
The computer monitor is also called the screen or display. It shows the user the output and allows
the user to see the information being processed on the computer. Most monitors today use LED
technology, and they are flat screens that take up less space than the old CRT displays.
4.14 Computer Memory
A computer system needs memory to store the data and instructions for processing. Whenever we
talk about the ‘memory’ of a computer system, we usually talk about the main or primary memory.
The secondary memory (also called storage device) is used to store data, instructions and results
permanently for future use.
4.14.1 Unit of Measurements
A computer system uses binary numbers to store and process data. The binary digits 0 and 1,
which are the basic units of memory, are called bits. Further, these bits are grouped together to
form words. A 4-bit word is called a Nibble. Examples of nibble are 1001, 1010, 0010, etc. A
two nibble word, i.e., 8-bit word is called a byte, for example, 01000110, 01111100, 10000001,
etc.

Storage measurements: The basic unit used in computer data storage is called a bit (binary digit).
Computers use these little bits, which are composed of ones and zeros, to do things and talk to
other computers. All your files, for instance, are kept in the computer as binary files and translated
into words and pictures by the software (which is also ones and zeros). This two number system,
is called a “binary number system” since it has only two numbers in it. The decimal number system
in contrast has ten unique digits, zero through nine.
Size example
• 1 bit - answer to an yes/no question
• 1 byte - a number from 0 to 255. 8 bits
• 90 bytes: enough to store a typical line of text from a book.
• 4 KB: about one page of text.
• 120 KB: the text of a typical pocket book.
• 3 MB - a three-minute song (128k bitrate)
• 650-900 MB - an CD-ROM
• 1 GB -114 minutes of uncompressed CD-quality audio at 1.4 Mbit/s
• 8-16 GB - size of a normal flash drive
4.14.2 Types of Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. Human beings memorise many things over a lifetime, and
recall from memory to make a decision or some action. However, we do not rely on our memory
completely, and we make notes and store important data and information using other media, such
as notebook, manual, journal, document, etc. Similarly, computers have two types of memory —
primary and secondary.
Computer memory is device that is used to store data or programs on a temporary or permanent
basis for use. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location
or cell has a unique address.
Memory is primarily of two types −
• Primary Memory/Main Memory
• Secondary Memory
4.14.2.a Primary Memory
Primary memory is an essential component of a computer system. Program and data are loaded
into the primary memory before processing. The CPU interacts directly with the primary memory
to perform read or write operation. Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on
which the computer is currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is
switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. The data and instruction required
to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories
(i) Random Access Memory (RAM) and (ii) Read Only Memory (ROM).
a. Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is volatile, i.e., as long as the power is supplied to the computer, it retains the data in it. But
as soon as the power supply is turned off, all the contents of RAM are wiped out. It is used to store
data temporarily while the computer is working. Whenever the computer is started or a software
application is launched, the required program and data are loaded into RAM for processing. RAM
is usually referred to as main memory and it is faster than the secondary memory or storage
devices. RAM is further classified into two types- SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) and
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory).
a. DRAM : It is a type of RAM which allows you to stores each bit of data in a separate
capacitor within a particular integrated circuit. DRAM is constructed using capacitors and
a few transistors. In this type of RAM, the capacitor is used for storing the data where bit
value, which signifies that the capacitor is charged and a bit value 0, which means that the
capacitor is discharged.
b. SRAM - Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU.
In this type of RAM, data is stored using the six transistor memory cell. It is used to hold
those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. Static random-
access memory (SRAM) is used for cache memory.
b.Read Only Memory (ROM)
On the other hand, ROM is non-volatile, which means its contents are not lost even when the
power is turned off. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can
only be read.
For example, the startup program (boot loader) that loads the operating system into primary
memory, is stored in ROM.
ROM is the computer memory on which data is prerecorded. Types of Read Only Memory
(ROM)
1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory): It can be programmed by user. Once
programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.
2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory): It can be reprogrammed. To erase
data from it, expose it to ultra violet light. To reprogram it, erase all the previous data.
3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only memory): The data can be erased
by applying electric field, no need of ultra violet light. We can erase only portions of the
chip.
4.14.2.b Secondary memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. The contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example,
disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
 a. Hard Disk
Hard disk is an electromechanical data storage device that uses magnetic storage to store and
retrieve digital information using one or more rigid rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with
magnetic material. Disks are made of non-magnetic material like aluminum alloy and coated with
10-20 nm of magnetic material. Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic
coating. A magnetic reader arm is used to read data from and write data to the disks. A typical
modern HDD has capacity in terabytes (TB).
A hard drive consists the platter for storing data, a spindle for spinning platters, a read/write arm
for reading and writing data, an actuator to control the action and movement of the read/write arm
and a logic board.
b. Pen Drive/ Flash Memory
Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses solid state memory rather than magnetic fields or
lasers to record data. It uses a technology similar to RAM, except that it is non-volatile. It is also
called USB drive, key drive or flash memory.
c. Compact Disk (CD)
CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to read and write data. CDs are inserted
in CD drives built into CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject the drive, remove the CD
and carry it with you.
d. Solid State Drive SSD
A solid-state drive (SSD) is a new generation of storage device used in computers. SSDs use flash-
based memory, which is much faster than a traditional mechanical hard disk. Upgrading to an SSD
is one of the best ways to speed up your computer.
4.15 BASICS OF SOFTWARE
Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute specific
tasks. A software knows how to make different hardware components of a computer work and
communicate with each other as well as with the end-user. We cannot instruct the hardware of a
computer directly. Software acts as an interface between human users and the hardware.
How does software work?
All software provides the directions and data computers need to work and meet users' needs. The
two main categories of software are application software and system software - work in distinctly
different ways.
4.15.1 System software’s
These software programs are designed to run a computer's application programs and hardware.
System software coordinates the activities and functions of the hardware and software. In addition,
it controls the operations of the computer hardware and provides an environment or platform for
all the other types of software to work in. The OS is the best example of system software; it
manages all the other computer programs. Other examples of system software include the
firmware, computer language translators and system utilities.
a. Operating System : An operating system is the most basic system software, without which
other software cannot work. The operating system manages other application programs and
provides Hardware refers to the physical components of the computer system which can
be seen and touched. For example, RAM, keyboard, printer, monitor, CPU, etc. On the
other hand, software is a set of instructions and data that makes hardware functional to
complete the desired task.
b. System Utilities: Software used for maintenance and configuration of the computer system
is called system utility. Some system utilities are shipped with the operating system for
example disk defragmentation tool, formatting utility, system restore utility, etc. Another
set of utilities are those which are not shipped with the operating system but are required
to improve the performance of the system, for example, anti-virus software, disk cleaner
tool, disk compression software, etc.
c. Device Drivers The device driver acts as an interface between the device and the operating
system. It provides required services by hiding the details of operations performed at the
hardware level of the device. Just like a language translator, a device driver acts as a
mediator between the operating system and the attached device.
4.15.2 Application software. The most common type of software, application software is a
computer software package that performs a specific function for a user, or in some cases,
for another application. An application can be self-contained, or it can be a group of
programs that run the application for the user.
Examples of modern applications include office suites, graphics software, databases and database
management programs, web browsers, word processors, software development tools, image
editors and communication platforms.
There are again two broad categories of application software— general purpose and customized
application software.
a. General Purpose Software: The application software developed for generic applications,
to cater to a bigger audience in general are called general purpose software. Such ready-
made application software can be used by end users as per their requirements. For example,
spreadsheet tool Calc of LibreOffice can be used by any computer user to do calculation
or to create account sheet. Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, Mozilla web browser, iTunes, etc.,
fall in the category of general purpose software.
b. Customized Software: These are custom or tailor-made application software, that are
developed to meet the requirements of a specific organisation or an individual. They are
 better suited to the needs of an individual or an organisation, considering that they are
designed as per special requirements. Some examples of user-defined software include
websites, school management software, accounting software, etc. It is similar to buying a
piece of cloth and getting a tailor-made garment with the fitting, colour, and fabric of our
choice.
4.16 Programming
In order to get some work done by the computer, we need to give instructions which are applied
on the input data to get the desired outcome. Computer languages are developed for writing these
instructions. It is important to understand here that computers and humans understand completely
different languages. While humans are able to write programs in high-level language, computers
understand machine language. There is a continuous need for conversion from high level to
machine level language, for which translators are needed.
4.16.a Classification of Programming Languages
It is very difficult for a human being to write instructions in the form of 1s and 0s. So different
types of computer programming languages are developed to simplify the coding. Two major
categories of computer programming languages are low-level languages and high-level languages.
a. Low-level languages are machine dependent languages and include machine language and
assembly language. Machine language uses 1s and 0s to write instructions which are directly
understood and executed by the computer. But writing a code in machine language is difficult
as one has to remember all operation codes and machine addresses. Also finding errors in
the code written in machine language is difficult.
b. High level languages are machine independent and are simpler to write code into.
Instructions are using English like sentences and each high level language follows a set of
rules, similar to natural languages. However, these languages are not directly understood by
the computer. Hence, translators are needed to translate high-level language codes into
machine language. Examples of high level language include C++, Java, Python, etc.
4.16.b Language Translators
As the computer can understand only machine language, a translator is needed to convert program
written in assembly or high level language to machine language. The program code written in
assembly or high-level language is called source code. The source code is converted by a translator
into the machine understandable form called object (machine) code. As we have different types
of computer languages, different translators are needed to convert the source code to machine code.
The three types of translators used in computing systems are assembler, compiler and interpreter.
a. Assembler: The translator used to convert the code written in assembly language to
machine language is called assembler.
b. Compiler converts the source code into machine code. If the code follows all syntactic rules
of the language, then it is executed by the computer. Once translated, the compiler is not
needed.
 c. An interpreter translates one line at a time instead of the whole program at one go.
Interpreter takes one line, converts it into executable code if the line is syntactically correct,
and then it repeats these steps for all lines in the source code. Hence, interpreter is always
needed whenever a source code is to be executed.
4.16.c Program Development Tools
Whenever we decide to write a program, we need a text editor. An editor is a software that allows
us to create a text file where we type instructions and store the file as the source code. Then an
appropriate translator is used to get the object code for execution. In order to simplify the program
development, there are software called Integrated Development Environment (IDE) consisting of
text editor, building tools and debugger. A program can be typed, compiled and debugged from
the IDE directly. Besides Python IDLE, Netbeans, Eclipse, Atom, Lazarus are few other examples
of IDEs. Debugger, as the name implies, is the software to detect and correct errors in the source
code.
4.16.d OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE AND PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE
1. Open source Software:
Open source software is a computer software whose source code is available openly in internet
and programmers can modify it to add new features and capabilities without any cost. Here the
software is developed and tested through open collaboration. This software is managed by an open
source community of developers. It provides community support as well as commercial support if
available for maintenance. We can get it for free of cost. This software also sometimes comes with
license and sometimes does not. This license provides some rights to users like.
 Software can be used for any purpose
 Allows to study how software works
 Freedom to modify and improve the program
 No restrictions on redistributions
 Some examples of Open source software include Android, Ubuntu, Firefox, Open Office
etc.
2. Proprietary Software:
Proprietary software is a computer software where the source codes are not publicly not available
only the company which has created can modify it. Here the software is developed and tested by
the individual or organization by which it is owned not by public. This software is managed by an
closed team of individuals or groups that developed it. We have to pay to get this software and it
commercial support if available for maintenance. The company gives a valid and authenticated
license to the users to use this software. But this license put some restrictions on users also like.
 Number of installations of this software into computers
 Restrictions on sharing of software illegally
 Time period up to which software will operate
 Number of features allowed to use
  Some examples of Proprietary software include Windows, MacOS, Internet Explorer,
Google earth, Microsoft Office etc.
Difference between Open Source Software and Proprietary Software
OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE
Open source software is a computer software
whose source code is available openly in
internet and programmers can modify it to add
new features and capabilities without any cost.
Here the software is developed and tested
through open collaboration.
In open source software the source code is
public.
Open source software can be installed into any
computer.
Users do not need to have any authenticated
license to use this software.
Open source software is managed by an open
source community of developers.
It is more flexible and provides more freedom
which encourages innovation.
Users can get open software for free of charge.
In open source software faster fixes of bugs
and better security is availed due to the
community.
Examples are Android, Linux, Firefox, Open
Office, GIMP, VLC Media player etc.
PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE
Proprietary software is a computer software
where the source codes are not publicly not
available only the company which has created
can modify it.
Here the software is developed and tested by
the individual or organization by which it is
owned not by public.
In proprietary software the source code is
protected.
Proprietary software can be installed into any
computer without valid license.
Users need to have a valid and authenticated
license to use this software.
Proprietary software is managed by an closed
team of individuals or groups that developed it.
It is not much flexible so here is very limited
innovation scope with the restrictions.
Users must have to pay to get the proprietary
software.
In proprietary software the vendor is
completely responsible for fixing of
malfunctions.
Examples are Windows, MacOS, Internet
Explorer, Google earth, Microsoft Office,
Adobe Flash Player, Skype etc.

5.Mobile application
A mobile application (also called a mobile app) is a type of application designed to run on a mobile
device, which can be a smartphone or tablet computer. Apps are small software units with limited
function, they still manage to provide users with quality services and experiences.
Contrary to applications designed for desktop computers, mobile applications move away from
integrated software systems. Instead, each mobile app provides an isolated and limited
functionality. For example, it can be a game, a calculator, or a mobile web browser.
5.1Types of mobile applications
Mobile applications come in many shapes and sizes. Here are the most popular types of mobile
apps to help you understand the current trends in the mobile landscape.
 a. Gaming apps – this is the most popular category of mobile apps.
b. Business or productivity apps - Business apps are geared at boosting productivity and
minimizing expenses as they allow users to complete a wide range of tasks.
c. Educational apps – this category includes mobile apps that help users gain new skills and
knowledge.
d. Lifestyle apps – this broad category of apps spans shopping, fashion, virtual fitting rooms,
workout, dating, and diet apps.
e. M-commerce apps - Mobile commerce applications provide customers with convenient
access to products and seamless payment methods for an optimal shopping experience.
f. Entertainment apps – these apps allow users to stream video content, search for events,
chat, or watch content online.
g. Travel apps – the main idea behind this category is helping users to travel easily. Travel
apps transform a smartphone or tablet into a travel diary and guide that helps users to
discover everything they need to know about the site they’re visiting.
6. DBMS
Database management system is software that is used to manage the database. Databases are the
collection of data in order to store and retrieve data. The database consists of data which can be a
numeric, alphabetic and also alphanumeric form. Analyzing data is a key feature of database
management system that is DBMS
Advantages of DBMS
 Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it stores all the
data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed in the database.
 Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share the data among
multiple users.
 Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized nature of the
database system.
 Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.
 Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create automatic backup of
data from hardware and software failures and restores the data if required.
 multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like graphical user
interfaces, application program interfaces
7. OPERATING SYSTEM
An operating system (OS) can be considered to be a resource manager which manages all the
resources of a computer, i.e., its hardware including CPU, RAM, Disk, Network and other input-
output devices. It also controls various application software and device drivers, manages system
security and handles access by different users. It is the most important system software. Examples
of popular OS are Windows, Linux, Android, Macintosh and so on.
The primary objectives of an operating system are two-fold.
1. The first is to provide services for building and running application programs. When an
application program needs to be run, it is the operating system which loads that program
into memory and allocates it to the CPU for execution. When multiple application
programs need to be run, the operating system decides the order of the execution.
2. The second objective of an operating system is to provide an interface to the user through
which the user can interact with the computer. A user interface is a software component
which is a part of the operating system and whose job is to take commands or inputs from
a user for the operating system to process.
7.1 OS User Interface
There are different types of user interfaces each of which provides a different functionality.
a. Command-based Interface
Command-based interface requires a user to enter the commands to perform different tasks like
creating, opening, editing or deleting a file, etc. The user has to remember the names of all such
programs or specific commands which the operating system supports. The primary input device
used by the user for command based interface is the keyboard. Command based interface is often
less interactive and usually allows a user to run a single program at a time. Examples of operating
systems with command-based interface include MS-DOS and Unix.

b. Graphical User Interface

Graphical User Interface (GUI) lets users run programs or give instructions to the computer in the
form of icons, menus and other visual options. Icons usually represent files and programs stored
on the computer and windows represent running programs that the user has launched through the
operating system. The input devices used to interact with the GUI commonly include the mouse
and the keyboard. Examples of operating systems with GUI interfaces include Microsoft
Windows, Ubuntu, Fedora and Macintosh, among others.

c. Touch-based Interface
Today smartphones, tablets and PCs allow users to interact with the system simply using the touch
input. Using the touchscreen, a user provides inputs to the operating system, which are interpreted
by the OS as commands like opening an app, closing an app, dialing a number, scrolling across
apps, etc. Examples of popular operating systems with touchbased interfaces are Android and iOS.
Windows 8.1 and 10 also support touch-based interfaces on touchscreen devices.
c. Voice-based Interface
Modern computers have been designed to address the needs of all types of users including people
with special needs and people who want to interact with computers or smartphones while doing
some other task. For users who cannot use the input devices like the mouse, keyboard, and
touchscreens, modern operating systems provide other means of human-computer interaction.
Users today can use voice-based commands to make a computer work in the desired way. Some
operating systems which provide voice-based control to users include iOS (Siri), Android (Google
Now or “OK Google”), Microsoft Windows 10 (Cortana) and so on.
d. Gesture-based Interface
Some smartphones based on Android and iOS as well as laptops let users interact with the devices
using gestures like waving, tilting, eye motion and shaking. This technology is evolving faster and
it has promising potential for application in gaming, medicine and other areas.

7.2 FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Now let us explore the important services and tasks that an operating system provides for
managing the computer system.
a. Process Management
While a computer system is operational, different tasks are running simultaneously. A program is
intended to carry out various tasks. A task in execution is known as process. It is the responsibility
of operating system to manage these processes and get multiple tasks completed in minimum time.
As CPU is the main resource of computer system, its allocation among processes is the most
important service of the operating system. Hence process management concerns the management
of multiple processes, allocation of required resources, and exchange of information among
processes.
b. Memory Management
Primary or main memory of a computer system is usually limited. The main task of memory
management is to give (allocate) and take (free) memory from running processes. Since there are
multiple processes running at a time, there arises a need to dynamically (on-the-go) allocate and
free memory to the processes. Operating system should do it without affecting other processes that
are already residing in the memory and once the process is finished, it is again the responsibility
of the operating system to take the memory space back for reutilisation. Hence, memory
management concerns with management of main memory so that maximum memory is occupied
or utilised by large number of processes while keeping track of each and every location within the
memory as free or occupied.
c. File Management
Data and programs are stored as files in the secondary storage of a computer system. File
management involves the creation, updation, deletion and protection of these files in the secondary
memory. Protection is a crucial function of an operating system, as multiple users can access and
use a computer system. There must be a mechanism in place that will stop users from accessing
files that belong to some other user and have not been shared with them. File management system
manages secondary memory, while memory management system handles the main memory of a
computer system.
d. Device Management
A computer system has many I/O devices and hardware connected to it. Operating system manages
these heterogeneous devices that are interdependent. The operating system interacts with the
device driver and the related software for a particular device. The operating system must also
provide the options for configuring a particular device, so that it may be used by an end user or
some other device. Just like files, devices also need security measures and their access to different
devices must be restricted by the operating system to the authorised users, software and other
hardware only
8. TYPES OF FILE EXTENSIONS
Windows file names have two parts; the file's name, then a period followed by the extension
(suffix). The extension is a three- or four-letter abbreviation that signifies the file type. For
example, in letter.docx the filename is letter and the extension is docx. Extensions are important
because they tell your computer what icon to use for the file, and what application can open the
file. For example, the doc extension tells your computer that the file is a Microsoft Word file.

Files Format File Extension Full form of Extension

MS Word .docx Xml document (Extensible Markup

Language (XML)

MS Excel .xlsx,.xls Xml spreadsheet

MS PowerPoint .pptx,.ppt, .pps(power Powerpoint xml files format

point slideshow)

MS Access .accdb Access database

MS Office Outlook .pst Personal Storage Table

Images .jpeg Joint photographic expert group

.tif Tagged image file

.gif Graphic interchange format

.bmp Bitmap image file

.png Portable network Graphics

.pdf Portable Document format file

.thm Thumbnail Image File

Audio .mpeg Moving picture expert group

.wav Wave audio file

.aiff Audio interchange file format

.mp3 Mpeg-3 audio files

.wma Windows media audio files

Video .avi Audio video interleave

.mov Apple quick time movie

.flv Flash video file

.wmv Window media files audio and

.mp4 MPEG-4 video file

.mv4 Itunes video file

Executable files .app MAC OSX Application

.bat Batches files

.exe Executable files

.jar Java archive file

 .gadat Windows gadgets

Compressed file types .zip Zipped files

.rar Winrar compressed archive

9. INTRODUCTION TO VIRUS
9.1 Computer virus
A computer virus is a type of malicious software that, when executed, replicates itself by
modifying other computer programs and inserting its own code. When this replication succeeds,
the affected areas are then said to be “infected” with a computer virus. The term “virus” is also
commonly, but erroneously, used to refer to other types of malware. “Malware” encompasses
computer viruses along with many other forms of malicious software, such as computer “worms”,
ransom ware, spyware, adware, Trojan horses, key loggers, root kits, boot kits and other malicious
software. The majority of active malware threats are actually Trojan horse programs or computer
worms rather than computer viruses.
9.1.1 Different types of Virus
a. Boot sector viruses
A boot sector virus infects the boot sector of floppy disks or hard drives. These blocks
contain a small computer program that participates in starting the computer. A virus can
infect the system by replacing or attaching itself to these blocks.

b.directory viruses:
This virus alters the paths indicating a file’s location. In this case, when the infected program
is executed, you will be running the program unknowingly, since the virus has moved the
original program and file to another location. This therefore makes it impossible to locate
the moved files.
9.1.2 Antivirus software
Anti-virus software is a software utility that detects, prevents, and removes viruses, worms, and
other malware from a computer. Most anti-virus programs include an autoupdate feature. Antivirus
programs are essential utilities for any computer but the choice of which one is very important.
One AV program might find a certain virus or worm while another cannot, or vice-versa. Anti-
virus software is also known as an anti-virus program or a vaccine.