Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

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Dynamic and kinematic characterization of the basement structures of the

Mocho-Choshuenco Volcanic Complex, Southern Andes, Chile
Carolina Peña *, Catalina Cabello, Andrés Tassara
Departamento Ciencias de La Tierra, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Concepción; Casilla 160-C, Barrio Universitario s/n, Concepción, Chile

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Mocho-Choshuenco Volcanic Complex (MCVC) is one of the most hazardous volcanoes in Chile’s Southern
Mocho-Choshuenco volcanic complex Volcanic Zone (SVZ). It is located at 40◦ S 72◦ W in Los Ríos Region, Chile, where the SVZ coexists with the
Liquiñe-Ofqui fault system margin-parallel Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault System (LOFS) and with NW-striking Andean Transverse Faults (ATF). The
Southern Andes
LOFS is 1200 km-long intra-arc strike-slip fault system located between 38◦ and 46◦ S, and partially controls the
Strain analysis
Stress field
occurrence, spatial distribution and geometry of major stratovolcanoes. The fault-fracture networks induced by
crustal deformation plays an essential role in the generation of pathways, facilitating the transport and
emplacement of magmas. Thus, the Chilean Andes provides one of the best natural laboratories in the world to
assess the link between tectonics and volcanism. In this study, we provide new structural, kinematic and dynamic
insights, which would condition the formation and evolution of the MCVC and laying foundations for future
works.
Structural field data was collected and analyzed from regional and local scales. The strain analysis shows
heterogeneous deformation. The stress field analysis at a regional scale indicates a strike-slip dominated trans­
pressional regime with N61◦ E-trending σ1 and N26◦ W-trending σ3, which is consistent with the actual oblique
convergence. Deformation driven by this oblique convergence is partially partitioned, where the margin-parallel
component originates the dextral strike-slip in LOFS. Results are consistent with reactivation of preexisting NW-
striking faults under the regional stress field, facilitating hydrothermal fluid flow and magma migration, asso­
ciated with volcanoes, dikes and minor eruptive centers present in the study area. As a final result, we propose a
simplified, three-dimensional model for the MCVC’s basement, contributing to the understanding of the system
and the way in which the different factors interact.

1. Introduction deformation imposed by oblique plate motion is accommodated in the

One of the fundamental problems in active tectonic margins is the
interplay between tectonics and volcanism. Traditionally, the nature
and transport of magma through the lithosphere has been studied from a
petrological or geochemical view, largely neglecting the key role of
deformation (Cembrano and Lara, 2009). However, in the last years,
several authors have contributed to clarify the importance of this rela­
tionship, postulating that stress fields and structures linked to brittle
deformation play a fundamental role in controlling the morphology of
volcanic edifices, the spatial distribution and geometry of minor erup­
tive centers, and their associated feeder dikes (e.g. Corazzato and
Tibaldi, 2006; Lara et al., 2006; Pérez-Flores et al., 2016; Sielfeld et al.,
2016; Tibaldi et al., 2017). The Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) is one of
the best natural laboratories for this kind of studies, because part of the
intra-arc by Liquiñe–Ofqui Fault System (LOFS) (e.g. Arancibia et al.,
1999; Cembrano et al., 1996; Pérez-Flores et al., 2016), a 1200 km-long
strike-slip fault system located between 33 and 46◦ S. The LOFS, in
addition to anisotropies inherited from the basement, partially controls
the occurrence, geometry and spatial distribution of major eruptive
vents (e.g. Lara et al., 2008; Cembrano and Lara, 2009; Sielfeld et al.,
2016).
However, in the southern Andes there are many poorly studied
volcanic centers from the point of view of this link at a local scale. The
local nature of the volcanic arc basement acts as a second-order factor in
this complex interaction between tectonic and magmatic processes
(Cembrano and Lara, 2009) and may even suggest shallow magma
pathways be more sensitive to the presence of upper crustal weakness
zones than to the regional stress (Tibaldi et al., 2017). Therefore, a real

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: capena@udec.cl (C. Peña).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2021.103435
Received 31 May 2020; Received in revised form 6 March 2021; Accepted 16 June 2021
Available online 24 June 2021
0895-9811/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Peña et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435

understanding of this relationship requires local studies that reflect the
key role of minor structures. Knowledge of the dynamic of local struc­
tures could be used to complement the regional analysis and improve
insight on the characteristics and behavior of long-lived structures and
their relationship with different volcanic systems.
With all this background, the Mocho-Choshuenco volcanic complex
(MCVC) is presented as an ideal site to find new clues about this link. The
study area corresponds to the surroundings of the Mocho-Choshuenco
Volcanic Complex (MCVC), a compound stratovolcano with a domi­
nant andesite composition (Moreno and Lara, 2007). It is located in the
central part of the SVZ (López-Escobar et al., 1995) at 39.9◦ S, sur­
rounded by important NW-elongated lakes and just 20 km W from the

Fig. 1. 1:5,000,000 geological map of the Southern Andes Volcanic Zone (SVZ), modified from SERNAGEOMIN (2003). Regional map showing the location and
extent of the LOFS (red lines), ATF (blue lines), Faults (black lines) and main Holocene volcanoes (green triangles). Convergence velocity vector of Nazca Plate after
Angermann et al. (1999). A blue square shown MCVC location. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web
version of this article.)

2
C. Peña et al.
main line of the LOFS. The MCVC volcanic products evidence contin­
uous volcanic activity from the middle Pleistocene to historical erup­
tions (Rawson et al., 2015). Moreover, in this area there are an
important number of flank and monogenetic cones, making it an
excellent place for the local scale studies of the relationship between
tectonism and volcanism. Unfortunately, only few works carried out in
the area mention this link (Esparza, 2006; Gardenweg and Sellés, 2012;
Rawson et al., 2016) and none of them in a deep and specific way. This
work seeks to clarify the nature of the basement structures in the study
area and the possible role they play in the development and evolution of
the volcanic complex.
As a final result, a structural model of the MCVC basement was built,
providing new structural, kinematic and dynamic insights that charac­
terize the study area, which would condition the formation and evolu­
tion of the MCVC.
2. Geological and tectonic background
2.1. Structural setting
At Southern Andes magmatic arc, known as Southern Volcanic Zone
(SVZ) between 33◦ and 46◦ S (López-Escobar et al., 1995), the stress
distribution and deformation pattern are governed by the
dextral-oblique convergence between Nazca and South America plates,
at a rate of ca. 66 mm/yr that has prevailed for the last 20 Ma (e.g.
Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987; Jarrard, 1986; Sielfeld et al., 2019), with
a subduction angle of ca. 16◦ and a convergence angle (α) of ca. 78◦
(Angermann et al., 1999) (Fig. 1). It should be noted that at 38◦ S sig­
nificant changes take place in the basement architecture, intra-arc tec­
tonics and volcanic nature (Sielfeld et al., 2016). Exhumation rates are
limited to less than 0.1 mm/year north of this latitude and more than 1
mm/year south of this latitude (Glodny et al., 2008). From 38◦ S Qua­
ternary volcanism is spatially and genetically linked to the Liqui­
ñe-Ofqui Fault System (LOFS) (Fig. 1; Cembrano and Lara, 2009),
resulting in a different causal link between arc volcanism and crustal
deformation.
Part of the deformation generated by the oblique plate motion is
accommodated in the intra-arc LOFS (Fig. 1; e.g. Dewey and Lamb, 1992;
Arancibia et al., 1999; Cembrano and Lara, 2009; Cembrano and Hervé,
1993), with variations in the nature, time and degree of partial parti­
tioning of the deformation (Cembrano et al., 2000).
The LOFS is 1200 km-long, N10◦ E striking, intra-arc strike-slip fault
system, that dominates the region between 38◦ and 46◦ S (Cembrano and
Lara, 2009; Rosenau et al., 2006), which is associated with NE-striking
normal-dextral faults that splay off NNE-striking faults (Pérez-Flores
et al., 2016). LOFS is spatially related to Quaternary volcanic activity,
controlling the architecture of the volcanic arc and the occurrence,
spatial distribution and geometry of major stratovolcanoes (Fig. 1;
Melnick et al., 2006; Cembrano and Lara, 2009; Sielfeld et al., 2016).
Present-day seismicity has been detected throughout the fault system
(Lange et al., 2008), registering even larger earthquakes (e.g. Mw 6.2 in
Aysén Fjord) (Legrand et al., 2011; Mora et al., 2010).
In turn, NW- striking second order structures (Fig. 1) interpreted by
several authors as inherited faults from subsequently reactivated pre-
Andean geological processes (e.g. López-Escobar et al., 1995; Melnick
et al., 2006; Stanton-Yonge Sesnic, 2016; Veloso et al., 2019), are
recognized as part of a fault system called Andes Transversal Faults
(ATF) (Pérez-Flores et al., 2016; Sielfeld et al., 2019). ATF include a
group of sinistral and sinistral-reverse NW to WNW-striking faults and
morphological lineaments (Roquer et al., 2019). At regional scale these
structures play a key role in the subduction earthquake segmentation
(Melnick et al., 2009) and are spatially and genetically associated with
the occurrence of several ore deposits (e.g. Piquer et al., 2016), Cenozoic
basins (e.g. Radic, 2010) and placement and alignment of volcanic
chains (e.g. Lara et al., 2006; Cembrano y Lara, 2009).
Several authors have recorded and studied seismicity along the LOFS
3
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435
(e.g. Lange et al., 2008; Pérez-Estay et al., 2020) verifying its recent
movement. On February 11 (2021) a Mw 4.7 earthquake took place in
the study area 37 km E of Panguipulli locality. Due to its strike-slip focal
mechanism, it was associated with the Neltume fault (Centro Sis­
mológico Nacional; CSN). This earthquake triggered landslides and rock
falls, followed by several smaller aftershocks. This event highlights that
this fault system and the associated secondary faults present a great
seismogenic potential.
The SVZ is characterized by different types of volcanism depending
on the structures involved. Cembrano and Lara (2009) proposed a
conceptual model to explain the spatial relationship between the
first-order geochemical characteristics of volcanic systems and the
structural configuration of the basement for the SVZ. Stratovolcanoes in
a (1) NE-trending system represent tension fractures, extensional-shear
fractures or tail cracks oriented subparallel to the maximum horizon­
tal stress and are dominantly basaltic to andesitic (e.g.
Callaqui-Copahue-Mandolehue; López-Escobar et al., 1995). Mean­
while, the (2) NW-trending systems have a compressive regime, and
facilitate the permanence of magma in horizontal reservoirs for long
periods of time, favoring its magmatic differentiation and frequently
include dacitic to rhyolitic rocks (e.g. Puyehue-Cordón Caulle; Lara
et al., 2004). These NW-SE systems correspond to co-seismic misor­
iented fissural volcanism, however there are cases spatially and
temporally associated with ancient structures that may provide direct
pathways for the ascent of magmas (e.g. Villarrica–Quetrupillán–Lanín;
Cembrano and Lara, 2009). This “contradiction” evidences the role of
regional and local structures which condition the behavior and
composition of volcanic systems.
2.2. Local geology
The Mocho-Choshuenco Volcanic Complex (MCVC) sits on top of the
basement’s intrusive rocks belonging to the North Patagonian Batolith,
and partially covered by Pleistocene and Holocene volcanic rocks.
Furthermore, in the study area there are minor outcrops of Mesozoic
sedimentary rocks and low-grade metamorphic rocks assigned to the
Upper Paleozoic (Di Biase, 1976) (Fig. 2).
The plutonic basement is conformed by intrusive rocks generated by
different magmatic pulses ranging in age from the Carboniferous to the
Miocene (Munizaga, 1988; Rodríguez et al., 1999). These plutonic rocks
are grouped in Futrono-Riñihue Batolith (Carboniferous-Lower
Permian), Panguipulli Pluton (Lower-Middle Jurassic), Paimún (Creta­
ceous) and Miocene Granitoids, Miocene Porphyry and their respective
equivalents (Rodríguez et al., 1999; Lara and Moreno, 2004; Moreno and
Lara, 2007) (Fig. 2), mostly with dominant differentiated compositions.
Panguipulli Pluton cuts a Triassic sedimentary sequence at the east of
the study area (Panguipulli Formation; Rodríguez et al., 1999). Towards
the south, a Miocene volcanic-sedimentary sequence (Lago Ranco
Layers) is intruded by Miocene Granitoids (Campos et al., 1998). Near
the Liquiñe locality, metamorphic rocks, belonging to Liquiñe Meta­
morphic Complex (Paleozoic-Triassic) were observed at the E of LOFS
(Hervé, 1977; Moreno and Lara, 2007).
In the study area, the NW-striking morphological features stand out
(Moreno and Lara, 2007) Roquer et al. (2019) studied an exposed part of
the ATF just north of the study area (39◦ S), however around the MCVC
there are no NW-striking faults documented. The only evidence of the
ATF in the area is the alignment of glacial valleys, river courses and lake
basins. The main faults in this zone are the LOFS and Pirehueico-Reigolil
Fault, located east of the study area, which is responsible for
NNE-striking morphologic features and putting rocks of different ages in
contact with each other (Fig. 2). Other important faults in this area,
recognized by other authors, are Los Baños, Enco and Neltume faults.
The first one is a NW-striking sinestral-slip fault, located on the north
shore of Pirehueico Lake, which interrupts and separates the
Pirehueico-Reigolil fault (Lara and Moreno, 2004). The Enco fault is a
minor NE-striking normal fault, marked by Enco river basin and it
C. Peña et al.
Fig. 2. Geological-structural map of the study area, between 39◦ S and 40◦ S. Geology was modified from Rodríguez et al. (1999) and Lara and Moreno (2004), and
structures was modified from Esparza (2006); Rodríguez et al. (1999); Moreno and Lara (2007); Lara and Moreno (2004); Di Biase (1976).
connects the drainage of Panguipulli and Riñihue lakes (Rodríguez et al.,
1999). Finally, the Neltume fault (Campos et al., 1998) is a NE-striking
dextral-slip fault, which could be the northern extension of the Maihue
fault (Rosenau, 2004).
2.3. Mocho-Choshuenco Volcanic Complex
The MCVC is a compound stratovolcano located at SVZ (39.9◦ S):
Mocho volcano has a 4 km-wide caldera, infilled by a glacier and with a
young scoria cone in the center, called Mocho; and Choshuenco volcano,
which forms part of the north-western rim of the caldera, has only been
partially affected by the collapse so it retains its conical form (Rawson
et al., 2015; Moreno and Lara, 2007). The volcanic product composition
ranges from basaltic andesite to rhyolite (Rawson et al., 2016),
evidencing continuous volcanic activity from the middle Pleistocene
(~350 ka) to historical eruptions. MCVC is one of the most productive
(ca. 1 km3/kyr) and active volcanoes in the SVZ during post-glacial
times (<18 ka), in explosiveness terms, with ca. 75 explosive erup­
tions and an eruptive frequency of one explosive eruption every ~220
years (Rawson et al., 2015).
The volcanic units present in this area are represented by effusions
from the caldera, Choshuenco volcano, Mocho volcano and parasite
activity originated by a series of minor eruptive centers and mono­
genetic cones, located on the flanks of the volcanic complex (Di Biase,
4
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435
1976; Moreno and Lara, 2007). Rawson et al. (2015) identified 27 vol­
canic deposits; these units were interpreted as products of a separate
explosive eruption.
Additionally, there are ca. 45 minor scoria cones on the flanks
(Moreno and Lara, 2007). The cones are subdivided into four main
groups: Chanchán (4 cones to the NE of the volcanic complex), Fui (ca.
25 cones to the NE of the edifice; subdivided into Fui Sur and Fui Alto),
Alto Caunahue (ca. 10 cones at the SW flank) and Ranquil (4 cones at the
NE flank) (Fig. 3). Both the orientation of these groups of cones and the
volcanic complex itself suggest a spatial and genetic relationship with
the feeder fractures and surrounding structures (e.g. Di Biase, 1976;
Gardenweg and Sellés, 2012).
3. Methodology
3.1. Field structural mapping
This study is based on the results obtained from the field work car­
ried out in the surroundings of the MCVC. Prior to the field work major
sites of interest were established based on photointerpretation of Digital
Elevation Models (DEM) and QuickBird ® imagery (freely available
from Google Earth) in combination with information from previous
works. In these areas five key structural sites were defined: Lago Pan­
guipulli, Liquiñe, Lago Neltume, Lago Pirehueico and Enco (Fig. 2 and
C. Peña et al.
Fig. 3. Digital Elevation Model showing the preferential orientation of flank and monogenetic cones: Alto Caunahue Group (yellow asterisk), Ranquil Group (red
asterisk), Fui Volcanic Group (green asterisk) and Chanchán Volcanoes (blue asterisk) (modified from Moreno and Lara, 2007; Gardeweg and Sellés, 2012). (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
Table 1). A detailed structural mapping was performed at each structural
site, characterizing the geometry and kinematics of the fault planes. The
strike and slip of the all identified fault planes were measured and in­
formation such as the width of the fault, texture of the fault, striations
and crosscutting relationship was collected. The sense of movement was
established using kinematic criteria for brittle faults (e.g. Petit, 1987).
The type of kinematic indicator was also recorded, mostly R-type frac­
tures and mineral slickenfibers.
3.2. Fault-slip data inversion
All data collected in the field was kinematically and dynamically
analyzed, from regional and local scales. The regional scale includes all
fault-slip data measured in the study area, whereas, for local scale the
data inversion analyses were done for each structural site
independently.
3.2.1. Kinematic analysis
The method of fault-slip analysis was used for the determination of
strain field (Marrett and Allmendinger, 1990; Allmendinger et al., 2012)
by means of FaultKin 7 software. The software calculates and plots the
orientation of the compression (P) and tension (T) axes for each indi­
vidual fault plane and the average kinematic axes (shortening, stretch­
ing and intermediate axes) for different fault populations, based on the
orientation of the fault plane and the displacement vector resolved on
such fault plane (slickenside) (Marrett and Allmendinger, 1990). The
distribution of the P and T axes can show if the data represents or not a
5
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435
uniform deformation field, only when P and T axes are presented in
defined clusters, the fault data population will be the result of homo­
geneous faulting and the kinematics axes will have a geological sense.
The table summarized the main structural elements mapping at each
structural site and their strain and stress solutions. The age of the host
rock from data of Munizaga et al. (1988), Rodríguez et al. (1999) and
Lara and Moreno (2004).
3.2.2. Dynamic analysis
The “Multiple Inverse Method” (MIM) (Yamaji, 2000) was used to
determine the stress field. This method calculates the orientation of
paleo-stress tensors from the inversion of fault-slip data and allows
isolation of homogeneous stress fields recorded on polyphasic hetero­
geneous fault-slip data. The stress state is defined by four parameters:
the orientation of the three principal stresses axes and the stress ratio ϕ
(ϕ = σ2 - σ3/σ1 - σ3). To obtain this information, the software requires
the strike and dip of the fault planes and direction and sense of
displacement. Based on this data set, the program generates a combi­
natorial number of sub-groups of k-faults (Yamaji, 2000) and calculates
the optimal stress tensor for each of the groups of k-fault planes.
For calculating the stress axes, the software uses classical stress
inversion methods based on the Wallace-Bott hypothesis (Wallace,
1951; Bott, 1959), according to which the displacement in a fault plane
occurs parallel to the orientation of the maximum shear stress, under a
defined stress tensor. For an optimal result, it attempts to minimize the
misfit angle, defined as the angle between the observed and theoretical
slip direction on a fault plane (for an assumed stress state). An optimal
C. Peña et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435

stress state is defined when the misfit angle is less than 30◦ for each of

The table summarized the main structural elements mapping at each structural site and their strain and stress solutions. The age of the host rock from data of Munizaga et al. (1988), Rodríguez et al. (1999) and Lara &
the k-fault planes contained in the group. Finally, the values for σ1 and

Tectonic regime

Transtensional
σ3, calculated for each generated sub-group of k-faults, are plotted onto

Strike-slip
two different stereograms. Solutions of principal axes are color-coded

strike-slip
according to their stress ratio (ϕ) and have an attached tail pointing
toward the orientation of the complementary principal axis (e.g. σ1’s tail

–
points toward σ3, and vice versa). If the principal axes are in a single

0,7

0,5
ϕ cluster, with similar stress ratio colors and tail points orientation, it
–

–
Dynamic secondary stress

indicates a homogeneous stress tensor, whereas, if the fault-slip data are

330/08

078/19
heterogeneous, every stress state will be represented in a different
cluster (Yamaji, 2000). The distribution of ϕ-values may be a calculation
σ3
–

–
tool, for example when the ϕ-histogram shows a Gaussian type distri­
067/38 bution, the major value will be the more representative, but in the case

347/03
of a bimodal distribution, one stress field solution is calculated for each
σ1

representative ϕ-value. In some cases, the orientation of the principal

–

–
axes solutions may display widespread distribution, hindering selection
of the representative stress field. Thus, the tectonic regimes proposed by
Tectonic regime

Transpressional
Transtensional

Transtensional

Ritz (1994) were used, in which the orientation of the principal axes are
Strike-slip
strike-slip

strike-slip

strike-slip

determined by the tectonic regimes as extensional, compressional or

strike-slip. Depending on the ϕ-value, the strike-slip regime could be
either transpressional (ϕ < 0.5) or transtensional (ϕ > 0.5).
–

In this study, the dynamic analysis was carried out considering a

0.7

0,4

0,2

0,5

minimum of 10 faults. For the most of the analysis 5 was used as k-value,
ϕ

–
Dynamic principal stress

recommended by Yamaji (2000) for databases with less than 100 fail­
283/54

330/22

354/40

245/66

ures. Only for Liquiñe structural site a k-value equal to 3 was used due to
σ3

the low number of available data.

–

4. Results
028/10

067/17

254/12

034/21
σ1

4.1. Architecture and geometry of fault-fracture networks in the study

area
304/25

323/15

349/19

147/46

094/04
T-axe

The principal structural elements of each structural site, based on

field work, are summarized in Table 1, and the spatial distribution of the
Kinematic

036/04

055/09

080/02

049/08

190/60

main faults are illustrated in Fig. 4. The described structural elements

P-axe

are observed in metamorphic, igneous and volcanic-sedimentary base­

ment rocks, ranging in age from Triassic to Miocene (Moreno and Lara,
NS to NE-SW EW

2007) (Fig. 2).

to ENE NE-SW

NW-SE NE-SW
NS to NE-SW

NS to NE-SW

NS to NE-SW

In the MCVC’s surrounding area, different fault sets were observed

orientation

ENE-WSW

and inferred (Fig. 4), which can be divided into (1) NNE-striking first
Principal

NW-SE

order faults, (2) NW-striking second order faults and (3) local NE-
striking and N–S striking third order faults.
The master (first order) faults are represented by two km-long NNE-
striking subparallel and subvertical faults: Pirehueico-Reigolil fault and
Main structural

andesitic dikes
sinestral faults

sinestral faults

the main branch of LOFS, in addition to Neltume fault, a synthetic NE-

Dextral faults

Dextral faults

Dextral faults

Dextral faults

Dextral faults
normal faults

normal faults

striking fault (Fig. 4). The Liquiñe-Ofqui fault is strongly marked by

elements

the alignment of valleys and escarpments, cutting dominantly granitoid

basement and bringing together Triassic and Cretaceous rocks, of the
Liquiñe Metamorphic Complex and Paimún granitoids respectively,
Miocene granitoids (Miocene, 18-5 Ma).

with Miocene granitoids (Lara and Moreno, 2004). The same applies to
Granitoid, Panguipulli Pluton (Middle-

Granitoid, Panguipulli Pluton (Middle-

Tonalite, Panguipulli Pluton (Middle-

Lutite, Panguipulli Formation (Upper

Pirehueico-Reigolil fault with Jurassic granitoids and Paleozoic meta­

Lower Jurassic, 180-160 Ma) and

morphic rocks. The main branch of LOFS, despite being a well-marked

Gneisses, Liquiñe Metamorphic
Complex (Triassic protholite)

Lower Jurassic, 180-160 Ma)

Lower Jurassic, 180-160 Ma)

lineament at a regional scale, is difficult to find good outcrops with

exposed faults. In Liquiñe structural site, faults with cm-to m-scale thick
Triassic, 230-208 Ma)

are observed (Fig. 5b), mostly oriented on N–S or E-W, but the largest
structures observed contains water flows and a thick vegetation cover,
Host rock (age)

making it difficult to register. Further south, at Lago Pirehueico struc­

tural site, the rectilinear NNE-striking valleys are observed cutting the
mountains (Fig. 5a). These valleys are the morphological expression of
LOFS and their intrusive rocks are cut by a set of NE-striking andesite
dikes (Fig. 5c and Table 1), reaching a maximum thickness of 3.5 m. The
Lago Panguipulli
Lago Pirehueico
Moreno (2004).

Lago Neltume structural site is a synthetic fault zone (Fig. 5a), in this
Structural site

Lago Neltume

place the faults are mostly randomly oriented (Fig. 5d), noting the
absence of NW-striking structures. Several faults show mm-cm scale
Liquiñe
Table 1

Enco

thick and subvertical dip (Fig. 6d). In the vicinity of MCVC there are a set
of minor eruptive centers with an evident volcanic alignment (Fig. 3).

6
C. Peña et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435

NNE-striking Fui Alto Volcanic Group is subparallel to Liquiñe-Ofqui
fault, meanwhile Chanchán Volcanoes, Fui Sur Volcanic Group and Alto
Caunahue Group present a NE-SW orientation.
Second order faults are km-long NW-striking left-slip to left-reverse
oblique slip faults, mostly correspond to faults inferred from morpho­
logic lineaments with the exception of the Panguipulli structural site
where faults were measured. This type of faults associated with ATF
corresponds to pre-Andean anisotropies inherited from the basement (e.
g. Pérez-Flores et al., 2016; Piquer et al., 2016) as well as LOFS, are
strongly evidenced in the study area by the alignment of valleys, lakes
and even the volcanic complex itself. The representative outcrop of
second order faults is Lago Panguipulli structural site, characterized by
m-long faults with cores that go up to 20 cm thick, some of them with
calcite slickenfibres (Fig. 6b). NE-striking and NW-striking faults mainly
present a dextral-slip and left-slip respectively. The Ranquil group,
located at the N-flank of the MCVC (Fig. 3), consists of a set of
NW-striking cones, sub-parallel to the orientation of the volcanic com­
plex, this alignment would be directly related to this fault zone.
The local third order faults correspond to cm to m-scale structures of
varied orientations and sense of movement, mainly with NE- and N–S
strike and cores that do not exceed 3 cm thick. Enco structural site is
representative of this type of faults, but the high extent of vegetation
cover did not allow a large amount of data to be documented (Fig. 6c).
However, there is a trend in a NE-SW direction, which coincides with the
valley of the Enco River (Fig. 6a).

Fig. 4. (a) Study area final geological-structural map, showing LOFS (black lines) and the NW-Striking faults belonging to ATF (red lines). The white squares show
the different structural sites (Liquiñe, Lago Pirehueico, Lago Neltume, Lago Panguipulli and Enco). (b) The rossette diagram corresponds to the direction of the dikes
measured in the field. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

7
C. Peña et al.
4.2. Kinematics and dynamics of fault-fracture networks
4.2.1. Regional-scale analysis
For the regional kinematic and dynamic analysis, the entire fault
population were used (n = 75), collected from the five structural sites
and few of them from others parts of the study area. Inversion proced­
ures were applied to the database, obtaining different parameters
(Fig. 7).
The regional strain analysis shows P and T axes widely distributed,
forming poorly defined clusters, (Fig. 7b). This suggests that in the study
area there is not homogeneous kinematic information, hinting at a
complex geological evolution. Considering this, the strain analysis
would not be representative without an arbitrary data selection (Marrett
and Allmendinger, 1990; Veloso et al., 2015; Pérez-Flores et al., 2016;
Yamaji, 2000). To overcome this problem, the fault-slip data was
Fig. 5. (a) Google Earth image of the study area’s northeast zone showing major faults (black lines) and inferred faults (dotted line) at Liquiñe and Lago Pirehueico
structural sites. (b) Normal fault Liquiñe structural site (N8◦ E/86◦ W rake 76◦ ). (c) 60–80 cm wide dike at the Lago Pirehueico structural site (N35◦ E/83◦ W). (d)
Reverse fault at Lago Pirehueico structural site (N5◦ E/43◦ E rake 135◦ ).
8
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435
analyzed by structural sites, in an effort to find and differentiate
local-scale homogeneous strain fields recorded within the regionally
heterogeneous fault-data set.
Regional stress analysis shows several trends in the ϕ-histogram,
with main modes at 0.3 and 0.6 (Fig. 7d). Whereas, clustering of stress
axes solutions display a well-marked trend: NE-SW orientation for σ1
axis and NW-SE in the σ3 axis case (Fig. 7c). From this, the calculated
stress field reflects two stress axes solutions: (1) a main transpressional
regime associated with a ϕ-value of 0.3 yields a N61◦ E-trending sub­
horizontal σ1 axis and a N26◦ W-trending subhorizontal σ3 axis (Fig. 7c)
and (2) a secondary transtensional regime linked to ϕ-value of 0.6, with
a N42◦ W-trending subvertical σ1 axis and a N45◦ W subvertical σ3.
4.2.2. Local-scale analysis
A summary of the strain and stress field results of fault-slip data at
C. Peña et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435

each structural site is shown in Fig. 8 and Table 1.
The NNE-trending fault zones associated with the LOFS (Lago Pir­
ehueico and Liquiñe structural sites) (Fig. 5a and Table 1) show P and T
axes defined clusters with a minor scattering. The principal stress axes
indicate NE-trending shortening and NW-trending stretching and the
strain field solutions show ENE-to N-trending subvertical σ1 and WNW-
to W-trending subvertical σ3, corresponding to strike-slip tectonic
regime (ϕ = 0.4–0.7). In Lago Neltume structural site, the fault-slip data
shows dispersion of P and T axis, with trends near the E-W and N–S
orientations respectively. The principal stress axes solutions indicate
two solutions for the stress field, the first one with an ENE-trending
horizontal σ1 and NNW-trending horizontal σ3, indicating a trans­
pressive tectonic regime (ϕ = 0.2). The secondary solution shows an
ENE-trending σ1 and NNW-trending horizontal σ3 in a transtensional
regime (ϕ = 0.7). The orientations of kinematic and dynamics axes in
this structural site show a good agreement for these N–S striking fault
sets.
Second order Andes transverse fault system is represented by the
Lago Panguipulli structural site (Fig. 6a and Table 1). Its fault-slip data
reflects a preferential NW-trend, the clustering of P and T axes show a
wide distribution. This heterogeneous fault-slip data analyzed suggests
polyphasic deformations and/or the reactivation of pre-existing anisot­
ropies. The stress analysis evidence two stress field solutions; the ob­
tained transpressional (principal) and strike-slip (secondary) local stress
fields share a common ϕ-value (ϕ = 0.5). The principal solution presents
NNE-trending subhorizontal σ1 and subvertical σ3. Meanwhile, the
secondary strain field solution shows a subhorizontal N-trending σ1 with
E-W trending σ3 axis.
The kinematic analysis of Enco structural site (Fig. 6a and Table 1)
shows moderate dispersion of P and T axes, keeping sub-vertical
trending for P axis. Unfortunately, the limited fault data collected at
the site precludes a dynamic analysis. The heterogeneity of this site
could be attributed to the reasons mentioned above or to the little fault-
slip information in this area.

Fig. 6. (a) Google Earth image of the study area’s northwest zone showing major faults (black lines) and inferred faults (dotted line) at Lago Panguipulli, Enco and
Lago Neltume Structural site. (b) Reverse fault at Lago Panguipulli structural site (N75◦ E/85◦ W rake 130◦ ). (c) Dike with a great alteration to clay, 50 cm thick at the
Enco structural site (N34◦ E/24◦ SE). (d) Normal-dextral slip fault at Lago Neltume Structural site (N46◦ E/43◦ SE rake 130◦ ).

9
C. Peña et al.
Fig. 7. Lower hemisphere, equal-area projections showing gathered fault-slip data and results of strain and stress analyses, at regional scale. (a) Mesoscopic fault-slip
data. (b) Orientation of T (red dots) and P (blue dots) axes (e.g. Marrett and Allmendinger, 1990). (c) Orientation of calculated stress axes (σ1 and σ3) for principal
(red triangle and star) and secondary (blue triangle and star) stress (MIM. Yamaji, 2000). (d) ϕ-Histogram. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
4.3. Feeder dikes and minor eruptive centers
As a first-order approach, regional stress field controls the spatial
distribution and geometry of dikes and minor eruptive centers (e.g.
Nakamura, 1977; Sielfeld et al., 2016; Tibaldi et al., 2017), nonetheless
favorably oriented pre-existing weakness zones may reactivate and be
the loci for magma migration (Sielfeld et al., 2016).
In field, mostly andesitic variable-thicknesses dikes were observed. A
total of 15 dikes orientations were measured in rocks of Panguipulli
Pluton, Miocene granitoids and Lago Ranco Layers, 12 of them in
Jurassic rocks located in the Lago Pirehueico structural site. A prefer­
ential NE-SW bimodal arrangement is obtained (Fig. 4).
The spatial distribution of minor eruptive centers (Fig. 3) shows a
clear volcanic alignment in 3 main orientations: (1) NE-trending, pre­
sented by Chanchán volcanoes, Fui Sur and Alto Caunahue Group, (2)
NNE-trending Fui Alto Group is located in the vicinity of the main
branch of the LOFS and (3) NW-trending Ranquil Group is aligned in
accordance with the trend of the inherited structures of the basement.
5. Discussion
Several authors have carried out studies in the area around the
Mocho-Choshuenco volcanic complex (e.g. Hervé, 1976; Pérez, 2005;
Moreno and Lara, 2007; Gardenweg and Sellés, 2012; Rawson et al.,
2015), highlighting the marked presence of the LOFS and the volcanic
activity of MCVC. Esparza (2006), in his structural work, reveals the
occurrence of several local structures associated to the volcanic system,
whereas the tephrostratigraphic and geochemical studies (e.g. Rawson
et al., 2015; Gardenweg and Sellés, 2012; Rawson et al., 2016) discuss
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435
the frequency, magnitude and characteristics of the volcanic activity
presented by MCVC, the changes in the stress field due to the last great
glaciation, its effect on the magmatic reservoir, and the relationship of
the flank and monogenetic cones with the volcanic complex. The
structural characterization provided in this work are consistent with that
proposed by the previous authors.
5.1. Results analysis
The presence of LOFS is clearly reflected in the geometry and strike-
slip kinematics of the structural sites located in its vicinity (Liquiñe and
Lago Pirehueico) (Fig. 4). The same applies to the other structural sites,
where each one is consistent with what is expected for its location: the
Neltume structural site is associated with NE-trending strike-slip faults,
the Lago Panguipulli structural site reflects NW-striking left-slip struc­
tures, which limit the edge of the Panguipulli lake; and the Enco struc­
tural site, related to a normal structure that controls the Enco river basin
(Figs. 4 and 6a).
Since the study area is under a transpressional deformation regime, it
is possible to compare the structural configuration with the model
proposed by Riedel (1929). At first glance, it would appear that the
geometry and kinematics of the fault-fracture network at a regional scale
(Fig. 4) assert that the strain is concordant with the model, however the
angles of the structures do not match completely and there are tempo­
rality problems. Tentatively, if the structures in the area were considered
to fit this model, the main fault would correspond to the LOFS. The
Neltume fault could be interpreted as an R structure of the main fault,
even though it has a higher angle than expected. Meanwhile the ge­
ometry and the normal movement of the Enco fault would be consistent
C. Peña et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435

Fig. 8. Lower hemisphere, equal-area projections showing gathered fault-slip data and results of strain and stress analyses at each structural site. (a) Mesoscopic
fault-slip data and their kinematics indicators. (b) Solution of P and T axes whit their orientation of T (red dots) and P (blue dots) axes (e.g. Marrett and Allmendinger,
1990). (c) Orientation of calculated stress axes (σ1 and σ3) for principal (red triangle and star) and secondary (blue triangle and star) stress (MIM. Yamaji, 2000), (d)
Histogram of phi frequency. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

with Riedel’s model. Fault reactivation of pre-existing faults depends
mainly on depth, rock mechanical properties, pore fluid pressure and the
orientation of faults with respect to the maximum principal stress axis (e.
g. Sibson, 1996, 2003; Rosenau, 2006). For this reason, we speculated
that the NW-trending faults (Panguipulli and Los Baños faults) being
inherited structures with favorable orientation regarding the current
stress regime were reactivated as a kind of R′ structures, accommodating
the deformation in spite of not being originated directly by the stress
regime. The presence of tension cracks with NE-orientation could be
reflected by the dominating NE-trending dikes and several NE-alignment
minor eruptive cones. However, in a strict sense, in order to define an
ideal Riedel’ model, a western boundary strike-slip fault is required.
Neither field work nor satellite data show the existence of any major
fault towards the west of the study area, making it probable that towards
the W-limit, the system will gradually fade, becoming more marked in
the proximity of the main line of the LOFS. In the future, it would be
desirable to produce structural model that matches the distribution and
geometry of the local data presented here in a better way.
Unfortunately, the faults’ age in the study area is not available.
Methodological difficulties do not allow us to determine directly or
indirectly the age of the faults, due to the absence of datable minerals in
the fault planes and observable cross-cutting relationships. However, the
results obtained from the dynamic analysis of the data give stresses
consistent with a single predominant tectonic regime which is the result
of the oblique convergence. Therefore, regardless of the age of the faults
it can be assumed that most of the structures were active simultaneously
in recent times under this stress field, superimposed on past tectonic
regimes that may have been recorded. Changes in the local stress field
indicate that the orientation of regional stress axes is disturbed by the
intersection of fault zones (e.g. Pérez-Flores et al., 2016). This hetero­
geneity of stress fields associated with different fault-fracture systems is
what allows the emplacement and transport of magma and, therefore,
the existence of volcanic activity in the MCVC surroundings.

11
C. Peña et al.
Fig. 9. MCVC Schematic volcano-tectonic 3D model, showing the orientation
of flank and monogenetic cones: Alto Caunahue Group (yellow points), Ranquil
Group (red points), Fui Volcanic Group (light blue points) and Chanchán Vol­
canoes (blue points). Blue tones represent LOFS principal planes, purple NW-
Striking structures and green tension cracks. Orange and red lines represent the
principal feeder pathways. (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
5.2. Structural model
Our results and the studies of previous authors (e.g. Esparza, 2006;
Moreno and Lara, 2007; Rodríguez et al., 1999) let us build a structural
model of the MCVC basement (Fig. 9) that reflects the complexity of
volcano-tectonic interaction and the key role of the intersection of
structural systems.
The different structures (of first, second and third order) described in
the study area are represented in a generalized and schematic way,
showing how the LOFS interacts with the NW-striking ATF and the NE-
trending structures. A series of N–S to NNE-aligned scarps and valleys
are controlled by LOFS (e.g. Hervé, 1976), we propose that the main line
of this structural system is part of a half-positive flower structure with
the Pirehueico-Reigolil fault, located towards the east of the study area
(Fig. 4), since both have kinematics with a reverse component, similar
dip and are sub-parallel to each other. The orientation of the lake valleys
and the NW-elongated morphology of the MCVC are some of the evi­
dence of NW-striking inherited structures belonging to the ATF (e.g.
Sielfeld et al., 2019). The NE-trending structures represented in the
model correspond to tension cracks, which owe their origin to the pre­
sent convergence angle, since this direction coincides with the value of
σ1 calculated at regional scale for the study area. Based on field obser­
vations and proposals by other authors (Esparza, 2006; Lara and Mor­
eno, 2004), suggested crosscuts relationships between structures with
different orientation. The presence and interaction of these
fault-fracture networks allows the circulation of magmatic and hydro­
thermal fluids, controlling the occurrence, spatial distribution and ge­
ometry of both the MCVC and its associated volcanic features.
The existing regional stress field affects the orientation of dikes, and
the predominant direction of feeder dyke trends is parallel or close-to-
parallel to the maximum horizontal shortening at distal zones of the
main volcano edifice (Andersonian dykes) (e.g. Nakamura, 1977). The
dikes measured in the area are dominantly NE-striking, parallel to the
σ1-trend calculated in this work, suggesting that dikes migrate through
tension cracks. Meanwhile, dikes can also propagate through favorably
oriented inherited basement faults beneath the volcano edifice (non-­
Andersonian dykes) (Sielfeld et al., 2016). Parallel dike propagation
12
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 111 (2021) 103435
may drive to build a volcano edifice with an elongated anatomy. Thus,
dikes directly underneath the MCVC probably present a predominant
NW-trend.
The 3 main orientations of minor eruptive centers could be associ­
ated with principal structures. NE-trending orientations (Chanchán
volcanoes, Fui Sur and Alto Caunahue Group) are favorable for the
development of tension cracks, as they are consistent with the σ1-trend
obtained for the regional stress field, optimal for the occurrence of
monogenetic volcanic fields (Corazzato and Tibaldi, 2006).
NNE-trending minor eruptive centers (Fui Alto Group) located
sub-parallel to LOFS suggest that this fault system plays an important
role in the transport of magmatic fluids through the crust. Finally,
NW-trending cones (Ranquil Group) aligned sub-parallel to the elon­
gation of the volcanic complex, hint at a genetic link of its feeder
structures.
In terms of composition, the major elements of the volcanic products
indicate a consanguinity of the magmas of the MCVC, independent of the
issuing vent, highlighting the absence of basalts (McMillan et al., 1989;
Moreno and Lara, 2007). However, certain differences are found by
comparing these compositions with the surrounding monogenetic cones.
Gardeweg and Sellés (2012) assert that the volcanic products of Fui Sur
Group present basaltic to dacitic compositions, similar to MCVC,
whereas the cones of Fui Alto Group are constituted exclusively by
poorly evolved basalts, with high content of MgO, Cr, Ni and incom­
patible trace-elements (Ba, Nb, Th y La), achieving values 2 or 3 times
higher than the volcanic complex. These basalts are very similar to the
basalts that compose the Chanchán Volcanoes, although their
geochemistry indicates a provenance from a more primitive magma
(Gardeweg and Sellés, 2012). The basaltic composition of the mono­
genetic cones is different to the basalts that originate the magmas of the
MCVC, and because there is no interaction with differentiated magmas,
it is inferred that the pathways are independent and mutually isolated.
Only Fui Sur Group would be connected to the volcanic complex in
depth (Gardeweg and Sellés, 2012). Fui Alto Group and Chanchán
Volcanoes are located within the surroundings of the main line of LOFS,
which might favor the ascent of deep magmas, avoiding the interaction
with the crust.
The magmatic reservoir is indicated in a schematic way, since the
absence of seismic and geophysical data in the area prevents the
determination of its location and shape. However, the NW-elongated
anatomy of the volcanic edifice indicates that the reservoir presents an
elongated morphology in the same direction, embracing the ramp-and-
flat model postulated by Sánchez et al. (2013) for systems dominated by
oblique-to-the-arc fault systems. Therefore, we propose that the
magmatic reservoir is probably formed at the flat portions of the reverse
faults similar to that suggested by González et al. (2009) for Pleistocene
volcanoes in the magmatic arc of the central Andes. The model is
consistent with the volcanic products composite since it is perpendicular
to the maximum-shortening axis orientation, impeding a direct path of
the magmatic fluids towards the surface, consequently increasing their
residence time and allowing their differentiation, and thus explaining
the absence of basaltic compositions.
6. Conclusions
The analysis of structural and volcanic elements reflects the impor­
tance and complexity of their interaction at a regional and local scale, in
the domain of the LOFS and ATF near the MCVC. Our conclusions are
summarized as follows:
1. The new structural insights provided in this work are concordant and
adapt quite well to those proposed by the previous authors and offer
a global perspective that makes it possible to integrate and comple­
ment the knowledge already available, establishing the structural
basis for future work in the area.
C. Peña et al.
2. The fault-fracture networks allow the transport of magma through
the crust and its storage in a magmatic reservoir. The unfavorable
orientation of the reservoir improves the magma differentiation by
fractional crystallization.
3. The calculated regional stress field, with N61◦ E-trending σ1 axis and
a N26◦ W-trending σ3 axis, is consistent with a unique tectonic
regime, associated with the current oblique convergence.
4. Deformation driven by oblique convergence is partially partitioned,
where the margin-parallel component originates a major dextral
strike-slip fault system, the LOFS. At the study area, this tectonic
regime corresponds to a strike-slip-dominated transpression.
5. The main line of LOFS with Pirehueico-Reigolil fault conform a half-
positive flower structure, which is cross-cut by NW-trending inheri­
ted structures and NE-striking tension cracks, forming the intersec­
tion of structures that allows the volcanic activity.
6. The diverse structural alignment and magma compositions of flank
and monogenetic cones reflect the complexity of the plumbing sys­
tem and the key role of the different structural systems present in the
area.
7. The NE-striking dike distribution is consistent with the dominant
regional stress field, nonetheless NW-trending pre-existing weakness
zones were reactivated, contributing to the construction of the vol­
canic edifice.
8. The absence of seismic and geophysical knowledge in the study area
makes it difficult to characterize the magmatic reservoir, although
the ramp-and-flat model fits fairly well as a first approach.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by FONDECYT Project 1151175 Active
Tectonism and Volcanism at the Southern Andes (ACT&VO-SA) and
Millenium Nucleus NC160025 The Seismic Cycle along Subduction
Zones CYCLO. We are greatly appreciative to Ernesto Cofré and Mario
González for invaluable assistance in the field. We sincerely thank
Joaquín Cortés, Paulina Mejías, Amapola Albornoz and Francisco García
for their comments, corrections and suggestions that greatly improved
the manuscript.
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