Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.
org/ at University of St Andrews on March 25, 2015
The Himalayan metamorphism
P. K. Verma
Most structural and petrological features, cer-
tainly the present landscape, of the Himalayas
stemmed from the continent-continent collision
which signified the closure of the neo-Tethys. In
this paper, post-collision metamorphic events
are therefore termed the Himalayan metamor-
phism, and are critically evaluated. A tectono-
metamorphic map of the Himalayas is presented
and a P - T - t trajectory for the central crystal-
line zone has been constructed.
General geological and tectonic
setting
Several publications (Gansser 1964, Le Fort
1975, 1986, Hailer 1980, Pande 1980, Windley
1983) give a good account of geological and
tectonic features of the Himalayas. This paper
considers the eight units marked in Fig. 1. Two
of these units, i.e. ophiolites with associated
blueschist rocks and granites of the Higher
Himalaya, occur as isolated bodies throughout
the belt. Other units are extensive linear belts.
The southernmost unit is the Sub-Himalayan
zone, north of which are the autochthonous,
para-autochthonous and the Lesser Himalayan
nappe zones (the Lesser Himalaya). The central
crystalline zone (the Higher Himalaya) and the
Tethyan zone (the Tethyan Himalaya) are situ-
ated further northward. The northernmost
outcrops of the Tethyan zone represent the
northern limit of the Himalayas. Likewise, the
southern limit of the Sub-Himalayan zone de-
fines the southern limit of the Himalayas. The
western and eastern ends are the Kohistan vol-
canic arc and the Namcha Barwa crystalline
complex, respectively. The intrusive nature of
the granites of the Higher Himalaya is evident.
The ophiolites occur as small thrust blocks,
stacks of nappes or exotic blocks. At many
places, the ophiolite occurrences coincide with
a discontinuous suture zone called the I n d u s -
Zangbo suture, which constitutes the boundary
between the Tethyan Himalaya and the Trans-
Himalaya.
The boundary between para-autochthonous
and autochthonous zones essentially represents
a junction between very low to low-grade
metamorphics (prehnite-pumpellyite to lower
greenschist) and unmetamorphosed rocks.
It is tectonic at some places and tectono-
From DALY,J. S., CLIFF,R. A. & YARDLEY,B. W. D. (eds) 1989, Evolution of Metamorphic Belts,
Geological Society Special Publication No. 43, pp. 377-383.
stratigraphic at others. At places, the junction
between the para-autochthonous zone and over-
lying nappe, commonly a thrust, appears 'gra-
dational'. Two tectonic contacts are fairly
continuous throughout the Himalayas, namely,
the Main Boundary Fault (MBF) separating the
Lesser Himalaya from the Sub-Himalaya, and
the Main Central Thrust (MCT) separating the
Lesser Himalaya from the Higher"imalaya.
The Sub-Himalaya largely consists of the
Siwalik Group (Fig. 1). It is the most prominent
of several molasses distributed through the
Himalayas. The Siwalik sedimentation began
during the Middle Miocene at the beginning of
the Himalayan uplift. It consists of an unmeta-
morphosed cyclic sequence of sandstones, mud-
stones and carbonate rocks.
The autochthonous zone consists of several
tectonic and tectono-stratigraphic units. Some
of these are Precambrian but many belong to
various Phanerozoic groups; the youngest being
the Eocene. They are unmetamorphosed and so
stippled as a single tectono-metamorphic zone
in Fig. 1. The para-autochthonous zone consists
of quartzite, dolomite and phyllite together with
acid volcano-sedimentary rocks, basic lava flows
and some sulphide deposits. The acidic volcano-
sedimentary rock suite (the present Lingtse
gneiss and its equivalents), along with some
intrusives, has been considered by Sinha Roy
(1980) as basement wedges. These extensively
crop out north of the MBF and also as tectonic
windows further north. The third tectono-
metamorphic zone, the nappe zone, represents
thrust sheets which underwent penetrative de-
formation during movement (Pecher 1975).
Some sheets exhibit high-grade metamorphic
mineral assemblages, such as in Kisthwar (Das
1987), Chor (Das & Rastogi 1988), Darjeeling
(Sinha Roy 1974) and Sikkim (Verma &
Chaddha, in press). However, other regions
show only medium-grade assemblages (Pande
1980). All three zones were folded and thrust
southward over the Siwaliks as well as recent
river deposits (Thakur & Jain 1975). This
region represented the northern edge of
Peninsular India where latitudinal rifting
occurred repeatedly between the Precambrian
and the Eocene.
The central crystalline zone consists of rocks
of varied metamorphic grade (Valdiya & Goel
1983). The zone served as the root zone for the
377
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The Himalayan metamorphism
Lesser Himalayan nappes. The area is thought
to be a part of the Precambrian Indian shield
remetamorphosed during the Tertiary.
The northernmost zone is the Tethyan
Himalayan zone consisting of a fairly complete
fossiliferous succession of the Palaeozoic-
Mesozoic-Palaeocene rocks. In Himachal
Pradesh (Powell & Conaghan 1973) and Nepal
(Le Fort 1975) some of these are metamor-
phosed up to kyanite grade. The junction be-
tween the central crystalline zone and the
Tethyan zone is gradational at a few places, but
in general a fault.
The post-tectonic granites (granites of the
Higher Himalaya; also called leucogranites) are
two-mica, two-feldspar granites and are devoid
of foliation and deformation features of the
country rocks (Le Fort 1981, Verma 1983). The
general opinion favours an origin by partial
melting of the continental crust (S-type). Geo-
logical and tectonic data indicate a post-Mid-
Miocene age, although the geochronological
data is scattered (100 to 13 Ma). These plutons
are restricted to the central crystalline zone and
a few localities in Bhutan (Dietrich & Gansser
1981) where the Cretaceous-Palaeocene suc-
cession is intruded.
Pre-Himalayan events
The shield elements in the Himalayas are re-
vealed in some chance thin-sections contain-
ing relict cordierite-bearing assemblages and by
old R b - S r ages, such as 1830 Ma (Bhanot et
al. 1977, Powell et al. 1979, Trivedi et al. 1984),
from the central crystalline and the nappe zones.
The rocks of latitudinal rifts yield R b - S r age
data clustered between 600 and 500 Ma (Mehta
1977, Bhanot et al. 1978, Le Fort 1981). K - A r
data on basic flows gave an age of 228 + 10 Ma
(Varadarajan 1976). Comparable basic rocks
occur in association with fossiliferous sediments
in other parts of the Himalayas, e.g. Kashmir,
Arunachal Pradesh, etc., and point to a Middle
Carboniferous to Lower Permian age.
Pande (1980) advocated two Palaeozoic-
Mesozoic periods of metamorphism. Sinha &
Bist (1986) calculated K - A r data that cluster
around 91.3 Ma and 197.3 Ma, but advise
caution in interpreting the data.
The Himalayan metamorphism
The dominant textures and mineral assemblages
of the metamorphic rocks of the Himalayas
were formed during the Tertiary Himalayan
379
metamorphism, following the obduction of
ophiolites in certain sections of the Himalayas
(Le Fort 1986). Two distinct events are estab-
lished. The first was regional metamorphism
marked by the emplacement of granitic plutons
and the second was a low-grade event.
Deformation during the Tertiary occurred in
three stages. The deformation accompanying
the obduction produced the first generation
folds (DA1) (Acharyya 1978). Major folds were
formed during DA2, which was the most intense
of the three stages. The first metamorphic epi-
sode was pre- to synkinematic DA2 (Saxena
1964). Large-scale thrusting marked the cul-
mination of this deformation. Many thrusts were
reactivated more than once and folded, as well
as new ones developed, during DA3. The latter
also resulted in refolding and simultaneous
folding of both allochthonous and autoch-
thonous units giving apparent continuity of
structure at places and decollement at others
(Gangopadhyay 1980).
The effects of progressive high-grade meta-
morphism (the first episode) have been studied
in detail. Within the central crystalline zone and
the metamorphosed Tethyan succession, the
isograd patterns are normal in many places but
divergent in others (Thakur 1977). Within the
thrust sheets of the Lesser Himalaya, many
sections show reverse metamorphism. Some
authors (Windley 1983) have related this feature
to the MCT. In Nepal (Bordet et al. 1981) the
relationship appears to hold, but elsewhere it is
not so. Moreover, the MCT is a part of a duplex
system (Bahuguna & Saklani 1988), so the
ground relations are complex. Some isograds
terminate against thrust sheets (Ravindra
Kumar pers. comm.) and therefore only a partial
progressive metamorphic sequence is shown
there.
Some geothermobarometric data, from the
central crystalline zone and a few thrust sheets,
have become available. Temperature estimates
from progressive zonal sequences are more
common. For example, Lal et al. (1981) have
used garnet-biotite pairs to estimate tempera-
tures in zones bearing chlorite-garnet (530°C),
staurolite-biotite-garnet (570°C), kyanite-
biotite-staurolite (675°C) from the Darjeeling
area. Das & Rastogi (1988) analysed separated
biotite and garnet fractions and propose 543°C
(garnet-chlorite zone), 560°C (staurolite-
biotite zone) and 637°C (kyanite-biotite zone)
from Chor (Himachal Pradesh). From Kashmir
(Das 1987), the characteristic assemblages
reported are garnet-chlorite (554°C), staurolite-
biotite-chlorite (597°C) and kyanite-biotite-
staurolite (680°C). Gairola & Ackermand (1988)
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on March 25, 2015
380 P. K . V e r m a
calculated an average pressure of over 7 kbar
using g a r n e t - biotite-muscovite- sillimanite-
quartz-rutile. A higher pressure value of 8.9
kbar, using garnet- r u t i l e - i l m e n i t e - kyanite-
quartz, has been calculated by Broughton &
Windley (1988) from western Kashmir. Since
Le Fort et al. (1986) reported a pressure gradient
from 8 to 6 kbar as one moves away from the
MCT (central Nepal), the author considers that
pressures exceeding 7 kbar were generated only
locally in the vicinity of thrusts. Although
textural details of the points probed for tem-
peratures calculated are lacking, it appears,
from the general setting, that data is related to a
progressive metamorphic sequence and so
corresponds to the heating stage of the meta-
morphism. Verma & Chaddha (in press) re-
ported a kyanite-sillimanite assemblage from
north Sikkim and also present evidence of
partial melting. Hence, the peak of the meta-
morphism is considered to lie in the partial
melting region.
The only retrograde data comes from
Garhwal (Verma & Jowhar 1988). The musco-
vite-alkali-feldspar from Badhrinath granite,
pegmatite and country rocks yielded a range of
temperature (Na/K exchange) from 462 to
579°C.
The highest grade attained was of first silli-
manite grade (Verma & Chaddha, in press).
The large-scale partial melting giving rise to
post-tectonic leucogranites (Ghose 1980,
Le Fort 1981, Verma 1983) happened at lower
continental level. Obviously, the emplacement
was post-tectonic (DA2) (Vidal et al. 1982),
though older ages have also been claimed
(Sinha & Bist 1986). Prior to the emplacement,
the thrust sheets had already formed.
There are very few well-coordinated geo-
chronological studies on the Himalayas from
the point of view of metamorphism. Franco-
Chinese colloboration in southern Tibet (Debon
et al. 1985) and current studies in western
Kashmir (Zeitler pers. comm.) are a few
examples. For the present purpose the available
age data may be classified into four categories.
The first category consists of ages, such as
whole-rock R b - S r , that range between 300 and
1800 Ma, and represent pre-Himalayan events.
Then, there are large number of ages, whole-
rock as well as mineral, that cluster around
30 Ma, which, on geological grounds, are syn-
chronous with D2 deformation. The data
of Hamet & Allegre (1978) from Nepal on
a leucogranite (post-tectonic granite) giving a
whole-rock R b - S r age as 29 + 1 Ma represents
a period of D2 deformation and generation of
granitic melt as well as the metamorphic peak
of the first phase. In the third group, we place
R b - S r (Hamet & Allegre 1978, Vidal et al.
1982) and K - A r (Dietrich & Gansser 1981) age
data on muscovite and biotite and fission track
age on zircon and apatite (Lal & Nagpaul
1975). This data set, with the help of the closure
temperatures of the minerals, yields points on
the cooling part of the P - T - t loop. The cooling
rate appears to be roughly constant, i.e. 200°C
per 8 Ma. Lastly, there are quite a few dates on
micas based on R b - S r and K - A r methods that
range from 110 to 33 Ma. Fresh isotopic obser-
vations on the samples are necessary since no
geological events can be correlated with these
dates.
Figure 2 depicts a P - T - t trajectory for the
central crystalline zone based on the data and
discussions presented above. The sense of the
loop is clockwise with its peak pressure higher
than that of the aluminium silicate triple point.
It crosses the kyanite-sillimanite univariant
equilibrium line and goes into the partial melt
region. Quantitative data on the retrograde
part of the P - T - t loop is lacking except for
one set based on Na/K exchange between alkali
feldspar and muscovite. Interpretation is based
on the geological and tectonic evidence, as well
as closure temperatures and uplift rates. It may
be pointed out that the prograde part of the
P - T - t loop would be common for the central
crystalline zone and the thrust sheets. But, the
cooling history of the thrust sheets would differ
depending upon the location of the point on the
cooling part of the loop at which thrusting and
detachment took place.
The progressive part of the loop indicates
near-isobaric heating. This corresponds to that
stage of geodynamic development of the region
when a thickened crust was produced by the
collision and underthrusting of the Peninsular
Indian Shield, whose lower part came under
the influence of enhanced pressure and tem-
perature regimes. This metamorphism affected
the shield, leaving the supracrustal rocks of the
latitudinal rifts unaffected. The enhanced P - T
conditions were caused by the thickening of the
crust. A magmatic heat source is not favoured
in view of the constant cooling rates.
Initiation of sedimentation in the Siwalik
foredeep marked the Himalayan uplift and indi-
cated a phase of crustal thinning. The uplift
would initially create an isothermal decom-
pression, and this is shown in Fig. 2. Progressive
thinning due to uplift resulted in a constant rate
of cooling as opposed to a Newtonian exponen-
tial curve due to withdrawal of heat from a
cooling magmatic source.
Verma & Jowhar (1988) proposed that the 12
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on March 25, 2015
The Himalayan metamorphism 381

10

I ll /'

CL.

r-
,.,..-

3-

2-

t"
I- ~. ........

I I 1 1 l f ""',~l I
0 I00 200 500 400 500 600 700 800 900 I000

Tern p °C
FIC. 2. T h e P - T - t relationship of the central crystalline zone deformation event: 1 = DA~, correlated with the
obduction of the ophiolites; 2 = DA2, major folds and overthrusting; 3 = DA3, nappe folding, further
thrusting. Geochronological data (ages in Ma) based on: a = muscovite Rb-Sr (Vidal et al. 1982); b = biotite
K - A r (Dietrich & Gansser 1981); c = fission-track in apatite (Lal & Nagpaul 1975). Reaction curves for
reference are also shown: (1) Salje (1986) and (2) Merill et al. (1970).

Ma cluster of mica dates may also indicate a
period of low-grade metamorphism (the second
episode). Textural evidence in the form of
annealing and 'retrogression' is common. The
hitherto unmetamorphosed rocks of the para-
autochthonous zone were now also metamor-
phosed. While the pelitic sediments were
converted to slates and phyllite with the help of
continuing deformation, the basic flows were
metamorphosed to the p r e h n i t e - p u m p e l l y i t e ,
or equivalent assemblages in some basic rocks
of the Lesser Himalayas (Varadarajan 1974).
The most conspicuous manifestation of this
event in the field is some recrystallization
in thrust zones. Because of this, at places,
there appears a 'gradational contact' between
the high-grade crystalline nappe (Darjeeling
gneiss) and the underlying low-grade para-
autochthonous rocks (Dalling phyllite).
The cause of this event is not yet certain.
However, Mattauer's (1986) work on decolle-
ment offers some clues. The mantle underneath
the Himalayas was affected by decollement
movements and became sliced. One such hot
mantle slab could have moved up and caused
this low-grade metamorphism. This could ex-
plain the high heat flow and the heat source for
the Himalayan thermal springs.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on March 25, 2015
382
Conclusion
The most dominant textures and mineral as-
semblages of the Himalayan metamorphics are
the result of the Himalayan metamorphism that
occurred during the Tertiary, following the
c o n t i n e n t - c o n t i n e n t collision. It consisted of
two episodes. The first was pre- to synkinematic
progressive high-grade regional metamorphism
and affected the basement consisting of parts of
the Peninsular shield. The deformation con-
tinued well after the metamorphic peak was
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S. (ed.) Tectonic Geology of the Himalayas, pp.
243-68, Today & Tomorrow's Printer & Pub-
lishers, New Delhi.
BAHUGUNA, V. K. & SAKLANI,P. S. 1988. Tectonics
of the Main Central Thrust in Garhwal Himalaya,
U. P. Journal of the Geological Society of India
31, 197-209.
BHANOT, V. B., SINGH, B. P., KANSAL,A. K. &
THAKUR, V. C. 1977. Early Proterozoic Rb/Sr
whole rock age of Central Crystalline gneiss of
Higher Himalaya, Kumaon. Journal of the Geo-
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BORDET, P., COLCHEN,M., LE FORT, P. & PECHER,A.
1981. The geodynamic evolution of the Himalayas.
Ten years of research in Central Nepal Himalaya
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DELANY F. M. (eds) Zagros-Hindukush-
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pelites near Chaur, Himachal Himalaya, India.
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DEBON, F., ZIMMERMANN,J. L . , K I U , G . , JIN, C . &
Xu, R. 1985. Time relationship between mag-
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P. K. Verma
over, culminating in the large thrust sheets and
causing reversal of isograds in several of them.
Emplacement of granite then took place. A low-
grade metamorphism affected the Himalayas
around 12 Ma marking the second episode.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The manuscript has been im-
proved through a critical reading by David Prior. I am
particularly indebted to Amitava Kundu, Babu Nair
and Shobita Misra for their valuable assistance during
the final stages of the work. A. Rooprai and J.
Kennedy are thanked for drafting the diagrams.
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