Running head: SWRK-786 FINAL PAPER 1

The Intersection of Race and Gender in Trauma Among Children at School

Bonnie Stright

University of Pennsylvania
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The Intersection of Race and Gender in Trauma Among Children at School

Schools are somewhere that nearly every child in the country will engage with at some

point in their life. Schools can be a place of great empowerment – a safe space surrounded by

friends with access to consistent meals, engaging extracurriculars, trusted adults, and rich content

to explore their interests and grow their minds. Education is often seen as a means out of poverty,

a “great equalizer” with the notion that if children simply work hard, they will achieve skills

needed for a better job and healthy life. Although this all may be true for some, schooling can

also be a place of exacerbated inequity, oppression, and further traumatization. Often schools act

as microcosms of society at large, with children at the intersection of marginalized identities and

trauma backgrounds facing the most challenges and barriers to access. Children of color, girls,

and transgender and gender non-conforming youth are frequently the targets of this and are left

unsupported in trauma experiences. The solution, although not all-encompassing, relies in

recognizing these systems and intentionally implementing trauma-informed practices throughout

every layer of education. K-12 schools are on the frontlines of serving children and deeply

embedded within communities, thus creating a unique opportunity to provide critical care in

response to trauma, while simultaneously preventing further traumatization.

Diversity and Trauma

Judith Herman notes that repeated trauma in adulthood will erode an already formed

personality structure, but repeated childhood trauma will affect personality formation at its core

(Herman, 1992). Children are typically seen by adults as removed from society; “clean slates”

naïve to the problems of the world. In reality, children are in the complex process of consciously

and unconsciously trying to understand how the world works, deeply internalizing the narratives

and systems surrounding them. As they learn to navigate society, children will experience
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adversity, as well as learn and internalize how and where their various identities are assigned

social capital or lack thereof. More than half of all adults, report having experienced a traumatic

experience in childhood, with women and children of color at greater risk for four or more

adverse experiences (CDC, 2021). Although trauma can touch the lives of anyone, the

intersectionality of trauma and diversity reflects systems of oppression within American society.

Children of the United States are becoming vastly more diverse every year, with this rising

diversity encompassing expanding race, ethnicity (Johnson, 2010), gender (Pyne, 2014), and

abilities (Baker, 2006), amongst other identities. Unfortunately, the United States’ history of

genocide, enslavement, and deep discrimination has a lasting legacy in the structure of today’s

society, as well as intergenerational trauma among the people persecuted – all of which reveals

itself in the fabric of schools.

When those with trauma face ordinary interpersonal conflicts they may experience

intense anxiety, depression, or rage (Herman, 1992). For children at school, and most frequently

Black and Brown children, this is too often seen as immature acting out and met with

punishment instead of care. This further intersects with diagnoses of emotional behavioral

disturbance or oppositional defiant disorder as a so-called “answer” to behavior– when in reality,

a look at specific children’s trauma history can create a clear picture into how they view the

world and why they may act in an unexpected way. Furthermore, the discrimination of Black,

Brown, and LGBTQ+ youth can result in adults being less responsive or receptive to any existing

trauma, as well as put them at a higher risk for further racial and transphobic violence. This is

exacerbated by school staff and mental health clinicians being predominantly white and

cisgender, adding a layer of not sharing and thus likely not comprehending cultural differences

between them and the diverse communities they serve. Nevertheless, the research on racial and
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ethnic differences among the prevalence of adverse childhood experiences is still limited

(Mersky, 2017), showcasing the need for further exploration on the intersectionality of diversity

and trauma among children, as well as the roles school play in all of this.

Race

The intersectionality of trauma and diversity, specifically with race, persists among

children in schooling. An example and model being the history of residential schools. Residential

schools inflicted severe abuse of cultural erasure and intergenerational trauma on Indigenous

children and families (Bombay, 2013), functioning as a means of colonization to forcibly adhere

students to a white, Eurocentric definition of being. This objective and its related practices still

exist in modern schooling, but operate more discretely through whitewashed curriculum and

narrow, often ableist and classist, standards of measurement. Additionally, heavy policing and

zero-tolerance policies act as abusive operations designed to target and pushout Black and

Hispanic students specifically (Morris, 2018), further inflicting traumas of racial violence, police

brutality, and incarceration. Instead of acting as the notoriously claimed “great equalizer”, the

roots of schooling are too often operating to reinforce white supremacist structures, further

marginalize specific groups of students, and perpetrate rather than prevent trauma in children.

Involvement with the criminal justice system can be a traumatic experience, especially

for children. Fuentes describes how schooling in the United States can function as an extension

of the prison system through the use of surveillance, police, metal detectors, zero-tolerance

policies, and more (Fuentes, 2012). These practices specifically target Black and Brown children,

treating students as if they themselves are the danger, as opposed to developing relationships to

build a sense of safety and community at school. The school-to-prison pipeline showcases how

disciplinary policies and lack of proper trauma care in schools work to funnel children into the
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criminal justice system. They are isolated, punished, and pushed out, with a disproportionately

high percentage clearly targeting Black children (Morris, 2018). Children who may have already

experienced trauma through police brutality or familial incarceration, are further traumatized in a

space meant to serve them. Additionally, on the other side they are often more likely to

experience carceral involvement and subsequent trauma as a result of these early life experiences

pushing them in that direction. This perpetual cycle of traumatization inflicted on Black and

Brown youth in schools works with systems of mass incarceration and classism to create

conditions ripe for gun violence, addiction, child abuse, domestic violence, and other traumas.

Nearly all schools have some form of zero tolerance policies, of which will completely

ignore any background of trauma by enacting severe, predetermined punishments with no regard

for the students’ circumstances or agency. One case example noted in the literature (Fuentes,

2012) describes a child with a family history of suicidality; having witnessed his grandmother

almost die from a suicide attempt, and whose father expressed active suicidal ideation and

specifically asked the child to remove a gun from the house to prevent harm. When the child

brought the gun to school in his backpack for the sake of keeping his father safe, he was given

immediate expulsion due to zero-tolerance policies. The school wanted to send a clear message

on the dangers of guns – yet this child already knew the dangers of guns, faced a profound

ethical dilemma, and made an understandable choice based on his trauma background, yet was

ultimately punished for it. Instead creating an open dialog with the child and providing him and

his family with the proper mental health care, he lost all the connections, support, and stability

his current school offered, reinforcing the idea that adults are not to be trusted. Zero-tolerance

policies give no opportunity for trauma-informed care or growth, operating to inflict racially

based violence and traumatization on Black and Brown children in schools.

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Restorative justice in schools is a trauma-informed practice and intervention allowing

children who have frequently experienced trauma to regain a sense of control and maintain social

connections with their community. It is an opportunity for social workers, but also schools as a

whole, to provide support to children in the face of wrongdoing (Sedillo-Hamann, 2022).

Restorative justice’s primary focus is repairing harm and rebuilding relationships. Children may

face consequences for their actions with the intention of restoration, as opposed to severe

punishments that offer no opportunity for change. Restorative justice is shown to positively

impact children’s self-efficacy and emotion regulation, while fostering healthy attachment

(Sedillo-Hamann, 2022). By recognizing that all children will make mistakes and implementing

a trauma informed lens in how school staff choose to address them, children can learn

responsibility, safety, respect, and ultimately that they are loved no matter what – a critical need

in building and sustaining secure attachments. School social workers specifically can be integral

in advocating for youth facing harsh disciplinary actions, as well as in promoting systemic

change to how schools approach children’s misbehavior, and especially for children of color who

are historically and continuously targeted rather than supported in their trauma.

Gender

At the intersection of gender and race, Monique Morris chronicles the experiences of

Black girls in schools across the country, of which are six times more likely to be suspended,

four times more likely to be arrested, three times more likely to be referred to law enforcement,

and three times more likely to be restrained in comparison to white girls (Morris, 2018). A

groundbreaking study found that adults view Black girls as less innocent and more adult-like

than their white peers (Epstein, 2017). This perception leads to beliefs that Black girls need less

support, comfort, and protection while knowing more about sex and adult topics. This all results
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in more punitive measures, greater use of force, harsher penalties, and increased sexualization.

This adultification of Black girls puts them at a further risk for sexual violence and trauma

(Epstein, 2017). If school staff hold Black girls to a more adult-like standard and see them as

fundamentally less innocent, they may be less likely to provide support in the face of their

mistakes or acting out. Nevertheless, even with perfect behavior, Black girls’ simple existence is

still treated as a crime. They are punished by schools for the trauma they have already

experienced while being subjected to further trauma at the intersection of their racial and gender

identities.

Moving beyond the binary in the discussion of gender and trauma, Ringel and Brandell

note that people of marginalized gender and sexual identities endure much higher rates of

potentially traumatic experiences than cisgender and heterosexual people, as shown through

population and epidemiological research (Ringel, 2020). The confusion and pressure of growing

up in a society designed for heterosexual, cisgender people creates the narrative that LGBTQ+

children are fundamentally wrong for their identities, forcing them to hide or suppress them for

the sake of fitting in and avoiding maltreatment. This is especially present for children and

adolescents who are just beginning to learn about and explore their gender and sexuality. To be

fed the narrative that there are only two genders, yet personally feel untied to either or to the one

prescribed at birth, can be traumatic to navigate for anyone, but especially children who often do

not have the language or conceptualization to explain what they are going through. In social

work specifically, there is a history of attempts to diagnose and fix what is called “gender

dysphoria” (Ringel, 2020), furthering a pathologizing of their experiences and distrust of mental

health professionals. As a result, there must be clear, intentional work against the speculation or

assumption of children’s gender identities.

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Too often the caregivers of LGBTQ+ children are unsupportive or abusive, inflicting

further trauma on those already hypervigilant of how society treats their identity. Schools have

the potential to be a safe place, with some districts (including Philadelphia) implementing policy

protections for children wanting to be called a different name or pronouns from what is used at

home, without notification to their caregivers. By educating on the spectrum of gender diversity

and ensuring proper representation, children can more easily recognize these experiences in

themselves and thus take agency over their gender identity with confidence. Additionally, for

cisgender students these practices can foster understanding and inclusivity for children of all

genders, thus preventing transphobic bullying as an additional possible trauma.

Today, transgender and gender non-conforming children in schools are markedly under

attack. From the bathrooms they are allowed use to the sports they are allowed to play; these

children are consistently targeted in transphobic legislation – with schools as a hot spot for

debate and persecution. Peer-reviewed studies have reported how LGBTQ+ youth are more than

four times as likely to attempt suicide than others, with more than half of transgender and

nonbinary youth seriously considering suicide (Price-Feeney, 2020). Transgender and nonbinary

youth are at the greatest risk, being 2 to 2.5 times more likely to experience depression, suicidal

ideation, and suicidal attempts compared to their cisgender LGBQ peers (Price-Feeney, 2020).

These rates are staggering, with the continually reinforced persecution by politicians having fatal

consequences. This all underscores the critical importance of addressing trauma in gender

diversity – as quite literally an issue of life or death. A systematic review of risk and resilience

among transgender and gender nonconforming youth found school to be a resilience variable – a

perception of school safety, connectedness, and belonging being associated with decreased
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suicidality and depression (Tankersley, 2021). These findings showcase the essential role schools

play and the influence they have by creating a trauma-informed or trauma-inducing environment.

Treatment

Schools cannot and will not solve the trauma epidemic, as they are operating with little

funding and resources to do their primary job as it is. Making overworked educators into mental

health professionals is simply not feasible and would be harmful to children and staff as they are

not equipped with the proper training to address these concerns. However, trauma does not stop

at the door each morning, and educators across the county are seeing trauma responses show up

in the classroom, whether they know it or not, and are desperate for guidance. Neighborhood

schools are often seen as a familiar, accessible center for everyone in the community, and with

the proper support, resources, and partnerships do have the ability to enact a great deal of change

for the sake of everyone’s well-being. Whether prepared for it or not, schools are on the

frontlines of trauma treatment and a hub for services.

The concept of trauma-informed education is relatively new, despite researchers reporting

schools as the primary provider of mental health services for children (Evans, 2014). Yet schools

cannot begin to offer treatment interventions for trauma without first addressing their own

harmful practices that perpetuate trauma. The National Center for Trauma-Informed Care

(NCTIC, 2015) outlines trauma-informed care with four primary tenants: 1. Realizing the

widespread impact of trauma, 2. Recognizing the signs and symptoms of trauma, 3. Responding

by integrating knowledge of trauma into policies, procedures, and practices, and 4. Actively

resisting re-traumatization (SAMHSA, 2014). This care encompasses the entire organizational

structure, purpose, policies, and mission in pursuit of righteous care for students of all

backgrounds.
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On a clinical level, Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (CBITS) is

an appropriate treatment intervention dedicated to the intersection of diversity and trauma for

children in schools. CBITS is an evidence-based group intervention program created with the

intention of decreasing the effects of trauma specifically for ethnically and linguistically diverse

children of low socioeconomic statuses, in the practical and accessible setting of schools (Ngo,

2013). It incorporates elements of CBT, with randomized controlled trials exhibiting a relief in

symptoms of PTSD, depression, and anxiety resulting from trauma in children. These studies

have occurred in a variety of diverse communities, including Mexican and Central American

(Kataoka, 2003; Stein, 2003), African American (Stephan, 2007), and Native American (Stolle,

2007). This intervention was chosen for its commitment to diversity and specific design for the

school setting. CBITS integrates community partnerships to keep it sustainable and accessible,

along with culturally sensitive trainings for clinicians who apply contextual knowledge of the

local children and families’ cultures in order to effectively convey core treatment concepts (Ngo,

2013). Everything is intentionally designed to address the intersectionality of trauma and

diversity for the sake of the best possible treatment for children.

Resiliency

A variety of protective factors may help children of all backgrounds develop resiliency,

including their personal characteristics, nurturing relationships, and cohesive social networks and

communities (Kimple, 2018). However, van der Kolk notes that the most important predictor of

how well people cope with trauma and hardship is the level of security established with their

primary caregiver during the first two years of life (van der Kolk, 2014). Securely attached

children learn how things make them feel and acquire a sense of agency over their actions to

change their feelings and others’ responses, knowing the difference between having control and
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needing help. This self-confidence, locus of control, and dispositional optimism is suggested to

positively affect the relationship between traumatic experience and resiliency, yet even without

these, there always exists a hopeful possibility of growth within a person who has experienced

trauma (Woodward, 2003).

For children, school is not removed from life’s stressors and as mentioned throughout,

has the potential to be a place of further traumatization. However, school can also provide a

space of happiness and personal improvement in the face of external traumas, as noted

specifically among children living in refugee camps (Veronese, 2020). School can foster

resilience as children experience joy, friendship, connection, and a look to future possibilities. It

can be an anchor to the community and place of opportunity, with many cultures highly valuing

the importance of education to children, thus giving them a sense of purpose. Furthermore,

schools may allow for secure, consistent, and positive relationships with a trusted adult, such as a

teacher or counselor, which can be critical to children in building resiliency (Ashton, 2021).

Access to trusted adults may ease immediate harms and allow children to build social skills and

safe relationships with others.

Conclusion

Ultimately, this discussion is not all-encompassing – as many other identities at the

intersection of trauma and diversity in schooling were either not mentioned or briefly mentioned.

The vast differences among schools across the country showcase how they can act as either risk

or resiliency factors, or both, depending on the child’s identity. A white cisgender boy

experiencing abuse at home might find connection and solace with his predominantly white

cisgender teachers, building trust and a sense of safety at school, whereas a transgender Black

girl at the same school, experiencing a similar abuse, may be isolated and criminalized, as
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teachers reveal their own prejudices, disregard trauma-informed care, and fail to connect with

her. As Ringel & Brandell note, trauma treatment does not depend on sharing the same

intersections of social identities, but it does rely on the clinician’s capacity for empathy,

recognition of mutual differences, openness to learning through difficulty, and investment in the

child’s well-being (Ringel, 2020). This work is not simple, especially for those in positions of

privilege, who hold the possibility of causing great harm to those they intend to serve. Working

together, through schooling and beyond, people can hopefully better convey empathy in

solidarity and difference, in the pursuit of liberation and trauma-informed care for all children.
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