Chapter 1:

Approximate numbers

1.1 Absolute errors

Let a be approximate value of the exact value A, which is written A = a  a
a : is said to be the absolute error

1.2 Relative errors

The relative error a of approximation is defined as the ratio of the absolute
error to the modulus of the approximate value of a quantity: a = a / | a|
the exact value A, which is written A = a (1  a)

The absolute error characterizes, but insufficiently, the accuracy of

mesurement or the precision of computation.
1.3 Notation of approximate values of numbers. Standard form of a number

The accuracy of an approximate value of a number is often characterized by indicating the

number of its correct significant digits.
The significant digits of a decimal fraction :

Exp: 002,74  2,74

00,0207  0,0207
The significant digits of a whole number:

Any positive number a , it will be recalled, can be represented as a terminating or

nonterminating decimal: a = 

  10 s
s

Exp: 65,807 = 6.101 + 5.100 + 8.10-1 + 0.10-2 + 7.10-3

Where: 1 = 6 , 0 =5 , -1 = 8 , -2 =0 , -3 = 7
If a  0,5.10s , s is said to be correct,
if a  0,5.10s , s is said to be doubt.

Exp: with a = 65,8274 ; if a = 0,0043  6,5,8,2 significant digits

if a = 0,0067  6,5,8 significant digits
• @ Rules for Rounding-off numbers

(i) If the first of the discarded digits is  5 : Then the last digit kept is increased by unity;
(ii) If the first of the discarded digits is  5 : Then the last digit kept remains unchanged;

Exp: 65,8274  65,827 ; 65,827  65,83

* Standard form of a number

+ a number a can rewrite in standard form: a = α.10n , with 1 =< α < 10

1.4 Errors of Rounding off numbers

If a’ is rounding off numbers a, causing an absolute error a’
|a’ - a| =< a’ then: a’ = a + a’ (increasing absolute error)
 1.5 Influence of rounding off numbers
Find the difference:
 
2  1 10 3363 2378 2
Replace 2 by some different rounding off numbers:

Left numbers Right numbers

2
1,4 0,0001048576 33,8
1,41 0,00013422659 10,02
1,414 0,000147912 0,508
1,41426 0,00014866394 0,00862
1,4142613563 0,00014867678 0,001472
1.6 The rules of approximate numbers
•@ The error of a sum
Theorem 1: The absolute error of an algebraic sum of several approximate numbers does
not exceed the sum of the absolute errors of the numbers.
Proof: Let x1, x2, …, xn be the given approximate numbers. Consider their algebraic sum
u = ±x1 ± x2 ± x3 ±... ±xn
Obviously
Δu = ±Δx1 ± Δx2 ± Δx3 ±... ± Δxn
And, hence,
| Δu| =< |Δx1| + |Δx2 | + |Δx3 |+... + |Δxn|
Corollary (Hệ quả): For the limiting absolute error of an algebraic sum we can take the
sum of the limiting absolute errors of the terms:
Δu = Δx1 + Δx2 +… + Δxn (*)

@ The error of a difference

We consider the difference of two approximate numbers: u = x1 – x2.
From formula (*), the limiting absolute error Δu of the difference is:
Δu = Δx1 + Δx2

Whence (từ đó) the limiting relative error of the difference is:
 u = (Δx1 + Δx2) / A
Where A is the exact value of the absolute magnitude of the difference between the
numbers x1 and x2.

Note on the loss of accuracy when subtracting nearly equal number!

@ The error of a product
Theorem: The relative error of a product of several approximate nonzero number does not
exceed the sum of the relative errors of the numbers.
Proof: Let u = x1.x2 …xn.
Assuming for the sake of simplicity that the approximate number x1 ,x2 ,…,xn are positive,
we have

lnu = lnx1 + lnx2 +…+lnxn

Whence Δlnx ~ dlnx = Δx / x

u x1 x2 x
We get    ...  n
u x1 x2 xn

and u x1 x2 x

   ...  n .........(*)
u x1 x2 xn
It is obvious that (*) also holds true if the factors xi (i=1, 2, ,…,n) have different signs.
@ The error of a quotient
Theorem: The relative error of a quotient does not exceed the sum of the relative errors of the
dividend and divisor.
Proof: Let u = x / y , then lnu = lnx - lny
Whence Δlnx ~ dlnx = Δx / x

We get u x y
 
u x y
u x y
and  
u x y

This formula shows that the (*) holds true for a quotient as well.

Further reading:
The error of a power ? u = xm
and the error of a root ?

umx
END of CHAPTER 1
Homework