1.

Causes of expansion
a. The impact of Japanese nationalism and militarism on foreign policy
i. THE GROWTH OF JAPANESE NATIONALISM → NOT ONLY TO
PROMOTE NATIONALISM IN JAPAN BUT ALSO TO LINK THAT
NATIONALISM WITH AN IMPERIALIST FOREIGN POLICY AS JAPAN
TOOK OVER OTHER ASIAN TERRITORIES IN PURSUIT OF ITS
NATIONAL GOALS
ii. Japanese expansion was dependent on the military taking action and making
political decisions
iii. 19TH CENTURY → JAPAN HAD ITS FIRST CONTACT WITH THE
WEST
→ the determination to transform Japan into western-style power (the desire
for equality with Western powers)
→ Japan’s belief in its destiny as the leader of Asia
→ the need to obtain raw materials and to secure markets in East Asia
→ the need for strategic security
→ the actions of the Western powers
→ growing popular support for militarism and expansion within Japan
iv. 1853 → Commodore Matthew Perry was determined to get Japan to open up
to US demands for trade
v. 1854 → the Shogun Tokugawa Yosinobu signed the treaty of Kanagawa with
the USA
→ intimidated by “BLACK SHIPS” and mindful of what happened
to CHINA which resisted the West
→ THE EFFECT: political power returned to the emperor known as
Meiji or “enlightened” emperor
vi. THE MEIJI GOVERNMENT
→ modernization
→ dismantling the feudal system
→ establishing a limited form of democracy
→ reforms in: industry, education, fashion, MILITARY → “RICH
COUNTRY, STRONG MILITARY”
→ promoted national unity and patriotism
vii. MILITARY REFORMS
→ modernizing the army
→ adapting German military tactics
→ new Navy (with the help of the British)
viii. Shidehara Kijuro
→ ambassador to Washington in 1921 and foreign minister in
1924-1927 and 1929-1931
→ Japan changed to a foreign policy of internationalism during the
1920s
→ AIM: to develop Japan’s economy via peaceful means – keeping
good relations with the USA (key trading partner); continuing to seek
economic advancement in China (within the framework of
international agreement)
ix. EFFECT:
→ Japan was a signatory to several international agreements
 → WASHINGTON CONFERENCE OF 1902 SHOULD BE REPLACED
BY A FOUR-POWER TREATY

b. Japanese domestic issues: political and economic issues, and their impact on foreign
relations
→ Japanese military expansion increased between 1895 and 1905
→ ministerial representatives of the army and navy were drawn from the
upper ranks of the armed forces
→ industrial production soared as Japan sought to become less reliant on
imports of IRON and STEEL
→ huge amount of money were spent on army and navy → message to
population “ENDURE THROUGH HARDSHIP”
→ ARMOUR RIVER SOCIETY was established to promote the idea of
Japanese expansion on the mainland
→ THE ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE IN 1902 (first military alliance
between a Western and a non-Western nation): JAPAN’S position was
strengthened by the signing of an alliance with BRITAIN which ended
JAPAN’S diplomatic isolation
i. HOW DID JAPAN BENEFIT FROM THE FIRST WORLD WAR?
→ gave the opportunity to exxpand its influence in Asia further
→ JAPAN demanded GERMAN colonial territory in CHINA:
declaration of war on GERMANY, seizing Germany’s military bases
on the Shandong Peninsula in the north of China in 1914
→ Japan issued China with the “Twenty-One Demands”: the most
important required China to agree to the Japanese remaining in
Shandong and to grant Japanese extra commercial privileges in
Manchuria, China was also not to lease any more coastal territory to
other powers, and was to accept political, financial and military
advisors sent from Japan → sharp reaction from Britain and the USA
, and also angered those within the Japanese government who
believed that such actions stood only to damage Japan’s reputation
→ ECONOMICALLY: Japan supplied goods to the Allies and orders
to Asian markets that the Allies were unable to fulfill – EXPORT
FLOURISHED
→ Japan became more self sufficient as it developed industries to
produce goods previously imported
→ BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION IN 1917: following Russia
withdraw from the war after TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK with
Germans, the Allies sent an invading force to support the Whites in
Russian Civil War against Red Army of the Bolsheviks. The Japanese
sent 70.000 men to support the Whites, even though they originally
agreed that they would send only 7.500 men.
→ The Japanese stayed after the British, US and France left,
however, they were defeated in 1922 by the Bolsheviks and had to
leave the country → that venture encouraged mistrust of Japan in the
USA and Britain; in Japan there were attacks on the government
because of the cost of intervention in Russia, the loss of prestige and
 the failure to control the army (acted independently of the
government during the expedition)
ii. THE RESULTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR FOR JAPAN
→ VERSAILLES CONFERENCE: Japan secured the former German Pacific islands
as a mandate and Germany’s former economic privileges on the Shandong Peninsula
of China
→ EFFECT: established Japan as an important economic power on the Asian
mainland and as the main naval power in the Western Pacific
iii.
c. Political instability in China

2. Events
a. Japanese invasion of Manchuria and northern China (1931)
i. successful land battles but great loss of life
ii. war at sea was decisive
→ The Russian fleet sailed from its base in the Baltic Sea to Vladivostok;
when it arrived in the Tsushima Strait it was destroyed by Admiral Togo and
the new Japanese fleet
iii. THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR: unprecedented mobilization of the nation’s
resources
→ the government mobilised ⅕ of the male working population for war
service; 1 milion men sent to the front
→ casualties amounted to more than 100.000 and the financial cost was
immense (10 times of Sino-Japanese War); it stretched the economy to the
limit
→ the war was justified as a great popular undertaking; NOTHING IN THE
NATION’S HISTORY HAD SO HEIGHTENED POLITICAL
AWARENESS AS THIS WAR
→ TREATY OF PORTSMOUTH: JAPAN gained control of KOREA and
much of SOUTH MANCHURIA (PORT ARTHUR), gained railway rights in
Manchuria along with the southern half of SAKHALIN ISLANDS
→ EFFECT: respect of the west and other asian countries (ROLE MODEL,
JAPAN AS LEADER OF ASIA),
iv. MANCHURIA
→ area of CHINA closest to JAPAN (4 times larger than islands)
→ agriculturally rich with mineral resources: it provided important
opportunities for the supply of resources to Japan
→ offered possibility of providing living space for the rapidly growing
Japanese population
→ could act as a buffer against the threat from Russia

b. Sino-Japanese War (1937–1941)

i. JAPAN defeated CHINA → POSITIONING ITSELF AS A WORLD
POWER WITH AN EMPIRE
ii. THE TREATY OF SIMONOSEKI gave the Pescadores Islands, Formosa and
Liaodong Peninsula to Japan
iii. recognized Korean independence
 iv. obliged China to pay a large indemnity, to open additional ports and to
negotiate a commercial treaty
v. THE EFFECT ON NATIONALISM AND MILITARISM: encouraged the
growth as it reinforced the idea that a strong military was necessary for Japan
to be successful as a world power and to defend itself against other Western
powers and against the Russians
→ TRIPLE INTERVENTION: GERMANY, RUSSIA AND FRANCE forced
JAPAN to give up Liaodong Peninsula
→ Russia took the Liadong Peninsula for itself
→ Germany secured control over SHANDONG PROVINCE
→ FRANCE and GREAT BRITAIN took advantage of the weakened CHINA
to size port cities on various pretexts and to expand their spheres of influence

c. The Three Power/Tripartite Pact; the outbreak of war; Pearl Harbor (1941)

3. Responses
a. League of Nations and the Lytton report
i. Japan was reminded that it was not fully a member of the “Western Club” by
failure to get racial equality clauses included in the Charter of the League of
Nations BECAUSE leaders in Britain and the USA were afraid of the
implications this would have for Japanese immigration into their countries
b. Political developments within China—the Second United Front
c. International response, including US initiatives and increasing tensions between a the
US and Japan
i. JAPANESE IMMIGRATION TO THE USA
→ increased substantially after 1900
→ immigrants worked mainly in unskilled jobs
→ faced discrimination in all areas
→ the growth of fear of “the yellow peril” perpetuated by the US
press, drove various anti-Japanese laws; the Japanese were not
allowed to become US citizens and in states such as California were
prevented from owning land
→ The 1924 Innigration Arc discriminated against Japan by making
it the only country not to be allowed ANY quota of immigrants into
the USA

1. What did Japan gain from the victory over Russia in 1905? Franek
One of the main gains for Japan from the victory over Russia in 1905 was gaining control of
Korea and South Manchuria. Those parts of China were very valuable for the country, as they
were not only four times larger than the Japanese islands and rich in resources, but they were
also the closest provinces in China to them. More than that, Japan has also received railway
rights in Manchuria and southern half of Sakhalin Island.

Another important gain for Japan was the respect and admiration of the Western and Asian
countries they achieved due to a win over much larger Russia. With that, the country has
established itself as the leader of Asia, as to their own previously formed beliefs and had a
stronger position against the western countries if needed.

Furthermore, Japanese imperialism drove the pride of Japanese people, which gained the
country even more supporters for their imperialism and militarism policy, which
overwhelmed those parts of the community who wanted a less ambitious foreign policy.

2. What were Japan’s benefits from WWI? Nina

The Japanese saw the war as an opportunity for development and expansion of influence,
starting with China. Firstly, Japan demanded Germany’s colonial territory in China and after
it was ignored, the Japanese declared a war. They seized German military bases on the
Shandong Peninsula and occupied Germany's South Pacific possessions. However, Japan
didn’t give up on its plans to influence China and soon issued the Chinese government with
the “Twenty-One Demands”, which contained financial and military agreements. They were
forced to accept it due to already losing some of its coastal territory.

The distracted with the war Allies were unable to supply the needs of the Asian market and
soon it was dominated by Japan. Japanese exports flourished also by supplying goods directly
to the Allies. With the economy developing, Japan became more self-sufficient as the need
for import was reduced, due to the production of goods within the country.

3. Consequences of the intervention in the Bolshevik’s Revolution Weronika

Firstly, the US and Britain started to mistrust Japan. Furthermore, Japan lost its prestige,
because of the Whites' defeat. Moreover, Attacks on the Japanese government began because
of the cost of intervention. Lastly, the Japanese government proved that they had issues
controlling the Japanese army that helped Whites during intervention.

4. What moves towards democracy and international cooperation (The Washington

Treaty system) did Japan undertake in the 20’s? Amelia
The Anglo-Japanese alliance was ended, replaced by the Four Power Treaty which included
Japan, the USA, Britain and France. Because of the Nine Power Treaty (China, Belgium,
The Netherlands, Italy, Portugal, USA, Britain, Japan, France) Japan renewed its respect for
China and returned the previously German concessions in Shandong; the Five Power Naval
Treaty established equality in the Navy’s resources across Britain, USA and Japan, which
concluded Japan’s plans to greatly expand their navy; these treaties allowed Japan to be
included in the international cooperation; lastly, the Taisho democracy revolutionised the
Japanese leadership system, allowing actually experienced people to take lead, as well as give
the Japanese people the power to vote, which resulted in much more freedom in their society.

5. What were the reasons for political and economic problems? Hania
Financial scandals and election law violations were the main cause the system no longer
inspired respect.

Anyone who opposed Japan’s political structure was clamped down by the Peace
Preservation Law

Passing of the two laws, extending the franchise and other limiting the public right to engage
in open discussion → a dilemma in the Meiji government, how much political freedom to
allow?

Washington Treaty System, seen as ‘an Anglo-Saxon ‘iron-ring’ preventing Japan from
expanding abroad’ by many Conservative groups in the government. These groups want an
aggressive policy in China and Japan being the leader of Asia.

Economic crisis: a large gap between cities and rural areas, imported rice is cheaper than the
one local farmers harvests

Farmers and workers trying to organise themselves politically are suppressed by the police

Government seems to be associated with big business companies and the landlords.

The global depression following the Wall Street Crash in 1929 came with the real economic
crises.

Japanese government is repressive, not democratic.

Japanese Expansion - part 2

1. Explain the terms: Maja

The Shogun - military dictator, in which hands landed the power.
(The emperor was still the ruler, but he didn’t have the power to decide. He was the God and
the face of power.)

Washington Treaty System - treaty system formed of Four-Power Treaty, Five-Power Naval
Treaty and Nine-Power Treaty, which indicated Japan commitment to international
cooperation in the 1920s.

‘Taisho democracy’ - series of reforms conducted by Emperor Taischo in the latter years of
his reign

Warlords - local or regional military leaders that had their own armies and ruled areas of
China as their own territories.

The Kwantung Army - the Japanese Army in Manchuria, which guarded Manchuria
Railways.The Kwantung Army became a stronghold of the radical Kodo-ha or “Imperial
Way” faction, with many of its leaders advocating the violent overthrow of the civilian
government to bring about a military dictatorship. They also advocated a more aggressive and
expansionist foreign policy.
 

2. Write the reasons for Japanese nationalism in the 19th century Amelia
– the pressure to turn Japan into a Western-style power to feel equal with Western powers
– the belief that Japan was to rule Asia
– urging to secure goods and raw materials in Ea
st Asia before anyone else gets the chance to
do so
– wanting strategic security
– actions of Western powers (leading in advancements)
- militarism and expansionism in Japan gaining further support

3. Why was Manchuria so important to Japan? (pages 19, 32 – 33) Hania

Manchuria was an area of China closest to Japan, four times larger than the Japanese island
that was rich with material resources → Manchuria could supply Japan with resources and
providing living space for growing population

Manchuria was located strategically, so it could act as a buffer against the threat from Russia

Economic crisis in Japan made it suffer the deprivation of goods Manchurian wealth offered
(coal, iron, timber).

Manchuria was depicted as a “lifeline” and “our only means of survival” by the diplomat
Yosuke Matsuoko (Foreign Minister in 1940).

4. What were the consequences of Russo – Japanese war for Japan? Weronika
Firstly, Japan gained control of Korea and part of south Manchuria (Port Arthur). Moreover,
they gained railway rights in Manchuria and southern half of Sakhalin Island. Furthermore,
Japan gained respect of western countries, as well as other Asian countries, who saw Japan as
an example that Asian countries can compete with Western forces. That also reaffirmed Japan
that they should be the leaders of Asia. On the other hand, the Japanese economy suffered
tremendously from the costs of the war and Japan had to pour more money into the military
to protect their new territories.

5. How did the intervention in the Civil War in Russia affect the Japanese Government?
Franek
After the civil war in Russia ended, the Japanese government began to be criticised among
the country. First factor that made Japanese people attack the authorities was the amount of
costs which the intervention in Russia generated. More than that, the loss was also taken
highly negatively by the population and furthermore encouraged mistrust of the country in
the US and Britain. Another reason for the criticism was loss of prestige, which has been an
important part of Japanese ideology. The government has also been attacked, because of their
failure to control their army, which due to lack of supervision started acting independently.

6. Was Japan treated equally by Western countries during the Paris Conference? Why?
Maja
After IWW Japan secured the former German Pacific islands as a mandate and gained
economic privileges on the Shandong Peninsula of China (former German’s.)

It made Japan an important economic power in Asia and the main naval power in the Western
Pacific.

It limited the Japanese fleet (they were told exactly how many ships they should have.)

It was ‘reminded’ that it is not fully a part of ‘Western World’ because Japan failed to get
racial equality clauses.

USA and Great Britain were afraid that it would influence Japanese immigration into their
countries

Japanese immigrants weren’t seen in the USA in a good way, they couldn’t become citizens,
in 1924 they weren’t allowed to immigrate to the USA (Immigration Act).

7. Why was there little respect for democracy in Japan? Nina

While the Japanese government tried to introduce democracy in the country as a move
towards internationalism, the already existing problems made it impossible to last. What
decimated the public support was not only numerous financial scandals and multiple
violations of the laws of the election, but also links of each party with either the country’s big
business or landlords in the countryside. With the public’s suspicion rising, appeared a fear of
left-wing radicalism which soon led to the government enforcing authoritarian laws against
anyone who was believed to be a danger to Japan's political structure, aimed particularly at
the Communist Party. As the government remained ambivalent, with simultaneously
extending the franchise and reducing the freedom of speech, the public continued to doubt the
stability of the Japanese “democracy”.

8. What factors caused the economic crisis ? (p. 23, 32) Weronka, Nina
● paralyzation of Japan’s docks due to Europe gaining back their markets after the war.
● huge difference between cities and rural areas - the rice’s price is lowering due to
development of imports and good harvests.
 ● deepening the problems amongst the poor and growing power of the rich led to the
fall of the economic system
● Wall Street Crash in 1929 - Hawley Tariff Act (Japan couldn't trade with the US).

9. Describe briefly the political situation in China. (p. 23-24, 31) Maja & Hania
Political instability:
In the 19th century, China had been forced to open up trade by the West. China was a
semi-colonial country.

Western powers have political control in China.

Rivalry between two political groups: Guomindang Nationalist Party (GMD) led by Jiang
Jieshi and the Communist Party of China (CCP) led by Mao Zedong

Chinese nationalism had grown

GMD began a campaign of national unification:

→ Anti-foreigner rhetoric and demands to end the unequal treaties that the great powers,

The Communist Party led by Mao Zedong

United Front: “Northern Expedition: to suppress the power of the warlords

Nationalists and Communists clashed in an all-out civil war.

10. What was the position of the military in Japan in the 30ties? (30, 31)
First, the army was enforced with discipline, and its prestige increased. Military was seen as a
true spirit of a nation, they found their support in downtrodden, rural areas, for whom they
were an escape from poverty and degradation, it was stated that once they enter an army they
become a private superior class. Unfortunately in 1930, the leader of the Minseito Party,
Hamaguchi Yuko, cut government salaries for military sectors, due to the Great Depression
economic crisis and no funds to improve industry. Government was criticised in military
circles.

By the 1930s Japan's army was not only based on the western military tactics, but also highly
modernised compared to other Asian countries. More than that, due to crises in Japan
throughout the 1930s, the military gained some upper hand control over the country. More
than that, these forces gained an additional morale and power boost with every success in war
which Japan achieved. However, by 1921 due to the Communists appearing in China, the
Japanese military was also affected. As one of the Communists’ targets was to consolidate
central government control and wrest the power from the warlords who were the military
leaders of local areas in China, they launched a Northern Expedition”.
Japan had some concern for the warlords - they supported the warlord in Manchuria, Zhang
Zuolin. Once he got powerful enough, he attempted expansion into China, making him a
potential target for Jiang Jieshi - this would interfere with Japanese interests in Manchuria.
They therefore made plans to use the Kwantung Army to disarm Zhang, which would result
in the best outcome for Japan and Jiang. However, some Kwantung leaders did not agree with
this treatment of Zhang; they chose a more radical approach, performing an assassination on
him. Despite Japan’s Prime Minister’s wrath at this act and emperor’s order for punishment,
the General Staff did not punish the army, as they thought this would damage Japan’s
prestige. Eventually, the Prime Minister was forced to resign, as he did not fulfill the
emperor’s wishes. With the election of a new minister, Hamaguchi Yuko, came more issues -
because of the Great Depression, he was eventually forced to cut the military budget, among
others. This was already angering the army, but the real outrage began when Hamaguchi went
to the London Naval Disarmament Conference to limit Japan's naval growth. This was the
last straw - soon afterwards, Hamaguchi was shot in an assassination attempt, eventually
succumbing to his injuries.

Invasion on Manchuria

1. What were the causes of the economic crisis in the beginning of the 30’s?
The first cause is The Wall Street crash that pressured many countries into putting up tariffs
to protect their industries. That deepened already existing economic crises in Japan, as the
country relied on export and international trade. Moreover, it caused people to doubt the
government as well as the US. Furthermore, the crisis affected the silk trade. The cost of silk
fell when the export stopped, and that led to rise of unemployment and poverty. That resulted
in an increased interest in conquering Manchuria, because Manchuria had an abundance of
mineral resources that could be sold to Europe, as well as a lot of space that could be
populated by Japanese citizens.

2. What was the Mukden incident? Hania

18 September 1931, an explosion on Japanese-owned South Manchurian Railway

Declaration of the Kwantung Army that the railway had been blown up by the Chinese, when
in reality it was the Kwantung Army members who did it.

An excuse: the Japanese had forced the Chinese to retreat from Mukden, the Kwantung Army
entered Changchun to the north.

The army ignored orders coming from Tokyo. Government wants army to fall back and
declares “non-expansion of hostilities” → the Kwantung Army began to seize Manchurian
countryside

Disobedient officers, independent army

3. What were the results for:
- Japan’s international relations? Gosia
→ Events associated with Manchurian crisis, eventually led Japan to leave the League of
Nations
→ Japan abandoned international cooperation and The Washington Treaty System
→ Japan got interested in Nazi Germany’ policy and started to see a Soviet regime as a
ideological and territorial threat
→ Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany

- Manchuria and China? Maja

→ Manchuria was called now “Manchukuo” (kind of state)
→ was under the control of Japanese forces
→ Manchuria had an independent (Japanese) government under the puppet rule of Pu Yi
→ bombarding of Shanghai which caused thousands of casualties and refugees

- Nationalist Party in China? Gosia

→ Focus on defeating the Chinese Communists
→ Jiang Jieshi (the leader of the Nationalist Party) did not want to get engage in other
conflicts, in order to gain more time to organise his defences
→ Chinese people were furious about Japan actions, which consequently led to the boycott of
Japanese products
→ Reduction of Japan’s sales in China by two-thirds

- Japanese government? Hania

→ Economic benefits outgrown by the costs of maintaining a sizeable army on the Chinese
mainland
→ Increase in taxation
→ “Asia Monroe Doctrine”, Japan declaring responsibility for maintaining peace in Asia
→ The government position was undermined by public support for the Kwantung Army’s
actions in China
→ Army being called the “Heroes of Manchuria”
→ Foreign criticism and condemnation encourage growing nationalist sentiments

Sino-Japanese war of 1937

1. What were the main assumptions of the military groups in Japan: Nina

- Koda-ha’s - also called Imperial Way Faction, was the more radical of the two groups and
believed in a military dictatorship that would deliver state socialism. The main enemy was
believed to be the Soviet Union and the war, starting with the conquest of Manchuria, was
inevitable. The training of an army was more about popularising certain beliefs than material
force.

- Tosei-ha’s - Control Faction, against terrorism and opposed to usage of force in order to
remove the government. The group wanted to use legal means to influence the government,
was against the war with the Soviet Union and intended to maintain a good relationship. The
Tosei-ha wanted to conquer China by modernising the army and mobilising the whole nation.

2. How did they influence Japan’s policy? Maja

→ after assassination of prime minister in May 1932 - enhanced the influence of the army
and further undermined the democratic Government
→ governments of Admiral Saito and Admiral Okada were meantime governments
→ the influence on army was among the Koda-ha and the Tosei-ha factions
→ the result: supremacy of the Tosei-ha and paved the way for more
military control over government

3. What was the Marco Polo Bridge incident and what were its consequences?
The Marco Polo bridge incident was a fight between Japan and China, 7 July 1937. It is
uncertain whether it was deliberately planned by Japan, however the army has drawn its
forces from Korea and Manchuria to China without consulting the government - it was the
war minister who made this decision, despite prince Konoye's efforts to withhold the
reinforcements. Regardless of whether it was Japan who organised this clash, this fight was
the start to a full war with China.

4. How did the Japanese treat defeated Chinese?

Japanese treated defeated in non-humanitarian way – they raped about 30 000 women, 30 000
soldiers were killed 12 000 civilians murdered. They were committing robbery, destruction
and arson, so the city was left in ruins.
The acts of the Japanese presented them as the Akira Iriye writes ‘impossible for Japan to still
be accepted as a respectable member of the international community’.

5. What were the results of the Sino – Japanese War for Japan?
● creation of two Chinese resistance forces (Jiang Jieshi and Mao Zedong)
● creation of cultural political and economical union between Japan China and
Manchukuo called a New Order in East Asia
● remaining conflict between China and Japan
● Japan had an ongoing issue with ending the conflict.
Tripartite Pact & Attack on Pearl Harbor

1. What were the assumptions of the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy?

One of the main assumptions for the Tripartite Pact was for the three countries signing
it to receive the space which they are entitled to. Another important purpose of the pact
for the countries was to establish and maintain a new order of things promoting mutual
prosperity. Furthermore, each of the nations also wanted to extend their cooperation to
countries in other spheres of the world, similar in their ideologies and goals.

2. And the Neutrality Pact with Soviet Union/

→
The main idea of the pact was to keep the Soviet Union’ forces concentrated in Europe and
let Japan move its forces to the south.
→ Japan and Soviet Union agreed on maintaining peaceful and friendly relations between
them
→ Good relations with Nazi Germany and Soviet Union let Japan took over Asian colonies
and expand their ambitions towards broadening their territories

3. What influence on Japanese policy did the victories of the Nazis in Europe have?

Great opportunity for Japan to take over the Asian colonies of Britain, France and the
Netherlands. Japanese forces could move into southern Indo-China and threaten Siam
(Thailand), Malaya, the Dutch East Indies

Frozen Japanese assets, foreign trade of the USA and Britain with Japan brought to a halt –
The economic embargo as a result of expansion into Indo-China

Japan fostered by Hitler’s victories in Europe expanded its ambition to South East Asia
included in the Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

4. Why was the embargo put on Japan and why was it impossible to get an agreement?

The economic embargo was placed on Japan due to its expansion into Indo-China. As a
result, the Japanese supplies were cut off which made the war with China impossible to
continue. The opinions on the embargo in Japan were divided; Some argued that Japan
should withdraw forces from Indo-China and thus get the embargo lifted, while others
dismissed the USA as a danger and wanted no retreat.

5. What was Hull’s last Note? W

Last American proposal of peace, delivered by US Secretary of state Cordell Hull (direct
cause of attack on Pearl Harbor). It had 2 parts - one that gathered policies that both
countries would obey in international relations (lack of interference in other countries
 internal affairs) and one that gathered policies between Japan and US (withdrawal of
Japanese troops from China and French Indo-China).

6. Why, according to particular groups of historians did Japan invade the USA in
Pearl Harbor:

- left- wing Japanese historians

Left wing historians assess the beginning of the war as 1931, not 1937 as says the
general consensus, attributing the conflict in Manchuria as the incident which set off this “15
year old war”. They hold the “militarist, capitalist clique” as the catalysis for any occurring
battles and conflicts, and say that the population was indoctrinated by their pre-war
education.

- right – wing Japanese historians

Right wing historians believed that Japan invaded the USA, in order to ,,free Asia”
from the Western colonialism. More than that, they view the Japanese attack as the precursor
for the future independence movements in the post-war period. Furthermore, the war was
forced on Japan, because of the oil embargo. The other historians also believe the war to be
100 year long, ever since the Americans arrived in 1853.

- orthodox American historians Maja

War began after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937.

Pearl Harbor was key evidence of Japan's aggression and violation of the Geneva
Convention.

Japan was fully responsible for the war.

- revisionist US historians Gosia

Revisionist US historians claimed that it might have been Roosevelt’s calculated move to
provoke Japan into making an attack on Pearl Harbor.

7. How did historians assess the role of the Emperor?

Traditionalist historians → he had not wanted war, but he had had no choice but to submit to
the militarists
Revisionists → Hirohito was not simply passive but that he was aggressive

The historian, Sterling Seagrove → emperor was a force supporting Japanese expansionism.
He could have intervened to stop the expansionists, but he did not want to.

International response to Japanese aggression

1. What organ of the League of Nations was the decisive one and what countries was it
made up of? W
Council of the League - Britain, France, Italy, Japan and four other members selected by the
assembly.

2. What was Lytton’s commission ?

Lytton’s fact-finding commission, named after its leader, Lord Lytton, was sent by the League
of Nations. It took several months for it to arrive in Manchuria and another several months to
complete its report on the situation, which was published a year after the Mukden incident.

3. Decisions of the Lytton Commission’s Report:

- Even if Japan did have interests in Manchuria, it was unacceptable and unjustified for
them to obtain them by military means.
- Japan was to give up occupied territory and withdraw its forces.
- Manchukuo would not be recognized as an independent state.
- Manchuria, though under Chinese sovereignty, would become independent.
- China and Japan (after Japan withdrew its forces) were to negotiate and make an
agreement.

4. Japan’s response to the report. Maja

Japan didn’t want to fulfill the League's expectations and declared that they were
“hypocritical” (and how did the British and French gain their colonies?)

In a sense of protest and disagreement, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in March
1933

5. Why stronger action against Japan wasn’t taken and what were the consequences of
this situation? Gosia

→ League of Nations failed to resist the Japan’s aggression, mainly because of:
 - France (which was one of the key members of League) as a colonial power in
Indo-China could gain a lot from a weakened China, so any moves towards stopping
Japan hadn’t been in their interest
- Britain did not take actions against Japan, as the ruling Conservative Party believed
that getting engaged in this dispute, when their own interests were not at sake,
wouldn’t be reasonable.
- Both countries were still suffering after the Great Depression and its resources were
limited

6. How a Second United Front was formed? Hania

● Jiang wanted to fight the Communists rather than Japan — consequently, he lost
support of his own party

● Uprisings and demonstration against Jiang’s failure to stand up to the Japanese

● In the middle of campaign against the Communist, he was kidnapped by troops under
order of General Zhang Xue-liang, the Manchurian warlord

● Even this event did not make Jiang sign a formal agreement, but attacking
Communism was no longer priority

● The Second United Front was formed between the Nationalist party and the
Communist Party

7. How did the political situation in China develop during the war with the Japanese?
(incl. Puppet government) Maja

Jiang said that “If we allow one inch more of our territory to be lost, we shall be
guilty of an unpardonable crime against our race”

There was a national conference which was the meeting between Communists and
Nationalists. Mao Zedong declared a policy of “total resistance by the whole nation”.

The Second United Front was formed and that created an agreement/cooperation between
Communists and Nationalists, but war was going badly.

Japan could not quickly win the war so they made another approach by adopting a policy of
living off the land with the help of puppet governments.

In 1938 China was divided in three parts:

1. Nationalist China (Chongqing)
2. Communist China (Shaanxi)
3. Japanese-occupied China (east and north)
In 1940 Wang Jingwei, Jiang’s former rival, became the head of “the New Government of
China” - puppet goverment.

In 1941 Jiang attacked the Communists, but he realised that Japan would lose anyway so he
stopped the conflict.

8.What was the American response to events in 1931-37? Weronika

→ Isolationism after I WW

→ Focus on economics

→ USA didn't want to jeopardise their economic relations with Japan

→ Ignoration of Manchurian crisis and attack on China (open door policy and Kellogg -
Briand pact)

That led to Stimson Doctrine.

→ Trade with Japan rose even more than before (silk, oil, iron scrap, automobile parts).

→ 40% Japanese import came from the U.S.

9.What factors affected the US's attitude towards Japan up to 1938? Nina

In the 1930s, USA wanted to focus on its own interest, staying out of international crises.
Due to factors such as The Wall Street Crash (1929) and an economic crises the country
was forced to remain in its isolation. Although the USA did not approve action of the
Japanese forces in China, it would not be beneficial for them to intervene due to the fact
that it had far more important trade and investment tarde interest in Japan than in China.
The limited response to the Japanese action was also influenced by the Hitler’s policies
taking most of the USA’s attention.

10. Why did American policy towards Japan change after 1938? Am

- Roosevelt disagreeing with the isolation policy;

- Fear of Jiang joining Japan in a “new order”, making Japan much stronger;
- Concern of the Soviets increasing their support for the Nationalists, therefore
gaining more power in China;
- Because of the Tripartite Pact, the USA began to see the war in Europe and
Asia as one.
11.What steps were taken by the USA? Franek

In 1938, president Roosvelt did not apply the Neutrality Acts to China. More than that,
the USA started to actively support the nationalists in China, providing them with
supplies, money aid and an oil loan of 25$ million. Another of US’s steps were a ,,moral
embargo” and trade block, which was placed on Japan in January 1939 on planes and
aviation parts sales, an ,,oil embargo” (80% of Japan’s oil was bought from US) and a
block of a long-standing trade agreement with the country. Also when Japan began to
move down to the south, their assets were frozen by the US. USA furthermore forced
throughout its actions negotiations with Japan, in which they insisted on their withdrawal
of forces from China.

12.What was US reaction on Pearl Harbor? Gosia

→ The attack united Americans against Japan, and make the nation consistent for the
decision of getting involved in war with Japan
→ The U.S declared a war on Japan on December 8th, as the Roosevelt’s request had been
agreed on by the Congress
→ USA became fully engaged in the World War II