THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHT

• Western Concept of Self•

Frank Johnson- a psychiatrist and professor that outlined four categories on how the term "self"
is used in contemporary western discussion.

Four Categories of "Self" in Western Concept:

1) Analytical- "Tendency to see reality as an aggregate of parts." Self is an observer separate and
distinct from external objects (Me Vs. Others)

2) Monotheistic/Monotheism- tendency towards unitary explanations of phenomena and a

closed-system view of "self" as modeled after a unitary, omnipotent power. (Man was created by
God, in His image)

3) Individualistic/Individualism- quality of western thinking where self-expression and self-

actualization are important ways of establishing who one is, as well as finding satisfaction in the
world.

4) Materialistic/ Rationalistic- tends to discredit explanations that do not use analytic-deductive

modes of thinking.

•Eastern Concept of Self•

1) Hinduism- "Change your perception of the world to perceive the Brahman in oneself and in
others."

Vedas- earliest religious writings in the East.

- it formed the Hindu philosophy and dharma(Principle of Cosmic Order)

- chants and hymns illustrate the eastern mindset of creation that is completely

unified with the creator with no distinction.

Brahman- true nature of humans

- the divine universal consciousness encompassing the universe

-the self that is all within us

2) Buddhism- "Self" is not an entity, a substance, or essence. Rather, the "self" is a dynamic
process.

- composed of teachings of Buddha

- self is interdependent and ever changing

 - takes greater interest in how people experience their "self" because Buddhist

practices are designed to lead a new (Correct) experience of self.

Anatta- defined as "no-self or no-soul"

- a doctrine that tells the sense of being a permanent, autonomous "self" is an

illusion.

- a teaching that there is no eternal, unchanging "self/soul" inhabiting our bodies

or living our lives.

3) Confucianism- the quest for the "self" in terms of substance, spirit, body or essence does not
exist. Rather, the concept of "self" is that of personality.

Confucian Philosophy's Four Beginnings of a Man:

• Jen- Heart of Compassion; means goodwill, sympathy towards others, politeness and

generosity

• Yi- Heart of Righteousness; rightness and respect of duty

• Li- Heart of Propiety; right to practice propiety or inner attitude to your outer expression in all
that you do

• Chih- Heart of Wisdom; expressing Jen, Yi, and Li into practice

Personality- achieved state of moral excellence rather than a given human condition.

- qualities that form a person's character which are not inherited but formed through

upbringing and the environment

- Confucian concept of self is deeply embedded within the family and society

4) Taoism- rejects a hierarchical view of the self, society or cosmos

- does not regard self as an extension or of defined by social relationships

- "Self" is but one of the countless manifestations of the Tao

- self is an extension of the cosmos (or the universe seen as a well-ordered whole)

Chuang-tzu- gave an explicit negation of the centrality of "self"

- " The perfect man has no self; the spiritual man has no achievement; the true
 sage has no name."

-Ideal is selflessness

- Conscious self-transformation leading to the attributes of a balanced life in

with both nature and society

5) Islam- "self" in Islamic tradition is used both in the individualistic and collective sense

Nafs- arabic word used for "self" written in Holy Qur'an

- pertains to the psyche (totality of conscious and unconscious human mind) or soul

Quran- does not ascribe any property of goodness or evil to "the nafs/self."

- self is something which has to be nurtured and self-regulated, so that it can

progress into becoming "good" or conversely evil through its thoughts and
actions.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EASTERN AND WESTERN THOUGHT

Issues Eastern Philosophy Western Philosophy

1)Main Schools Buddhism, Confucianism, Rational, Scientific, Logical

Hinduism, Islam, Taoism Schools, Christianity

2)Main Principles 1. Cosmological unity 1. Feeling oneself as an

2.Life is a journey towards
eternal realities
3.Circular view of the
universe
4.Inner-world dependent
5 Highest state is believed to
be a state of "no-self", where
neither self worth nor self-
importance have any real
meaning.
6. Behavioral ethics
element of the Divine
2.Life is a service (to God,
money, business, etc.)
3 Linear view of the universe
and life
4.Outer-world dependent
5.Self-dedication to the goal
(life vision, success,
happiness, etc.)

3)The "Me" Concept Getting rid of the false "Me" True "Me" is given and does

4)Relationship with Religion
5)Search for Absolute Truth
6)Search for Truth and
Fundamental Research
7)Future
8)Beliefs and Values
9)Justice
10)Individualism/
Collectivism
11)Improvement/Evolution
12)Radical
Innovation/Revolution
and discovering the true "Me" not have to be cognizable.
Integration Opposition
Systematic approach Focused on individual events
and role of the person.
Searching inside yourself-
being part of universe through Searching outside yourself-
meditation and right living. through research and analysis.
Truth is given and does not Truth needs to be proved.
need to be proved.
Philosophic base for
Philosophic base for fundamental research is
fundamental research is stronger.
weaker.
Determined by your deeds Your future is unknown.
today.
It was predetermined by God
and is not much influenced by
your deeds.
True key is inside. Main values are success and
achievement with external
The way to the top is inside
nature. (Money, faith,
yourself, through self-
popularity, etc.)
development.
Way to the top is through
active outside intervention.
Spiritual practice Cerebral practice
Collectivism is stronger Individualism is stronger
Cyclic development, Linear development,
improvement is a never ending improvement has a goal.
joirney that has no limits.
Development stops when goal
is reached.
Fundamentals of status quo Fundamentals of status quo-
should not be questioned. can and often should - be
questioned.
Introducing radical changes is
weaker. Radical changes is stronger.
13)Passion and Venturing Entrepreneurial creativity and Entrepreneurial venturing is
venturing is contained by the encouraged emotionally.
habit to control one's passions.

14)Achievement and Winning Winning is inside yourself. Winning is outside yourself.

15)Implementation Spiritual and missionary Pragmatic and emotional

approach approach.

16)Goals and Key to success Spiritual Materialistic

17)Living Principles Virtue Ethic

18)Establishing control over Through meditation Through analysis

your emotions

19)Leadership Spiritual; walking behind Hands-on; walking ahead of

people; silence is golden. people; speech is golden.

Individualism

 Refers to the extent that you value independence and personal uniqueness.
 Individualism is all about taking care of yourself; it is the belief and practice that every
person is unique and self-reliant.
 A belief in individualism also implies that you believe that the government should bud
out of your individual affairs.

Highly Individualistic people value FACS

FREEDOM

APPRECIATION

CONTROL

SULF-SUFFICIENCY

Collectivism

 A principle or a practice of encouraging togetherness by giving priority to a group rather

than the individuals in the group.
 It refers to the extent that we value our duty to groups to which we belong, and to group
harmony.
 Culture plays a very significant role in the development of the self concept. It embodies
specific values, thoughts, or ideas that play a central role in determining a person’s sense of
“self”. The two dominant self-concepts are the individualistic self and the collective self.

Individualistic Self

“I am my own man”

“I am the master of my fate; I am the captain of my soul”

 Individualist culture such as in the USA, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, The
Netherlands, and New Zealand emphasize the moral worth f the individual (Wood,1972).
 Individualistic cultures are oriented around the individual: that a person should be
independent instead of having the mentality of identifying with a group.
 In interpersonal relationship, Individualists see each other as only loosely linked, and hey
value personal goals over group interest (Hofstede,2001)

Collective Self

-base values and self-concept through interdependence and harmonious relatedness with one
another (Example: the family, co-workers, friends, etc.)

-maintain social networks, good relationships and fulfill obligations

Patricia Licuanan- a Filipino psychologist and educator

- she conducted a study that determined the strengths of Filipino character can be found in our
deep love and cornern for the family

How Filipinos perceived 'Family'

-source of personal identity

-source of emotional and material support

-person's main commitment and responsibilty

Baumeister(1986)- proposed three aspects of self-concept

Three Aspects of Self-Concept:

1.Private- refers to mental processes that perceive one's own traits or behaviors (Example: I am
honest.)

2.Public- refers to the generalized view of self, such as the perception of how others view you
(Example: People think I'm honest.)

3.Collective- refers to view of self in a collective concept (Example: My family expects me to be

honest.)

Self in Confucian Thought

-self-development is a lifelong commitment to learning

-involves ritual practice for the mind and body to love life as an active participant in the
community

-view that the "self" is the center of relationships

-"self" maintains its wholeness and identity by continually opening the self to others
 UNPACKING THE SELF

✓ THE PHYSICAL SELF

“Beauty is when you can appreciate yourself. When you love yourself, that’s when you’re most
beautiful.” -Zoe Kravitz

“The best and most beautiful things in the world cannot be seen or even touched – they must be
felt with the heart.” -Helen Keller

✓ WHAT PHILOSOPHERS THINK ABOUT BEAUTY

-It is a primary theme among ancient Greek, Hellenistic, and medieval philosophers, and was
central to eighteenth and nineteenth-century thought.

-By the beginning of the twentieth century, beauty was in decline as a subject of philosophical
inquiry, and also as a primary goal of the arts.

The two most debated views about beauty are:

 Beauty is objective
 Beauty is subjective

Before the 18th century, most Western philosophical views on beauty treated it as an objective
quality.

For example:

 St. Augustine asked whether things were beautiful because it gave delight or whether it
gave delight because it was beautiful. He believed it to be latter.
 Plato connected beauty as a response to love and desire. He asserted that beauty exists in
the realm of Forms, and that objects are found beautiful because they are reflection of the
idea of beauty that already exists in the realm of forms.
 Aristotle asserted that the chief forms of beauty are order symmetry, and definiteness
that can be demonstrated by mathematical sciences.
By the 18th century, however, beauty was associated with pleasure as a personal preference.
Some philosophers who hold this view are:

 David Hume – “Beauty is no quality in things themselves: It exists merely in the mind
which contemplates them; and each mind perceives a different beauty. One person may
even perceive deformity, where another is sensible beauty; and every individual ought to
acquiesce in his own sentiment, without pretending to regulate those of others.”
  Immanuel Kant – “The judgement of taste is therefore not a judgement of cognition, and
is consequently not logical but aesthetical, by which we understand that whose
determining ground can be no other than subjective.”
 Francis Hutcheson – “The perception of beauty does depend on the external sense of
sight; however, the internal sense of beauty operates as an internal or reflex sense. The
same is the case with hearing”.
✓ WHAT DID PSYCHOLOGY DISCOVER ABOUT BEAUTY?

Halo effect also known as Physical stereotype – refers to the tendency of people to rate
attractive individuals more favorably for their personality traits or characteristics as compared to
those who are less attractive.

Evolutionary psychology found that faces hold certain fundamental and important characteristics
that could indicate a person’s quality as a romantic partner and as a mate. Among the most
important and consistent factors in facial attractiveness are structural qualities of faces. These
sex-typical facial features of adult men and women are the result of the testosterone to estrogen
ratio or estrogen to testosterone, respectively, acting on development. We are programmed to be
drawn to strong indicators of maleness (for women) and femaleness (for men) partly because
they reflect an individual’s health.

✓ HOW CULTURAL TRADITIONS SHAPE BODY IMAGE

-Culture has a significant impact on how a person feels about himself or herself, as well as his or
her body image.

-Cultural traditions can either be a positive or a negative Influence on body image and on self-
esteem.

- Body image is generally defined as how one thinks and feels toward one's body (Yam, 2013;
Cash & Smolak, 2011).

-When "culture" is experienced as a personally meaningful activity, it is difficult for a person to

resist the conscious and unconscious ways that culture influences a person's life.

✓ DOES YOUR BODY IMAGE HAVE AN IMPACT ON YOUR SELF - ESTEEM?

-The term self-esteem was coined by William James in 1800.

-James presented self-esteem as the number of successes a person achieves in the domains of life
that are important to him or her, divided by the number of failures that occurred in those areas.

-In the 1960s behavioral scientists defined self-esteem in terms of an attitude concerning one's
worth as a person.
-Self-esteem is about how you value yourself and how you feel others value you.

-Body image is how you view your physical body, whether you feel you are attractive, and how
you feel some other people like your looks. For many people (especially teenagers) body image
is closely linked to self-esteem.

✓ HOW IMPORTANT IS PHYSICAL BEAUTY?

-Physical beauty is extremely important.

-The dictionary's definition of beauty is, "the degree to which a person's physical traits are
considered pleasing or beautiful." Ive mea

-A self-image problem happens when your looks do not match your beauty standards.

- To have a positive self-image and a higher self-esteem you must fix your false beliefs about
physical attractiveness first.

✓THE SEXUAL SELF

“Self-love is about respecting and appreciating every single part of who you are and being proud
to be you.”
-Miya Yamanouchi, Embrace Your Sexual Self: A Practical Guide for Women

✓ DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS AND THE HUMAN

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Soon after the fertilization of an egg, the development of the reproductive system begins. For
example, approximately one month after conception, primordial gonads also begins to develop.
Rapid reproductive development happens inside the mother’s womb; but when the child is born
until he/she reaches puberty, there is little change in the reproductive system.

✓ DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEXUAL ORGANS IN THE EMBRYO AND FETUS

-The female sex is considered the “fundamental” sex because if a particular chemical prompting
is absent, all fertilized eggs will develop into females.

- For a fertilized egg to become male, a cascade of chemical reactionsmust be present initiated by
a single gene in the male Y chromosome called the SRY gene (Sex-determining Region of the Y
chromosome).

- Females do jot have any Y chromosomes, hence, they do not have the SRY gene (Lumen
Learning Courses, WEB)

- Both male and female embryos have the same group of cells that will potentially develop into
male or female
✓ FURTHER SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT OCCURS AT PUBERTY

-PUBERTY is the stage of development at which individuals become sexually mature. The
outcome of puberty is different for boys and girls, but the hormonal process is similar

FIVE STAGES OF PUBERTY

STAGES PUBERTY STAGES IN PUBERTY STAGES IN

GIRLS BOYS

1 Approximately between the Approximately between ages

ages of 8 and 11: 9 and 12:

 Ovaries enlarge and  No visible signs of

hormone production
starts, but external
development is not yet
visible.
development occur,
but internally, male
hormones become a
lot more active.
Sometimes a growth
spurt begins at this
time.

2 Approximately between the Approximately between ages

ages of 8 and 14: 9 to 15:

 First external sign of  Height increases and

puberty is breast
development.
 At first breast buds
develop. The nipples
will be tender and
elevated.
 The area around the
nipple (aureole) will
increase in size.
 The first stage of
pubic hair may also be
present at this time. It
the shape of the body
changes.
 Muscle tissue and fat
develop at this time.
 The aureole, the dark
skin around the nipple,
darkens and increases
in size.
 The testicles and
scrotum grow, but the
penis probably does
not.
 may be coarse or curly  A little bit of pubic
or fine or straight. hair begins to grow at
 Height and weight the base of the penis.
increase at this time.
The body gets rounder
and curvier.

3 Approximately between the Approximately between the

ages of 9 and 15: ages 11 and 16:

 Breast growth  The penis starts to

continues, and pubic grow during this stage.
hair gets coarser and It tends to grow in
darker. length rather than
 Whitish discharge width.
from vagina may be  Pubic hair is getting
present. darker and coarser and
 For some girls, the spreading to where the
first menstrual period legs meet the torso.
begins at this time.  Also boys continue to
grow in height, and
even their faces begin
to appear more
mature.
 The shoulders broaden
making the hips look
smaller.
 -Muscle tissue
increases and the
voice starts to change
and deepen.
 -Finally, facial hair
begins to develop on
the upper lip.

4  Approximately from Approximately 11 to 17:

ages 10 to 16:
 Penis starts to grow in
 Some girls notice that
width, too.
their aureoles get even
 Testicles and scrotum
darker and separate
also continue to grow.
into a little mound
Hair may begin to
 rising above the rest of
the breast.
 Pubic hair may begin
to have more adult
triangular pattern of
growth.
If it did not happen in
Stage Three,
menarche (first
menstruation) should
start now.
 Ovulation may start
now too. But it will
not necessarily occur
on a regular basis. (It
is possible to have
regular periods even if
ovulation does not
occur every month.)
grow on the anus.
 Texture of the penis
becomes more adult-
looking. Underarm
and facial hair
increases as well.
 The first fertile
ejaculations typically
appear at
approximately 15
years of age, but this
age can vary widely
across individual
boys.
 Skin gets oilier and
the voice continues to
deepen.

5 Approximately between ages Approximately 14 to 18:

of 12 and 19:
 Final stage of
development. Full
height is reached and
young women are
ovulating regularly.
 Pubic hair is filled in
and the breasts are
developed fully for the
body.
 Boys reach their full
adult height.
 Pubic hair and the
genitals look like an
adult man’s do.
 At this point, too,
shaving is a necessity.
 Some young men
continue to grow past
this point, even into
their twenties.

✓ WHAT ARE THE EROGENOUS ZONES OF THE BODY?

-The term erogenous zones was popularized in the 1960s and 1970s to describe areas of the
body that are highly sensitive to stimuli and are often (but not always) sexually exciting.

-In this context, “highly sensitive” means these areas of the body have a high number of sensory
receptors or nerve endings that react to stimuli.
The Skin
-The skin serves as the primary erotic stimulus. Two types of erogenous zones exist in the skin
(Winkelmann, 2004).

Non-Specific Type:

-It is similar to any other portion of the usual haired skin.

-The nerves supplying it are composed of the usual density of dermal-nerve networks and hair
follicle-networks.

-The learned and anticipated pleasurable sensations when a stimulus is presented in these regions
produce the amplified sensations.

-The pleasurable sensation felt from these regions is simply an exaggerated form of tickle.

-Examples of these type of skin are the sides and back of the neck, the axilla (armpit, underarm)
and the sides of the thorax (chest).

Specific Type:

-It is found in the mucocutaneous regions of the body or those regions made both of mucous
membrane and cutaneous skin.

-These regions favor acute perception.

-These specific sites of acute sensation are the genital regions, including the prepuce, penis, the
female external genitalia (vulva), the perianal skin, lips, and nipples.

-Prepuce is the retractable fold of skin covering the tip of the penis. Nontechnical name:
foreskin. It is also a similar fold of skin covering the tip of the clitoris (Collins English
Dictionary).

- Penis is a male erectile organ of copulation by which urine and semen are discharged from the
body (Splendorio & Reichel, 2014).

-Female external genitalia (vulva) include:

•The mons pubis

•The clitoris. A female sexual organ that is small and sensitive, and located in front of the
opening of the vagina.

•The labia majora and labia minora. The labia majora are fleshy lips around the vagina. These
are larger outer folds of the vulva. The labia minora also known as the inner labia, inner lips,
vaginal lips or nymphae are two flaps of skin on either side of the human vaginal opening in the
vulva situated between the labia majora.

•Vaginal introitus is the opening that leads to the vaginal canal.

• The hymen is a membrane that surrounds or partially covers the external vaginal opening.

-Perianal skin refers to the area of the body surrounding the anus, and in particular, the skin.
The perianal skin is very sensitive. It is also susceptible to injury and damage.

-Lips are soft, movable, and serves as the opening for food intake and in the articulation of
sound and speech. Human lips are design to be perceived by touch, and can be an erogenous
zone when used in kissing and any other acts of intimacy.

-Nipples are the raised region of tissue on the surface of the breast. A recent study found that the
sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from the vagina.

✓UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

-The sexual response cycle refers to the sequence of physical and emotional occurrences when
the person is participating in a sexually stimulating activity, such as intercourse or masturbation.

-In the late 1950s, William Masters and Virginia Johnson pioneered research to understand
human sexual response, dysfunction and disorders.

-Masters and Johnson have been widely recognized for their contributions to sexual,
psychological, and psychiatric research, particularly for their theory of a four-stage model of
sexual response (also known as the human sexual response cycle).

FOUR PHASES OF THE HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE

PHASES GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

 Muscle tension increases.

Phase 1: Excitement  Heart rate quickens and breathing is
accelerated.
 Skin may become flushed (blotches of
redness appear on the chest and back).
  Nipples become hardened or erect.
 Blood flow to the genitals increases,
resulting in swelling of the woman's
clitoris and labia minora (inner lips),
and erection of the man's penis.
 Vaginal lubrication begins.
 The woman's breasts become fuller
and the vaginal walls begin to swell.
 Man's testicles swell, his scrotum
tightens, and begins secreting a
lubricating liquid.

 The changes begun in phase 1 are

Phase 2: Plateau intensified.
 The vagina continues to swell from
increased blood flow, and the vaginal
walls turn a dark purple.
 The woman's clitoris becomes highly
sensitive (may even be painful to
touch) and retracts under the clitoral
hood to avoid direct stimulation from
the penis.
 The man's testicles are withdrawn up
into the scrotum.
 Breathing, heart rate, and blood
pressure continue to increase.
 Muscle spasms may begin in the feet,
face, and hands.
 Muscle tension increases.

 Involuntary muscle contractions

Phase 3: Orgasm begin.
 Blood pressure, heart rate, and
breathing are at their highest rates,
with a rapid intake of oxygen.
 Muscles in the feet spasm.
 There is a sudden, forceful release of
sexual tension.
  In women, the muscles of the vagina
contract. The uterus also undergoes
rhythmic contractions.
 In men, rhythmic contractions of the
muscles at the base of the penis result
in the ejaculation of semen.
 A rash, or "sex flush” may appear over
the entire body.

Phase 4: Resolution  The body slowly returns to its normal

level of functioning, and swelled and
erect body parts return to their
previous size and color.
 This phase is marked by a general
sense of well-being, enhanced
intimacy and, often, fatigue.
 Some women are capable of a rapid
return to the orgasm phase with
further sexual stimulation and may
experience multiple orgasms.
 Men need recovery time after orgasm,
called a refractory period, during
which they cannot reach orgasm
again. The duration of the refractory
period varies among men and usually
lengthens with advancing age.

✓ SEX AND THE BRAIN

Sex- the process of combining male and female genes to form an offspring.

Brain- the largest sex organ controlling the biological urges, mental processes, as well as the
emotional and physical responses to sex.

ROLES OF THE BRAIN IN SEXUAL ACTIVITY:

 1. The brain is responsible for translating the nerve impulses sensed by the skin into
pleasurable sensations.

2. It controls the nerves and muscles used in sexual activities.

3. Sexual thoughts and fantasies are theorized to lie in the cerebral cortex, the same area
used for thinking and reasoning.

4. Emotions and feelings (which are important for sexual behavior) are believed to
originate in the limbic system.

5. The brain releases the hormones considered as the physiological origin of sexual
desire.

ROLES OF HORMONES IN SEXUAL ACTIVITY:

Hypothalamus- most important part of the brain for sexual functioning. This small area at the
base of the brain has several groups of nerve-cell bodies that receive input from the limbic
system. The hypothalamus is important in human sexual activity is its relation to the pituitary
gland. The pituitary gland secretes the hormones produced in the hypothalamus.
1. Oxytocin -also known as the "love hormone."

-involved in our desire to maintain close relationships. -released during sexual intercourse
when orgasm is achieved.

2. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

-responsible for ovulation in females.

3. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

-The LH is crucial in regulating the testes in men and ovaries in women. In men, the LH
stimulates the testes to produce testosterone. In males,
testosterone appears to be a major contributing factor to sexual motivation.

4.Vasopressin- involved in the male arousal phase. The increase of vasopressin during erectile
response is said to be directly associated with increase motivation to engaged with sexual
behavior.

5. Estrogen and Progesterone -regulate motivation to engage in sexual behavior for females ,
with estrogen increasing motivation and progesterone decreasing it.

✓ Understanding the Chemistry of Lust, Love

Helen Fisher of Rutgers University, an anthropologist, proposed three stages of falling in

love; and for each stage, a different set of chemicals run the show.
 The three stages of falling in love are:

1. Lust (erotic passion)

-marked by physical attraction

-want to seduce and be seduced by your object of affection.

-will not guarantee that the couple will fall in love in any lasting way.

2. Attraction (romantic passion)

-you crave for partner's presence

-feel excitement when you fantasize about the things you could do as a couple.

Three chemicals trigger this feeling:

a) Norepinephrine - for extra surge of energy and triggers increased heart rate, loss of
appetite, as well as desire to sleep.

-body is in a more alert state and is ready for action

b) Dopamine- associated with motivation and goal-directed behavior.

-makes you pursue object of affection

-creates sense of novelty where the person seems exciting, special, or unique that you
want to tell the world about his or her admirable qualities.

c) Serotonin- thought to cause obsessive thinking

-low levels of serotonin are present in people with Obsessive Compulsive Disease (OCD)

3. Attachment (commitment)

-involves the desire to have lasting commitment with your significant other.

-you may want to get married and/or have children.

✓PSYCHOSOCIAL ASPECT OF SEXUAL DESIRE

•Sexual Desire

-interest in sexual objects or activities

-subjective feeling of wanting to engage in sex

-a more complex psychological experience that is not dependent on hormonal factors

-can be triggered of cues and situations including private thoughts, feelings and fantasies, erotic
materials (such as books, movies, photographs) and a variety of erotic environments, situations
or social interactions.

•Sex Drive

-basic, biologically mediated motivation to seek sexual activity or sexual gratification

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE GENDER DIFFERENCE ON SEXUAL DESIRE:

 Culture
 Social Environment
 Polotical Situations

✓PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR MOTIVATION

Animal research suggests that limbic system structures such as amygdala and nucleus
accumbens, are especially important for sexual motivation.

Amygdala- center for emotions, emotional behavior and motivation.

Nucleus accumbens

-also referred to as the pleasure center

-plays a role in motivation and cognitive processing of aversion

-has a significant role in response to reward and reinforcing effects, translating emotional
stimulus into behaviors.

✓GENDER IDENTITY

•Sexual Orientation

-an individual's general sexual disposition toward partners of the same sex, opposite sex or both
sexes.

-person's emotional and erotic attraction toward another individual

•Gender Identity

-one's sense of being male or female

What is LGBTQ+?

-an umbrella term for a wide spectrum of gender identities, sexual orientations and romantic
orientations.

L- for Lesbian. Females who are exclusively attracted to women.

G- for Gay. Males who are exclusively attracted to other males. Can also refer to anyone who is
attracted to his or her same gender.

B- for Bisexual. Someone sexually or romantically attracted to both men and women.

T- for Trans or Transgender. People who do not identify with the gender assigned to them at
birth.

•Trans Woman- adapted by male to female trans people by identifying themselves as woman.

•Trans Man- adapted by female to male trans by identifying themselves as men.

Q- for Queer. For those who question their identities and prefer using broader umbrella terms.

+ - for Plus. Signify that many identities are not explicitly represented by letters. This includes:

•Intersex- people who are born with a mix of male and female biological traits; that make it
hard for doctors to assign them a male or female sex.

•Asexual- person who is not interested in or does not desire sexual activity.

✓SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY ISSUES

Sex

- is a label- male or female- that assigned by a doctor at birth based on your genitals and
chromosomes you have.

-it goes on your birth certificate.

Gender (According to Food and Drug Administration of United Nations)

-relations between men and women both perceptual and material.

-not determined biologically but is constructed socially.

-central organizing principle of societies and often governs the processes of production and
reproduction, consumption and distribution.

Gender Identity (According to United Nations Commission on Human Rights)

-one's innermost concept of self as male, female of both or neither how individuals perceive
themselves and what they call themselves.

-one's gender identity can be same or different from their sex assigned at birth.

Sexual Orientation

-an inherent or immutable enduring emotional, romantic or sexual attraction to some other
people.

-this attraction can be for the same sex or from the opposite sex.

FACTORS AFFECTING SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY:

 Sociocultural Factors
 Family Influences
 Urban Setting

✓HISTORY OF SEXUAL ABUSE

Previous published studies claimed that abused adolescents, particularly those victimized by
males, are more likely to become homosexual or bisexual in adulthood. These studies were
criticized for being non-clinical and unreliable. Some other findings suggested no significant
relationship that child abuse is a cause of same-sex sexual orientation in adulthood (Wilson and
Wisdom, 2009).

✓Sexually Transmitted Diseases

-Also known as STI or sexually transmitted infection

-It is a disease or infection acquired through sexual contact where the organisms that cause STD
are passed on from person to person in blood, semen, and vaginal or any other bodily fluids.

-STD can also be transmitted non-sexually such as:

-Mother to infant during pregnancy

-Blood transfusion

-People sharing needles for injection.

-STDs are also sometimes called sexually transmitted infections or STIs. Whatever you call
them, they can cause serious health problems. And they happen a lot to young people: About half
of all new infections happen to people ages 15 to 24.

-There are more than 25 STDs caused by many different bacteria and viruses. Each STD has its
own symptoms, but some have similar symptoms.

-It is possible to contact sexually transmitted disease from people who seem perfectly healthy,
and who may not even be aware of the infection. STDs do not always cause symptoms, which is
one of the reasons experts prefer the term “sexually transmitted infections” to “sexually
transmitted disease.”

✓THE RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ACT OF

2012
 The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 (Republic Act No.
10354) informally known as the Reproductive Health Law or RH Law, is a law in the Philippines
that guarantees access to contraceptive methods, such as fertility control, sexual education, and
maternal care. Passage of the legislation was controversial and highly divisive. Experts,
academics, religious institution and major political figures declared support or opposition while
it was just a bill. After the RH Bill was passed into law, the Supreme Court ruled that the law
was “not unconstitutional” but struck down either provisions partially or in full.

✓GOALS, OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES OF REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH LAW

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:

 Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal morality ratio
 Reduce by two thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate.
 To have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS.

✓REGIONAL OBJECTIVES:

 Improve access to the full range of affordable, equitable, and high-quality family
planning and reproductive health services to increase contraceptive use rate and reduce
unwanted pregnancies and abortions.
 Make pregnancy safer
 Support countries and areas in developing evidence based policies and strategies for the
reduction of maternal and newborn mortality.
 Improve the health and nutrition status of women of all ages, especially pregnant and
nursing women.
 Gender, women and health
 Integrate fender and rights consideration into health policy and programs, especially into
reproductive health and maternal health care.

✓ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FAMILY PLANNING

Family planning allows both men and women to make informed choices on when and if they
decide to have children. Knowing both the advantages and disadvantages of family planning
methods may help you decide what option is right for you

✓Benefits of Family Planning / Contraception according to the WHO

 Prevent pregnancy-related health risks in women

 Help prevent HIV/AIDS
 Empower people and enhance education
 Reduce adolescent pregnancies
 Slow population growth

✓Family Planning

It is the practice of controlling the number of children in a family and the intervals between their
births, particularly by means of artificial contraception or voluntary sterilization.

✓Benefits of Using Family Planning According to WHO

•Mother

-Enables her to regain her health after delivery

-Gives enough time and opportunity to love and provide attention to her husband and children

-Gives more time for her family and own advancement

-When suffering from illness, gives enough time for treatment and recovery

•Father

-Lightens the burden and responsibility in supporting his family

-Enables him to give his children their basic needs (food, shelter, education and better future)

-Gives him time for his family and own personal advancement

-When suffering from illness, gives enough time for treatment and recovery

•Children

-Healthy mothers produce healthy children

-Will get all the attention, security, love, and care they deserve

✓Disadvantages

-Birth control health risks

-Possibility of pregnancy

-Pregnancy after birth control

✓The Natural Family Planning Method

1) Periodic Abstinence Methods

a. Rhythm (calendar) Method

This natural birth control method is based on ovulation cycle. This involves abstaining from sex
on the days when you’re most fertile and most likely to become pregnant.

b. Basal Body Temperature (BBT) Monitoring

The BBT is a “base” temperature normally measured in the morning after having at least 3–4
hours of sleep (rest) before any physical activity

c. Cervical Mucus (ovulation) Method

The cervical mucus method is based on careful observation of mucus patterns during the course
of your menstrual cycle.
2) Lactation Amenorrhea Methods

The lactational amenorrhoea method (LAM) is a contraceptive method where the mother is
informed and supported how to use breastfeeding for contraception. Breastfeeding while not
giving supplementary feeds delays the return of fertility and menstrual periods, which is a
normal (physiological) protection against pregnancy.

3) Coitus Interruptus

The withdrawal method of contraception, also known as coitus interruptus, is the practice of
withdrawing the penis from the vagina and away from a woman's external genitals before
ejaculation to prevent pregnancy.

✓Other types of contraceptives

1) Oral Contraceptives

A birth control pill taken by mouth. Most oral contraceptives include both estrogen and
progesterone. When given in certain amounts and at certain times in the menstrual cycle, these
hormones prevent the ovary from releasing an egg for fertilization.

2) Transdermal Contraceptive Patch

Transdermal contraceptive patch is a patch applied to the skin that releases synthetic oestrogen
and progestogen hormones to prevent pregnancy.

3) Vaginal Ring

The vaginal ring is a small soft, plastic ring that you place inside your vagina. It releases a
continuous dose of the hormones oestrogen and progestogen into the bloodstream to prevent
pregnancy.

4) Hormonal Injections

The contraceptive injection is a shot that contains hormones, either a progestin alone, or a
progestin and an estrogen together, that stop your body from releasing eggs and thickens the
mucus at the cervix. You need one shot either once every month or once every three months
from a healthcare provider.

5) Intrauterine Device (IUD)

An IUD is a small T-shaped plastic and copper device that's put into your womb (uterus) by a
doctor or nurse. It releases copper to stop you getting pregnant, and protects against pregnancy
for between 5 and 10 years.

6) Chemical Barriers
Chemical barriers or spermicides are sperm-killing substances, available as foams, creams, gels,
films or suppositories, which are often used in female contraception in conjunction with
mechanical barriers and other devices. Spermicides are usually available without a prescription
or medical examination.

7) Diaphragm

A diaphragm or cap is a barrier method of contraception. It fits inside your vagina and prevents
sperm passing through the cervix (the entrance of your womb). You need to use it with a gel that
kills sperm (spermicide).

8) Cervical Cap

The cervical cap (FemCap) is a soft, thimble-shaped cup made out of silicone or latex. It fits
snugly over the cervix (where the uterus opens into the vagina). It's designed to block sperm
from reaching the woman's egg.

9) Male Condoms

A male condom is a thin sheath placed over the erect penis. When left in place during sexual
intercourse, oral sex or anal sex, male condoms are an effective way to protect yourself and your
partner from sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

10) Female Condoms

A female condom is a device that is used during sexual intercourse as a barrier contraceptive to
reduce the risk of sexually transmitted infections and unintended pregnancy.

11) Vasectomy

Vasectomy is a surgical procedure for male sterilization or permanent contraception. During the
procedure, the male vas deferens are cut and tied or sealed so as to prevent sperm from entering
into the urethra and thereby prevent fertilization of a female through sexual intercourse.

12) Tubal Ligation

Tubal ligation is a surgical procedure for female sterilization in which the fallopian tubes are
permanently blocked or removed. This prevents the fertilization of eggs by sperm and thus the
implantation of a fertilized egg. Tubal ligation is considered a permanent method of sterilization
and birth control.
THE MATERIAL/ECONOMIC SELF

I SHOP THEREFORE I AM; I HAVE THEREFORE I AM?

In the ‘I shop therefore I am’ trend report we are looking into the world of consumer
culture. Shopping has turned into a lifestyle. At what point does the accumulation of material
goods become less fulfilling and more stressful and overwhelming. People are slowly realizing
that the power of consumption is stopping us from finding true and sincere happiness, and that
shopping often works as a substitute for something that we are missing in life. As a primary
consumer, the issue is about what we buy and what we choose to invest in.

CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION

‘Consume’ is defined as ‘use up, to spend wastefully, to destroy’ – Gusdorf, 1978

The definition shows that consumption has a negative connotation. There is, however, a positive
side to consumption that is often neglected.

Behind consumption, there is production. Consumers keep companies alive. These

companies pay people whose earnings put food on the table. Such is the pattern of consumption.
Thus, it cannot be denied that consumption is important.

CONSCIOUS AND CONSUMPTION

Consumers are often portrayed as ‘victims’, exploited by greedy companies. However,

you should take note that every person has ‘free will’. Therefore, choices are important. As a
consumer, free will comes with responsibility and obligation. Conscious consumption is about
practicing responsible buying habits.

PSYCHOLOGICAL/SOCIOLOGICAL CONSUMPTION

As mentioned earlier, for many people these days, with younger generation as the
vulnerable group, happiness seems attached to buying something. Consumption has become an
addiction. Many people have forgotten there are things in life that can bring true and lasting
happiness, such as spending time with family and/or friends; to have ‘me’ time; enjoy nature; to
read, and etc.

IDENTITY AND CONSUMER CULTURE

Identity is a symbolic idea. It is an image we build for ourselves through social

interaction. Thus, a person’s identity is dynamic and context-dependent. It is improved through
communication with others and through different ways that a person interacts within the cultural
atmosphere and social relations.
Factors that affects identity:

 Social relations of power; and

 Symbolic image of the world

Identity- mainly derived from the word of psychologist Erik Erikson in the 1950’s. It may refer
to:

a. A social category defined by membership rules, characteristics attributes, or expected

behavior
b. Socially distinguishing features that an individual takes pride in having

Slater (1997) outlined some main features and characters in consumer culture:

1. Consumer culture is a culture of consumption

2. Consumer culture is the culture of market society
3. Consumer culture is universal and impersonal
4. Consumer culture identifies freedom with private choice and life
5. Consumer needs are insatiable and unlimited
6. Consumer culture is a privileged medium for building personal identity and status

The Problem with Consumerism:

1. It is intrusive
2. It is manipulative
3. It cannot provide many of the things that are important to us
4. It restricts our choices and lives
5. It affects our worldviews and characters
6. It is unsustainable

Steps in your own life to release yourself from the grip of consumerism:

1. Exercise intellectual independence- be aware of how consumerism controls your life

2. Consume less, live more- stop and think about the influences of consumerism in your
life and think what really matters to you.
 SPIRITUAL SELF

SPIRITUAL VERSUS RELIGION:

Spiritual- defined as "relating to or affecting the human spirit or soul as opposed to material or
physical things"

Religion and spirituality are both paths to God; however, they are different in their
approaches. A religious person is someone who believes in a god or group of gods and
consciously adheres to the beliefs of his/her religion. A spiritual person, on the other hand, places
little importance on beliefs and traditions and is more concerned with growing and experiencing
the Divine.

Religion- takes the approach of fear. It emphasizes sin, guilt, and the concept of a punishing
God.

The spiritual approach to God is through the path of love. This is a love where there isd
no condemnation and judgment, but where there is mercy and acceptance.

WHY SPIRITUALITY IS IMPORTANT?

Sense of meaninglessness and lack of purpose in life can be significant factors in causing
anxiety, depression, and phobias; however, there is a growing body of evidence indicating that
spiritual practices are associated with better health and well-being.

Many spiritual traditions encourage participation in a community. Spiritual fellowship

(such as attending church or a meditation group) can be source of social support that may
provide a sense of belonging, security, and community.

Contemplative practice is good for students like you. Contemplative practice can be
broadly understood as a method to develop concentration, deepen understanding and
insight, and cultivate awareness and compassion.

EXAMPLES OF CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICES:

1. Meditation- mental exercise (such as focusing on one’s breathing or repeating a mantra)

for the purpose of reaching a heightened level of spiritual awareness.
2. Prayer- a spiritual communion with God (or an object of worship) as in supplication,
thanksgiving, adoration, or confession. Prayers may elicit a relaxation response, along
with feelings of hope, gratitude, and compassion- all of which have a positive effect on
overall wee-being.
3. Yoga- a Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline. In Hindu theistic philosophy, it teaches the
suppression of all mind and body activity so that the self may realize its distinction from
the material world and attain liberation.
 4. Journaling- is another (but often overlooked) contemplative practice that can help you
become more aware of your inner life and feel more connected to your experience and
the world around you.

THE PRACTICE OF RELIGION: BELIEF IN SUPERNATURAL BEING AND POWER

 Religion is defined as “the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power,

especially a personal God or gods”

(Oxford University Press, 2017)

 It is also a “particular system of faith and worship.”

(University of Minnesota Human Rights Center, 2003, 2016)

 More than its belief and practices, religion is an experience.

 Religion, however, may best be understood as a systematic “attribution of human

characteristics or behavior to a god, animal, or object”.

THE PSYCHOLOGY BEHIND RELIGIOUS BELIEF

 A 1990 research conducted by Steven Reiss, professor emeritus of psychology at the

Ohio State University, posited a theory on why people are attracted to religion. Religion,
he said, attracts so many followers because it satisfies all basic desires that human share.
(The 16 Strivings for God, 2016)

According to Reiss, the 16 basic desires that human shares are:

1. Acceptance 9. Physical Activity

2. Curiosity 10. Power

3. Eating 11. Romance

4. Family 12. Saving

5. Honor 13. Social Contact

6. Idealism 14. Status

7. Independence 15. Tranquility

8. Order 16. Vengeance

 Reiss added that all religious beliefs and practices are designed to meet these 16 desires.
Religious beliefs provide people with certain ways of thinking to help them cope with
ultimate questions that cannot be explained in any other way.

THE FOUR DIMENSIONS OF RELIGION:

1. Beliefs- are a generalized system of ideas and values that shape how members of a
religious group come to understand the world around them.
2. Rituals- are the repeated physical gestures or activities, such as prayers and mantras,
used to reinforce religious teachings, elicit spiritual feelings, and connect worshippers
with a high power.
3. Spiritual Experience- a third common dimension of various religions is the promise of
access to some form of unique spiritual experience or feeling of immediate connection
with a higher power. From this point of view, religion is not so much about thinking a
certain way as about feeling a certain way.

Saint Thomas Aquinas:

"To one who has faith, no explanation is necessary. To one without faith, no explanation is
possible"

4. Unique social forms of community- Emile Durkheim (1915-1964) emphasized that

religious beliefs and practices "unite in one single community called a Church, all those
who adhere to them."

Social dimensions that religions share according to Dawson and Theissen (2014):

 Religion gains credibility when agreed and shared by a group. It is easier to believe in
something if others around you (whom you respect) believe it as well.
 Religion provides an authority that deals specifically with social or moral issues, such
as determining the best way to live life. It provides a basis for ethics and proper
behaviors, which establishes the normative basis of the community
 Religion acts as a form of social control, and it supports the development of self-
control, which are vital elements of a functional society.
 Places of religious worship function as social hubs within communities, providing a
source of entertainment, socialization, and support.
RELIGIOUS WHAT/WHON IS DIVINE EXAMPLE
CLASSIFICATION
Polytheism Multiple gods Hinduism, Ancient Greeks and
Romans
Monotheism Single god Judaism, Islam, Christianity
Antheism No deities Atheism, Buddhism, Taoism
Animism Nonhuman beings (animals, Indigenous nature worship,
plants, natural world) Shinto

THE MAJOR RELIGIONS:

1. Judaism- encompasses the religion, philosophy and culture of Jewish people. It

characterized by belief in one transcendent God who has revealed himself to Abraham.
- Oldest of the Abrahamic religions and the predecessor of Christianity and Islam
2. Christianity- is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of
Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point of the Christian faith.
- The world’s largest religion
- To date, it has 2.1 billion followers worldwide
3. Islam- the word "Islam" means submission or surrender
- the root word of Islam is "Salam," which meas "peace"
- the word "Islam" in religious terms means "surrender one’s will to the true will of
God to achieve peace"
- A Muslim is one who surrenders himself to God’s true will.
- Islam is the religious faith of Muslims who worships Allah as the sole deity and
believes Muhammad and his prophet.
- Koran- the holy scriptures of Islam
4. Hinduism- the word Hindu originates from the Indian Indus River
- There are more than one billion followers of Hinduism in the world today
- Hinduism is not a single religion; rather, it is practiced by many different religious
groups from India
- Most of the Hinduism’s scared texts were written in Sanskrit in ancient times
- Vedas- the oldest ancient sacred text of Hinduism. Vedah means knowledge
- The Vedas include Rigveda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda
- Hinduism, considered the world’s oldest religion, is still commonly practiced.
Hinduism combines the beliefs, philosophy, and cultural practices of India. Hindu
practitioners are guided by Vedic scriptures, and believe in righteousness, the laws
of cause and effect, and the cycle of birth and death.
5. Buddhism- Buddha is also known as "the enlightened one" or "the awakened one"
- When Buddha was 35 he meditated under a fig tree, the Bodhi tree, for several days
until he attained enlightenment.
 - Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching his followers (in the northeastern Indian
subcontinent) the path of wakening.
- Buddha lived at the age of 80. He died in Kushinagar, India in 483 BC.
- Buddhism refers to the teachings of Gautama Buddha. Buddha, (originally a follower
of the Hindu faith) experience enlightenment, or Bohdi, while sitting under a tree. It
was in this moment that Buddha was said to be awakened to the truth of the world, or
the Dharma. Buddha, an ordinary man, taught his followers how to follow the path to
Enlightenment. Thus, Buddhism does not believe in a divine realm or God as a
supernatural being, but instead follows the wisdom of their founder.

THE CONCEPT OF "DUNGAN," SPIRIT, AND SOUL:

Babaylan- a priestess or shaman

- Acted as a healer, spiritual leader, and medium

- Perform rituals through chants or prayers for spiritual intervention to drive spirits that
cause illness or misfortune
- Usually a woman
- The babaylan explores the world of animism

Animism- the attribution of the soul to plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena

Our ancestor believed that souls are quasi-physical and can exist outside the body (such
as in dreams and in visions) and that they can transfer from one body to another. They also
believed that soul persist after death and become ghost, in the same way that modern Filipino
believe in "multo."

Prior to being converted to a religion (Islam or Catholicism), our ancestors already

believed in spirit beings that dwell in the enivonment, our deceased ancestral souls, and forces in
nature (wind, moon, stars). Central to the traditons of our ancestors was the belief that animate
and inanimate creatures have a "life force."

HOW DO "DUNGAN" AND "GINHAWA" DIFFER?

"Dungan"

Alicia P. Magos- an anthropologist and a professor emerita of University of the Philippines

Visayas

- "dungan" was "a life force, an energy, as well as an ethereal entity, a spirit with
a will of its own that resides in the human body and provides the essence of life."
- Everyone has a "dungan"
 - This is similar to the western concept of a soul, however, unlike the soul, the
"dungan" can temporarily leave the body when the person is asleep. Once "dungan"
returns to the person’s body, he or she becomes fully conscious again. If any other
spirits harm the "dungan" while it is outside the body and cannot return, the person
dies.

"Ginhawa"

- Aside from "dungan", a vital force also occupies the body. This vital force was called
"ginhawa" (breath of life)
- "ginhawa" was said to be responsible for the hearts ability to beat. It was believed that
if "ginhawa" left the body, the person also dies.

"Ginhawa" and "Dungan" both exist in every person. Ginhawa was the breath of life
while dungan was the conscious intellectual and emotional aspects.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SOUL AND THE SPIRIT OF

MAN?

SOUL SPIRIT
Etymology "sawol" that meant the From Latin spiritus "a
"spiritual and emotional part breathing (respiration, and of
of a person’s animate the wind), breath, breath of a
experience" god," hence, "inspiration,
breath of life."
Biblical beliefs Refers to the conscious, the Refers to the Holy Spirit, the
moral, and thinking part of a third part of the Trinity. It is
person. the force of God through
Is immortal; it will go to hell, which blessings are bestowed
purgatory, or heaven after the upon his people. As one
person dies. develops in the faith, he or she
is said to be growing
spiritually.
In Western Culture Soul can often be taken to Spirit may also refer to ghosts
mean someone’s moral or any other supernatural
consciousness. For example, a beings. It is believed that the
cruel killer could be said to souls of people who died with
have no soul unfinished business wander to
earth until their task are
fulfilled.
In Eastern Culture Soul is part of a person that
has dharma. In Hinduism,
dharma is one obligation with
respect to caste, social custom,
civil law, and sacred law.
Dharma incurs karma. In
Hinduism and Buddhism,
karma is the sum of a person’s
actions in this and previous
states of existence. The fate of
one’s future existences
depends on one’s karma
Nature and ancestor spirits are
common in Taoism. Shinto,
an animistic folk religion from
Japan, places an emphasis on
shamanism, particularly
divination, spirit possession,
and faith healing.
Confucianism tolerates the
Chinese folk recognition of
the existence of animistic
spirits, ghosts and deities.

THE SOUL ACCORDING TO SOME ETHNOLINGUISTIC GROUPS OF THE

PHILIPPINES:

 Linnawa or "soul of the dead" by the Ifugao

 Kaduwa of the Isneg (an Igorot tribe native to Apayao Province in the Philippines’
Cordillera Administrative Region) the Isneg believes that the dead exists in a realm
called the aglalanawan. The kaduwa (soul) is believed to cross a pond in a ferry
piloted by a kutaw (spirit).
 The Kankanaey (another member of the Igorot people) believes that the human
person is composed of the physical body and the ab-abiik (soul). When spirits
summon a person’s ab-abiik he or she becomes sick. A ritual will be performed to
appease the spirit who summoned the ab-abiik so that it will allow the ab-abiik to
return to its body, and the person recovers from the illness.
 Kaluluwa is the Tagalog people’s concept of soul. However, it refers more to the
soul of the deceased. The soul of a living person is called a "kakambal." The
"kakambal" leaves the physical body at night to roam, and any bad encounter causes
bangungot (nightmare).
 The Ilokano has a four-soul system.
o The kararua, or the soul proper. It is the equivalent of a soul in the Christian
concept.
o Kakarma stand for natural vigor, mind, and reason. It can leave the physical
body when one is frightened. A kakarma can also be stolen. If this soul fails to
return to the body, the person becomes insane. Sacrificial ceremonies may be
performed to lure back a lost kakarma.
o Aniwaas can leave the body during sleep and visits places familiar to the
body. If one wakes up while the aniwaas is visiting these places, he or she
may lose the aniwaas and become insane.
 o Araria is the liberated soul of the dead. It visits relatives and friends in the
physical world to ask for prayers. It can also perform a duty it failed to do in
life. The howling of dogs mean araria is present. This soul can make sounds
and manipulate physical objects usually relating to what it did in life.
 The Ibanag/Ybanag (who inhabits the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela and Nueva
Vizcaya) has a distinction between baggi (body) and ikaruruwa (soul) the Ibanag
believes that the soul has physical characteristics. The soul may have color, and the souls
of dead babies can reach adulthood in the spirit realm. The role of the soul is to give
direction and wholeness to the man, but the body can survive without the soul, and even
without the body, the soul experiences material wants and needs.
 The Hanunoo Mangyan (of Mindoro) believes in the plurality of souls for instance, they
have karaduwa tawu/ tawo (human soul), karaduwa manok (chicken soul), karaduwa
baboy (pig soul), karaduwi kuti (cat soul) and karaduwa hipon (shrimp soul). A soul can
also separate itself from the physical body. When a person sleeps, the karaduwa roams
the world. What the person dreams of are actually the experiences of the karaduwa while
roaming around.
 The Tagbanwa of central and northern Palawan believes that people have one ‘true soul’
or kiyaraluwa and five secondary souls. The kiyaraluwa is given at birth by the god
Magindusa. The secondary souls are located in both hands and feet, while there is also
one in the head just below the air whorl (alimpuyo).
 The ethnic tribes of Bukidnon believe in the gimukod. According to their custom, there
are two types of gimukod: the one in the right hand and the one in the left hand. The
gimukod in the right hand is the good soul, and the one in the left hand is the bad soul.
The right hand soul is associated with life, health, activity, and joy. The left-hand soul is
the cause of lethargy, pain, and illness.

RITUALS AND CEREMONIES

Ritual- is a ceremony or action performed in a customary way

- May be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious

community.
- It includes not only the worship rites and sacraments of organized religions and cults,
but also rites of passage, atonement and purification rites, oaths of allegiance,
dedication, ceremonies, coronations, presidential inaugurations, marriages, funerals-
perhaps all kinds of human activity.
- A ceremony is a formal act or ritual (often set by custom or tradition) performed in
observation of an event or anniversary, i.e., a Japanese tea ceremony.
WHERE DOES RITUAL ORIGINATES?

The general approaches to theories about the nature and origin of rituals are:

1. Origin approach
- Earliest form to explain ritual. The basic premise of this approach is that ritual
behavior was part of the human evolution scholars believed that locating the oldest
cultures and cults could explain the universal nature of rituals; that if they could
discover the origin, then contemporary human rituals can be explained.

2. Functional approach
- Focused on empirical evidence gathered through actual observation. The nature of
rituals was believed to be defined by its function in society. The aim of the functional
approach was to explain ritual behavior in terms of individual and social needs.
3. History of religious approach
- The history of religions approach holds the view that the ritual behavior is an
expression of the sacred; it is how the material human connects with the transcendent
realm or the ultimate reality. The basic problem in thus approach, however, is that
scholars need to agree first such a transcendent realm really exists before the theories
can be confirmed.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF RITUALS:

1. Imitative rituals
- These are called imitative rituals because they are patterned after myths, and the ritual
repeats the myths or aspects of the myth.

2. Negative Ritual
- Avoidance is the best description for a negative ritual.
- The word taboo has been applied to those rituals that concern something should be
avoided because it is forbidden. Thus, negative rituals focus on rules of prohibition,
which cover an almost infinite variety of rites and behavior.
- One characteristic they all share, however, is that if the person breaks the ritual, it will
result in a dramatic change that usually brings some misfortune. On the other hand,
positive rituals are mostly concerned with giving blessings to an object or to an
individual.

3. Sacrificial-Ritual
- Are seen as the earliest form of religion.
 - The significance of sacrifice in the history of religion is well documented. The
distinct feature of this type of ritual is the total destruction of the sacrifice as an
offering to a “higher being.” The sacrifice can be a human being, an animal, food
crops, or objects. The destruction could be burning, dismembering, cutting the
sacrifice into small pieces, eating, or burying it.

4. Life crisis Ritual

- The transition of one mode or stage of life into another. This ritual usually defines the
life of an individual.
- They include rituals of birth, puberty (entrance into the full social life of a
community), marriage, conception, and death. Many of these rituals mark a
separation from an old situation or mode of life, a transition rite celebrating the new
situation, and a ritual of incorporation.

YAKAN HONEYMOON RITUALS

• The Yakans of Basilan Island observe interesting rituals during the honeymoon period.
• In the afternoon, just before the first night the new couple spend together, each of them
will be given a separate bath, so the children will not only be born clean but also stay
clean throughout life.
• In their first sexual intercourse, the girl makes sure that she is accepted as a wife and not
as a harlot by asking questions about her status. The groom has to answer adequately that
she is his wife.
• Just before the sexual act, the boy should first step on the right foot as heavily as he can.
This symbolizes strength. The first hand to touch his wife should be the right one, for
strength and long life. The first kiss should be planted on the forehead for oneness of
mind, with eyes opened so that his children will not be born blind. He should breathe
lightly so that later in life he will have fewer problems.
• The girl wants to be assured that her marriage is accepted spiritually and that she will be
his wife even after life. For this reason, the bedding items have to be sanctified and be
named in a liturgical language. Permission is also granted to the groom to own the body
of his wife and also name her anatomical parts in liturgical speech.
• Any sexual intercourse that is not done according to the natural way is considered
abominable in the eyes of the Yakan and will bring punishment from God on the culprit
and his family.