B.

Psychological Theories

 Psychological theories support the idea that an older adult’s life ends when they have
reached all of their developmental psychological milestones.
 Theories focusing on the psychological dimension include Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
 This theory states that an individual goes through a series of developmental steps
through life commencing with the need to obtain safety and fulfill biological needs such
as food and water.
 The steps become progressively more challenging until the final stage in a person’s life,
known as self-actualization.
 According to Maslow’s theory, self-actualization is obtained when a person develops an
understanding of themselves within the world and accepts who they have become.
 From a psychological viewpoint, once an older adult reaches self- actualization, they
have reached the final stage of life.
 Other theories within the psychological dimension include Erikson’s stages of
development.
 Erikson theorizes that within each stage of life, individuals must successfully encounter
and resolve a problem or crisis in order to move on to the next stage.
 Within the final stage, ego integrity versus despair, the older adult must successfully
master changes in health, loss of loved ones, and resolution of role changes such as no
longer being a parent, employee, or friend.

C. Moral/Spiritual Theories

 Moral/spiritual theories support the idea that once an older individual finds spiritual
wholeness, this transcends the need to inhabit a body, and the person approaches the
end of life.
 Theories that fall within this category include Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
and more recently, Tornstam’s theory of gerotranscendence.

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development states that an individual goes through a series of
moral reasoning activities that become progressively more sophisticated throughout life.

 The most sophisticated and final step is post-conventional reasoning, which is not
reached by many individuals.
 According to Kohlberg’s theory, post-conventional reasoning is obtained when
universality with the world is present and sense of higher consciousness is achieved.
 This stage is dependent on social interaction and is obtained when a person develops an
understanding of themselves within the world and accepts who they have become.