Language and Education Research Final

West Visayas State University | 1
ELT 207
LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION
RESEARCH
BSED ENG 3
Instructor: ROTHSEL T. CABATAC, M.A.Ed.
UNIT 1: Introducing Language and Education Research

The role of the teacher in the classroom is no longer viewed merely a provider of information, a
manager, a facilitator, or a controller. In addition to these traditional roles and responsibilities,
the teacher is currently considered as active catalyst of change in teaching practices, course
design, and problem solving. Hence, as you take this course, you should start calling yourself
‘teacher – researcher’ because you will now start your journey in the world of language
research.
Salleh (2014) believes that every classroom is different and that makes teaching complex. With
this complexity, teachers need to look more closely into their own teaching practices. One way
for them to do so is to conduct research, right in their own classroom. Thus, it is important that
in every study that we conduct, we should always highlight the pedagogical implications which
can guide us in our teaching and help us solve some pedagogical issues in our classrooms.
Zeichner (1999, cited in Brown, J. & Coombe, C., 2015) favors teacher research as it allows
teachers to become better at what they do and to find their voice (Rainey, 2000). In addition, it
helps teachers become more flexible and open to new ideas. Another advantage is that it
narrows the gap between teachers’ aspirations and realization. Zeichner (1999) went or to state
that teacher inquiry heightens the quality of student learning and stimulates positive changes in
the culture and productivity of schools. Teacher research also raises the status of the teaching
profession in society. Also, teacher research produces knowledge about teaching and learning
that is useful to teachers, policy makers, academic researchers, and others.
How do we go about research in the field of language teaching and learning? How do we look
for a researchable problem? How do we choose appropriate designs and methods for our
study? How do we write a research proposal or a complete study? So many questions, so many
apprehensions. But do not fret; that is pretty natural. In fact, it goes to say that if you have
these concerns in your mind, you are actually taking research by heart. Don’t you worry
because n this course, we will be formally talking about the rudiments of language research in a
step – by – step manner.
As we start this first unit, you will acquaint yourselves with the different philosophical
worldviews in research, the language research paradigm, and introductory to the common
approaches used in language and education research.
At the end of this unit, you must have:
A. Discussed the different philosophical worldviews in research

B. Explicated the different components or elements of the language research paradigm
C. Explained the different characteristics of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods
approaches as well as their strengths and weaknesses
D. Recognized different designs under the three common approaches (quantitative,

qualitative, and mixed methods)
Lesson 1: Philosophical Worldviews in Research
Introduction
Research simply means trying to find answers to questions, and activity every one of us
does all the time to learn more about the world around us. For example, when you want to buy
a new mobile phone, you may go to several shops to compare prices or search the internet for
reviews to ensure that you are getting quality products. We would also ask our friends or
relatives for their comments and feedbacks which will help us decide what brand of mobile
phone to buy. This simply means that we are already doing research in this particular instance.
However, this kind of investigation is not comprehensive because we still do not know, whether
a shop or a website that we have not visited might have offered the same mobile phone for
even cheaper price. This further implies that in order to do good research, we need to be
systematic so that by the end we can stand the results with confidence. That is, research in
scientific sense is ‘the organized, systematic search for answers to the questions we ask’ (Hatch
and Lazaraton, 1991 cited in Cresswell and Cresswell, 2018). The researchers study the data
objectively and examine critically the findings of the investigation against those conducted by
others after identifying the strengths and weaknesses of their own studies.
A systematic way of conducting research is to always anchor it to philosophical stance.
Although philosophical ideas remain largely hidden in research (Slife and Williams, 1995), they
still influence the practice of research. Thus, it is better to start your journey by exploring first
the philosophical ideas that govern the conduct of research. As we go on with the succeeding
lessons, we will identify their relevance and connections with the concepts of research designs
and methods. It is believed that the approach to research involves philosophical assumptions as
well as distinct methods or procedures. A Research Approach refers to the plan or
proposal to conduct research and it involves the intersection of philosophy, research
designs, and specific methods (Cresswell and Cresswell, 2018). Eventually, this
interconnectedness of philosophical views, designs, and methods supports your chosen
approach for research and will also become your basic framework every time you plan to do a
study or write a research proposal.
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you must have:
a. recognized and elaborated the concepts of philosophical worldviews in research; and
b. written an analysis of philosophical worldviews employed in a particular study or research
article.
Tell us what you already know

I believe that each one of you has already an experience in doing research. Please share
your experience on the space provided.
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Great! You will now embark on a new journey as we start discovering the basic
concepts of research. The knowledge and skill that you will acquire in this class will prepare you
in another memorable research experience. Let us now start by getting acquainted with the
concepts of worldviews and the four philosophical worldviews in research
Worldviews Defined
Worldview is defined as “a basic set of beliefs that guide action” (Guba, 1990, p. 17).
Others have called them paradigms (Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba, 2011; Mertens, 2010);
epistemologies and ontologies (Crotty,1998), or broadly conceived research methodologies
(Neuman, 2009).Cresswell (2013) sees worldviews as a general philosophical orientation about
the world and the nature of research that a researcher brings to a study. Individuals develop
worldviews based on their discipline orientations and research communities, advisors and
mentors, and past research experiences. The types of beliefs held by individual researchers
based on these factors will often lead to embracing a strong qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
methods approach in their research. In this lesson, we will be discussing four types of
worldviews, and these are postpositivism, constructivism, transformative, and
pragmatism.
A. The Postpositivist Worldview

 The postpositivist tradition comes from 19th century writers, such as Comte, Mill,
Durkheim, Newton, and Locke (Smith, 1983) and more recently from writers such as
Phillips and Burbules (2000).
 The postpositivist assumptions have represented the traditional form of research, and
these assumptions hold true more for quantitative research than qualitative research.
What is Quantitative Approach?
Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective theories by examining the

relationship among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically
on instruments, so that numbered data can be analysed using statistical procedures.
The final written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature and
theory, methods, results, and discussion. Like qualitative researchers, those who
engage in this form of inquiry have assumptions about testing theories deductively,
building in protections against bias, controlling for alternative or counterfactual
explanations, and being able to generalize and replicate the findings.
 This worldview is sometimes called the scientific method, or doing science research.
 It is also called positivist/postpositivist research, empirical science, and postpositivism.

This last term is called postpositivism because it represents the thinking after positivism,
challenging the traditional notion of the absolute truth of knowledge (Phillips & Burbules,
2000) and recognizing that we cannot be absolutely positive about our claims of
knowledge when studying the behavior and actions of humans.
Additional Features of Postpositivist Worldview

Postpositivists hold a deterministic philosophy in which causes (probably) determine
effects or outcomes. Thus, the problems studied by postpositivists reflect the need to
identify and assess the causes that influence outcomes, such as those found in
experiments.
It is also reductionistic in that the intent is to reduce the ideas into a small, discrete set
to test, such as the variables that comprise hypotheses and research questions.
The knowledge that develops through a postpositivist lens is based on careful
observation and measurement of the objective reality that exists “out there” in the
world. Thus, developing numeric measures of observations and studying the behavior of
individuals becomes paramount for a postpositivist.
There are laws or theories that govern the world, and these need to be tested or
verified and refined so that we can understand the world. Thus, in the scientific method
(the accepted approach to research by postpositivists), a researcher begins with a
theory, collects data that either supports or refutes the theory, and then makes
necessary revisions and conducts additional tests.
In addition, Phillips and Burbules (2000) present five key assumptions of this
position, such as the following:
1. Knowledge is conjectural (and anti-foundational)—absolute truth can never be found.
Thus, evidence established in research is always imperfect and fallible. It is for this reason
that researchers state that they do not prove a hypothesis; instead, they indicate a failure
to reject the hypothesis.
2. Research is the process of making claims and then refining or abandoning some of them
for other claims more strongly warranted. Most quantitative research, for example, starts
with the test of a theory.
3. Data, evidence, and rational considerations shape knowledge. In practice, the researcher
collects information on instruments based on measures completed by the participants or by
observations recorded by the researcher.
4. Research seeks to develop relevant, true statements, ones that can serve to explain the
situation of concern or that describe the causal relationships of interest. In quantitative
studies, researchers advance the relationship among variables and pose this in terms of
questions or hypotheses.
5. Being objective is an essential aspect of competent inquiry; researchers must examine
methods and conclusions for bias. For example, standard of validity and reliability are
important in quantitative research.
B. The Constructivist Worldview

 Constructivism or social constructivism (often combined with interpretivism) is such a
perspective, and it is typically seen as an approach to qualitative research.
What is Qualitative Approach?
Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning

individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research
involves emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the
participant’s setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general
themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data. The
final written report has a flexible structure. Those who engage in this form of inquiry
support a way of looking at research that honors an inductive style, a focus on
individual meaning, and the importance of reporting the complexity of a situation.
 The ideas came from Mannheim and from works such as Berger and Luckmann’s
(1967) The Social Construction of Reality and Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) Naturalistic
Inquiry. More recent writers who have summarized this position are Lincoln and
colleagues (2011), Mertens (2010), and Crotty (1998), among others.
Social constructivists believe that:

a. Individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and work.
b. Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences—meanings
directed toward certain objects or things. These meanings are varied and
multiple, leading the researcher to look for the complexity of views rather
than narrowing meanings into a few categories or ideas.
c. The goal of the research is to rely as much as possible on the participants’
views of the situation being studied.
d. The questions are broad and general so that the participants can construct
the meaning of a situation, typically forged in discussions or interactions with
other persons. The more open-ended the questioning, the better, as the
researcher listens carefully to what people say or do in their life settings.
e. Subjective meanings are negotiated socially and historically. They are not
simply imprinted on individuals but are formed through interaction with
others (hence social constructivism) and through historical and cultural
norms that operate in individuals’ lives.
Furthermore, constructivist researchers often address the processes of interaction

among individuals. They also focus on the specific contexts in which people live and work in
order to understand the historical and cultural settings of the participants. Researchers
recognize that their own backgrounds shape their interpretation, and they position themselves
in the research to acknowledge how their interpretation flows from their personal, cultural, and
historical experiences. The researcher’s intent is to make sense of (or interpret) the meanings
others have about the world. Rather than starting with a theory (as in postpositivism), inquirers
generate or inductively develop a theory or pattern of meaning.
For example, in discussing constructivism, Crotty (1998) identified several assumptions:
1. Human beings construct meanings as they engage with the world they are
interpreting. Qualitative researchers tend to use open-ended questions so that the
participants can share their views.
2. Humans engage with their world and make sense of it based on their historical and
social perspectives—we are all born into a world of meaning bestowed upon us by our
culture. Thus, qualitative researchers seek to understand the context or setting of the
participants through visiting this context and gathering information personally. They also
interpret what they find, an interpretation shaped by the researcher’s own experiences
and background.
3. The basic generation of meaning is always social, arising in and out of interaction with
a human community. The process of qualitative research is largely inductive; the
inquirer generates meaning from the data collected in the field.
C. The Transformative Worldview

 This position arose during the 1980s and 1990s from individuals who felt that the
postpositivist assumptions imposed structural laws and theories that did not fit
marginalized individuals in our society or issues of power and social justice,
discrimination, and oppression that needed to be addressed.
 Historically, the transformative writers have drawn on the works of Marx, Adorno,
Marcuse, Habermas, and Freire (Neuman, 2009). Fay (1987), Heron and Reason
(1997), Kemmis and Wilkinson (1998), Kemmis and McTaggart (2000), and Mertens
(2009, 2010) are additional writers to read for this perspective.
 There is no uniform body of literature characterizing this worldview,
but it includes groups of researchers that are critical theorists; participatory
action researchers; Marxists; feminists; racial and ethnic minorities; persons with
disabilities; indigenous and postcolonial peoples; and members of the lesbian,
gay, bisexual, transsexual, and queer communities.
 A transformative worldview holds that research inquiry needs to be intertwined
with politics and a political change agenda to confront social oppression at
whatever levels it occurs (Mertens, 2010). Thus, the research contains an action
agenda for reform that may change lives of the participants, the institutions in
which individuals work or live, and the researcher’s life.
 The purpose of research is to address social issues such as empowerment,
inequality, oppression, domination, suppression, and alienation. The researcher often
begins with one of these issues as the focal point of the study.
 This research also assumes that the inquirer will proceed collaboratively so as to not
further marginalize the participants as a result of the inquiry. In this sense, the
participants may help design questions, collect data, analyze information, or reap the
rewards of the research. Transformative research provides a voice for these

participants, raising their consciousness or advancing an agenda for change to improve
their lives. It becomes a united voice for reform and change.
Mertens (2010) further explains the key features of the transformative worldview or
paradigm:
 It places central importance on the study of lives and experiences of diverse
groups that have traditionally been marginalized. Of special interest for these
diverse groups is how their lives have been constrained by oppressors and the
strategies that they use to resist, challenge, and subvert these constraints.
 In studying these diverse groups, the research focuses on inequities based on
gender, race, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic class
that result in asymmetric power relationships.
 The research in the transformative worldview links political and social action to
these inequities.
 Transformative research uses a program theory of beliefs about how a program
works and why the problems of oppression, domination, and power relationships
exist.
D. The Pragmatic Worldview

 Pragmatism derives from the work of Peirce, James, Mead, and Dewey
(Cherryholmes, 1992). Other writers include Murphy (1990), Patton (1990), and
Rorty (1990).
 There are many forms of this philosophy, but for many, pragmatism as a
worldview arises out of actions, situations, and consequences rather than
antecedent conditions (as in postpositivism).
 There is a concern with applications—what works—and solutions to problems
(Patton, 1990). Instead of focusing on methods, researchers emphasize the
research problem and question and use all approaches available to understand
the problem (Rossman & Wilson, 1985).
 As a philosophical underpinning for mixed methods studies, Morgan (2007),
Patton (1990), and Tashakkori and Teddlie (2010) convey its importance for
focusing attention on the research problem in social science research and then
using pluralistic approaches to derive knowledge about the problem.
Cherryholmes (1992), Cresswell (2013), and Morgan (2007) provide the following
pragmatic philosophical basis for research:
Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of philosophy and reality.
This applies to mixed methods research in that inquirers draw liberally from both
quantitative and qualitative assumptions when they engage in their research.
What is Mixed Methods Approach?
Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving collecting both

quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data, and using
distinct designs that may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical
frameworks. The core assumption of this form of inquiry is that the integration of
qualitative and quantitative data yields additional insight beyond the information
provided by either the quantitative or qualitative data alone.
Individual researchers have a freedom of choice. In this way, researchers are free to
choose the methods, techniques, and procedures of research that best meet their needs
and purposes.
Pragmatists do not see the world as an absolute unity. In a similar way, mixed methods
researchers look to many approaches for collecting and analyzing data rather than
subscribing to only one way (e.g., quantitative or qualitative).
Truth is what works at the time. It is not based in a duality between reality independent
of the mind or within the mind. Thus, in mixed methods research, investigators use both
quantitative and qualitative data because they work to provide the best understanding
of a research problem.
The pragmatist researchers look to the what and how to research based on the intended
consequences—where they want to go with it. Mixed methods researchers need to
establish a purpose for their mixing, a rationale for the reasons why quantitative and
qualitative data need to be mixed in the first place.
Pragmatists agree that research always occurs in social, historical, political, and other
contexts. In this way, mixed methods studies may include a postmodern turn, a
theoretical lens that is reflective of social justice and political aims.
Pragmatists have believed in an external world independent of the mind as well as that
lodged in the mind. But they believe that we need to stop asking questions about reality
and the laws of nature (Cherryholmes, 1992). “They would simply like to change the
subject” (Rorty, 1990, p. xiv).
Thus, for the mixed methods researcher, pragmatism opens the door to multiple
methods, different worldviews, and different assumptions, as well as different forms of
data collection and analysis.
Let’s process your understanding

Study the matrix below and provide the missing key terms or concepts related to each of the
worldviews. Then, discuss the matrix in not less than 300 words and not more than 500 words.
(Matrix 15 points, Discussion: 15 points – Total 30 points)
Post – positivism Constructivism
 Theory Verification  Theory Generation

 __________________________  __________________________
 __________________________  __________________________
 __________________________  __________________________
Transformative Pragmatism
 Power and justice oriented  Pluralistic

 _________________________  ___________________________
 _________________________  ___________________________
 _________________________  ___________________________
Express your understanding

Look for a sample research article and identify what worldview the study is anchored to.
o Part 1 – Summary of the Article (You may refer to the Abstract) -- (10 points)
o Part 2 – Discussion of the worldview --- (20 points)
o Total – 30 points
References:
Brown, J. & Coombe, C. (2015). The Cambridge guide to research in language teaching and
learning. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Cresswell, J. & Cresswell J.D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches (5th ed.). London, United Kingdonm: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Lesson 2: Paradigm of Language Research
Introduction
In the previous lesson, you were able to learn the different philosophical worldviews
which play a significant role in the conduct of research. They serve as foundations that would
dictate what design and methods to use in your proposed study. Specifically, when you are
preparing for a research proposal or a plan, these various philosophical stances will guide you in
choosing appropriate research designs and method to use to successfully answer the objectives
or the questions of your study. This means that in planning your study, you need to think
through the philosophical worldview assumptions that they bring to the study, the research
design that is related to this worldview, and the specific methods or procedures of research that
translate the design into practice. In this lesson, the interconnectedness of these important
concepts is contextualized in the area of language research. Like in other areas of discipline,
languages research also acknowledges this interconnectedness of worldviews,
designs, and methods as a paradigm or framework that would support your chosen
approach for your proposed language study. In addition, we will explore basic concepts
about language research such as its nature and development through the years.
Objectives:
a. Explained the nature and history of language research and its difference from other
areas of discipline;
b. Recognized and discussed the paradigm and/or framework for language research;
c. Written a critical analysis of sample language study through a language research
framework/paradigm.
Using the concept map, indicate words or terms related to language research or applied
linguistics research.
Language
Research
Elaborate your concept of language research or applied linguistics research.

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Nature of Language Research
Language research, just like researches in other disciplines, is a complex process.

Undertaking this type of research requires consideration of many factors such as language
use, type of users, acquisition process, setting, research methodology, and related
disciplines.
o Language use – It determiners primarily whether the language is first, second, or

foreign to the speaker. A research on the acquisition of either of one of three
uses of language will greatly vary from one another. Within each use, there are
many sub-functions of language. For instance, a second language may be
regarded as a medium of personal enhancement, social prestige, professional
growth, or political and economic alliance. Each function can be a rich source
research.
o Type of Users – The age and characteristic of the learners are considered. These
are closely tied up with the language acquisition process. It is a common belief
that the young learner acquires language faster than the adult. However, a
strongly motivated learner can acquire language also fast.
o Language setting – It identifies the environment within which language is
acquired. A native speaker acquires it in a natural environment – at home, with
family members, with playmates; a second or foreign language learner acquires
it in the classroom under the supervision of a teacher.
o Methodology – It is determined by the researcher’s philosophy, motivation for
conducting the research, and conditions under which the research is conducted.
If a teacher – researcher believes that attitude very much influences acquisition
of a foreign language (philosophy), and wants to find out if it affects students’
learning of the language (motivation) required in the curriculum (conditions),
he/she might want to conduct a study on the students’ attitude towards the
foreign language and its effect on their learning of the language. A study like this
will use tools such as survey questionnaire and interview.
o Related disciplines – These pertain to areas that influence language study like
education, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and others. A language
acquisition research may consider pedagogy (education), students’ motivation
(psychology), the role of language in the society (sociology), or the origin and
development of the language (anthropology).
The Growth of Applied Linguistic Research (Language Research)
Read the following text taken from the book written by Mckinley and Rose
(2020).
Research in the emergent, broad, and inherently interdisciplinary field of applied linguistics has
grown from its origins, which centered on understanding language development, acquisition, learning,
and teaching. The origins of applied linguistics often involved two types of researchers: researcher-
practitioners who were interested in exploring teaching and learning within language classrooms, and
educational psychologists who were interested in exploring the cognitive and psychological processes
of language learning. An expansion of forces, which largely centered on technological advancements
and globalization, has since brought language into contact with a range of other disciplines such as
business, politics, sociology, anthropology, medicine, and science. This expansion of scope in applied
linguistics has resulted in an explosion in quantity and quality of applied linguistics research, and we
are now at a time when applied linguistics research is growing at unprecedented rates. While more
established fields have secured a firmer sense of their impact on knowledge, applied linguistics is just
beginning to consider its current scope and future directions. This is evidenced by the emergence of a
number of publications in recent years which aim to provide an overview of the field (e.g. Lei & Liu,
2019), bring greater clarity to what applied linguistics is (e.g. Cook, 2015; Hellermann, 2015),
problematize the diminishing role of language teaching in applied linguistics research (e.g. McKinley,
2019; Rose, 2019; Rose & McKinley, 2017), and inform future directions of research within the field
(e.g. Larsen-Freeman, 2018; Pfenninger & Navracsics, 2017).
The past 30 years in particular has been a period of substantial maturation in research within
applied linguistics, where the range of topics covered within the field has blossomed, and so too have
the research methods used to explore them. Much of the growth in research has been propelled by the
increasingly mobile and multilingual world, where issues such as migration and globalization have
fuelled the number of researchers working within applied linguistics to meet the linguistic demands
brought about by language-related educational and social policy change. We are currently in a ‘golden
age’ of applied linguistics research, where we are learning to strengthen the field through transparency
and data sharing, helping to improve and assure quality of research, and advance knowledge more
efficiently. We have simultaneously moved into an era of big data, which is punctuated by large scale
surveys and corpus research, as well as an era of highly nuanced qualitative research, which is
characterized by contextualized explorations of language learning and language use. The field has also
expanded into complex and dynamic ways to explore established topics, which has necessitated the
need for new research designs, data collection techniques, and tools for analysis. As a field, we have
moved beyond types of research that, while still of value, offers limited contribution, and towards highly
impactful research. Immersed within this golden age, it is now necessary to take stock of what it means
to ‘do research’ within applied linguistics, and theorize our available approaches, designs, methods,
and data analysis techniques.
Doing Applied Linguistics Research: Clarity and Interconnectedness of Terms

In this section, key terms in doing applied linguistics research are raised to
illuminate their use, namely: paradigm, epistemology, ontology, approach, design,
method, objective, and aim (Mckinley, 2020), and these are explained vis – a vis the
concepts of worldviews, designs, and methods (Cresswell, 2018). The concepts from
two references were merged because they are related and present the same ideas to
guide you in designing a language study in the future. In short, these interrelated key
terms and concepts are parts of a generic paradigm to be used in doing a research in
applied linguistics.
1. Research paradigm, epistemology, and ontology (Mackinley and Rose,

2020)
First, a research paradigm is defined as the philosophy supporting the knowledge
or reality a researcher uses to understand a phenomenon. Common examples or
research paradigms in applied linguistics research are positivism, post-positivism, and
interpretivism; further examples are critical inquiry, pragmatism, and participatory
paradigm, among others. Briefly, these paradigms are defined as follows:
• Positivism – research will objectively test a hypothesis using scientific method
and/or logic to prove it to be true
• Post-positivism – research acknowledges the researcher’s subjectivity, and
maintains that it is not possible for everything to be known.
• Interpretivism – research is built on the idea that knowledge is actively
constructed, usually through human interpretation of experience.
• Critical inquiry – research can refine and improve real-world knowledge by
making reasonable claims about reality that are historical, and subject to chance
and change.
• Pragmatism – research is problem-oriented and maintains that a research
method be chosen according to its effectiveness in answering the research
question.
• Participatory paradigm – research is built on the idea that knowledge is
constructed through researcher participation with others involving reflection and
action (sometimes referred to as ‘social constructivism’).
Note: The concepts presented are similar with those in the discussion of Cresswell and Cresswell
(2018) about philosophical worldviews presented in Lesson 1. These views include post-positivism,
constructivism, transformative, and pragmatism. The only difference is that Cresswell and Cresswell
(2018) presented four philosophical views while Mckinkey and Rose (2020) presented six.
Next, epistemology and ontology are strongly linked to paradigm, as they

identify the researcher’s reality. A researcher’s epistemology is essentially their core
beliefs. It is often broken down as truth, belief, and justification: what is held as true
and real, what is believed about it, and how the belief is reasonably justified.
Epistemologies can differ greatly between people from different backgrounds, whether
cultural, political, religious, socioeconomic, or otherwise. Such differences are at the
heart of classic debates (one person’s ‘right’ is another person’s ‘wrong’). Common-
sense boundaries of reasonable beliefs might be stretched, which is where the idea of
‘alternative facts’ comes from: while most will maintain that these are simply falsehoods,
others will justify them as truths, despite contrary scientific evidence. Popular examples
of this are the continued belief that global warming is a hoax, that vaccinations cause
autism, or that the earth is flat. Such ‘an alternative belief’ is an example of an ontology,
albeit a poorly constructed one. A researcher’s ontology, therefore, is a set of concepts
used to identify the nature of a phenomenon’s existence. In applied linguistics research,
an ontology can be understood as the implicit structures that shape and define how
language is used.
2. A research approach is the generic term given to the manner in which a researcher
engages with a study as a whole. It takes a macro-perspective of research
methodology and incorporates both the overall methodological design of a study,
the methods used for data collection and for data analysis. As a crude example,
some researchers may state that they are taking a quantitative approach to
research, which might then inform their choice of design (e.g. experimental design
or survey), their choice of data collection method (e.g. tests or questionnaires), and
data analysis (e.g. statistical tests or modelling). In reality, an approach to research
might be far more complex depending on the needs of the research questions;
nevertheless, the chosen approach will aim to capture this complexity.
Note: Please refer to Lesson 1 for the definition of different research approaches (quantitative,
qualitative, and mixed methods)
3. Research Design
A research design, which many refer to more generally as a research method,
refers to the structure of a study. It acts as a blueprint within which to populate the
content of a research project. Thus, the general principles underlying this structure are
retained across research projects. For example, there is an expectation that
experimental designs must contain certain features, such as the manipulation of a
variable in order to explore its effect. Similarly, there are structural expectations
surrounding expectations of what good survey research, action research, ethnography,
or case studies should entail. Deviations from the expected design must often be
justified in terms of assurances to the quality of the research data obtained (Mckinley
and Rose, 2020).
The researcher not only selects a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods
study to conduct; the inquirer also decides on a type of study within these three
choices. Research designs are types of inquiry within qualitative, quantitative,
and mixed methods approaches that provide specific direction for procedures
in a research study. Others have called them strategies of inquiry (Denzin and
Lincoln, 2011 as cited in Cresswell, 2018). The designs available to the researcher have
grown over the years as computer technology has advanced our data analysis and
ability to analyze complex models, and as individuals have articulated new procedures
for conducting social science research (Cresswell and Cresswell, 2018).
Overview of Different Research Designs (Cresswell and Cresswell, 2018)

Quantitative Design Qualitative Design Mixed Methods Design
 Experimental Designs  Narrative Convergent

 Non – experimental Research
Designs (i.e., survey)  Phenomenology Explanatory Sequential
 Longitudinal Designs  Grounded Theory
 Ethnographies Exploratory Sequential
 Case Study
Complex Designs with
embedded core designs
Note: This is just an overview of different research designs categorized into three
groups. The detailed discussion of each design is presented in the succeeding lessons.
You may read in advance or skim the detailed explanation of these designs in lessons
3, 4, and 5 and have a glimpse of their features and characteristics.
***Do not be confused between an approach and a design. The three designs
(quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods) are within the three approaches
(quantitative, qualitative, mixed method). An approach takes a generic perspective
while a design presents the structure of the study.
4. Research Methods
A method can mean many things (including research design), but here it is
defined as the process of collecting data. For consistency, it might be best to use the
full expression ‘data collection method’. While a tendency has been observed in research
methods books to conflate data collection methods with approaches to research design,
it is preferable to reserve the word method to refer to data collection. It is important,
for example, not to discuss questionnaires (a data collection method) interchangeably
with survey research (a research design), as some questionnaires are used for purposes
other than ‘to survey’ (i.e. in qualitative research), and of course survey methods can
involve data collection other than just questionnaires. Another example is to avoid listing
data elicitation tasks and tests (data collection methods) with other elements of
methodology such as experimental studies (a research design).
Always remember that…
Certain data collection techniques often accompany certain research designs, but it is important to
maintain clear boundaries for these two dimensions of research. This will foster more creativity
and freedom in applied linguistics research as of course, more than one data collection research
method can be (and is) used within different research designs.
Furthermore, Cresswell and Cresswell (2018) categorized research methods into
three categories, and these are quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. This
particular element (research methods) in the paradigm presents the specific research
methods which include the forms of data collection, analysis, and interpretation that
researchers propose for their studies. As shown in the following matrix, it is useful to
consider the full range of possibilities of data collection and to organize these methods,
for example, by their degree of predetermined nature, their use of closed-ended versus
open-ended questioning, and their focus on numeric versus nonnumeric data analysis.
Categories of Research Methods (Creswell and Cresswell, 2018)

Quantitative Methods Mixed Methods Qualitative Methods
Pre – determined Both pre-determined and Emerging methods

emergent methods
Instrument – based Both open and closed – Open – ended questions

questions ended questions
Performance data, attitude Multiple forms of data Attitude data, observation

data, observation data, drawing on all possibilities data, document data,
census data audio – visual data
Statistical analysis Statistical and text analysis Text and image analysis
Statistical interpretation Across data bases Themes, patterns

interpretation interpretation
Researchers collect data on an instrument or test (e.g., a set of questions about

attitudes toward self-esteem) or gather information on a behavioral checklist (e.g.,
observation of a worker engaged in a complex skill). On the other end of the continuum,
collecting data might involve visiting a research site and observing the behavior of
individuals without predetermined questions or conducting an interview in which the
individual is allowed to talk openly about a topic, largely without the use of specific
questions. The choice of methods turns on whether the intent is to specify the type of
information to be collected in advance of the study or to allow it to emerge from
participants in the project. Also, the type of data analyzed may be numeric information
gathered on scales of instruments or text information recording and reporting the voice
of the participants. Researchers make interpretations of the statistical results, or they
interpret the themes or patterns that emerge from the data. In some forms of research,
both quantitative and qualitative data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
Instrument data may be augmented with open-ended observations, or census data may
be followed by in-depth exploratory interviews. In this case of mixing methods, the
researcher makes inferences across both the quantitative and qualitative databases.
As mentioned earlier, the worldviews, the designs, and the methods all contribute to a
research approach that tends to be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed. Cresswell and Cresswell
(2018) presents the following typical scenarios of research to illustrate how these three
elements combine as a framework in doing research and to support the chosen approach for a
particular study.
Scenario 1
Quantitative approach: Postpositivist worldview, experimental design, and pretest
and posttest measures of attitudes
In this scenario, the researcher tests a theory by specifying narrow hypotheses

and the collection of data to support or refute the hypotheses. An experimental
design is used in which attitudes are assessed both before and after an
experimental treatment. The data are collected on an instrument that measures
attitudes, and the information is analyzed using statistical procedures and
hypothesis testing.
Scenario 2
Qualitative approach: Constructivist worldview, ethnographic design, and
observation of behavior
In this situation, the researcher seeks to establish the meaning of a phenomenon

from the views of participants. This means identifying a culture-sharing group
and studying how it develops shared patterns of behavior over time (i.e.,
ethnography). One of the key elements of collecting data in this way is to
observe participants’ behaviors during their engagement in activities.
.
Scenario 3
Qualitative approach: Transformative worldview, narrative design, and open-
ended interviewing
For this study, the inquirer seeks to examine an issue related to oppression of
individuals. To study this, stories are collected of individual oppression using a
narrative approach. Individuals are interviewed at some length to determine how
they have personally experienced oppression.
Scenario 4
Mixed methods approach: Pragmatic worldview, collection of both quantitative
and qualitative data sequentially in the design
The researcher bases the inquiry on the assumption that collecting diverse types
of data best provides a more complete understanding of a research problem than
either quantitative or qualitative data alone. The study begins with a broad
survey in order to generalize results to a population and then, in a second phase,
focuses on qualitative, open-ended interviews to collect detailed views from
participants to help explain the initial quantitative survey.
And for you to understand deeply the interaction and application of the
mentioned elements in research, study the following matrix which summarizes the
relationship of these elements.
A researcher Quantitative Qualitative Approaches Mixed Methods
tends to or Approaches Approaches
typically…
Use these Post – positivists Constructivism/Transformative Pragmatic

philosophical knowledge claims Knowledge claims knowledge claims
Worldviews
Employ these Surveys and Phenomenology, grounded Convergent,

Research Designs experiments theory, ethnography, case study, sequential, and
and narrative transformative
Employ these Closed – ended Open – ended questions, Both open – and
methods questions, pre- emerging approaches, text or closed – ended
determined image data questions, both
approaches, emerging and
numeric data predetermined
(may include approaches, and
some open – both quantitative
ended questions) and qualitative

data and analysis
Use these Tests or verifies Positions himself or herself Collects both

research theories or quantitative and
practices explanations qualitative data
Collects participant meanings
Identifies Develops a
variables to study rationale for
Focuses on a single concept or
mixing
phenomenon
Relates variables
in questions or Integrates the
Brings personal values into the
hypotheses data at different
study
stages of inquiry
Uses standards of
Studies the content of setting of
validity and Presents visual
participants
reliability pictures of the
procedures in the
study
Validates the accuracy of findings
Observes and
measures
information Employs the
numerically Makes interpretations of data practices of both
qualitative and
quantitative
research
Uses unbiased Creates an agenda for change or
approaches reform
Employs Collaborates with participants

statistical
procedures
Employs text analysis procedures
Note: There might be other methods and designs not included in this matrix.
Aside from these elements that we have discussed, Mckinley (2020) gives additional
elements. The final two terms to clarify are research 5.) aim – a statement of intention, and
research 6.) objective –a statement of how desired outcomes will be achieved. With this
understanding, it is recommended that researchers maintain consistency with use of these
terms so as not to conflate them. First, broad statements of aims should be made that identify
what the researcher hopes to achieve. For example, this would be where the purpose of the
study is stated (“This study aims to . . .”). Objective statements need to be concrete, clarifying
what specific processes that will be taken to achieve the purpose. In other words, the research
objective is a summary of the overall research project as designed to produce expected
outcomes (“The objective of this research is to provide a context-specific example of the
phenomenon as it occurs in a real world classroom through observations and data
elicitation . . .”).

As mentioned in the beginning of this lesson, this lesson will introduce you to the
language research paradigm which will serve as your guide in doing your own study in the
future. The diagram below presents the said framework or paradigm and it summarizes all the
elements and concepts we have discussed in this lesson.
Study and analyze the following diagram and elaborate the concepts in not less than 300 words
and not more than 600 words. Share also your reflections and feedbacks regarding this
framework in research.
A Framework for Research—The Interconnection of Worldviews, Design, and

Research Methods (Cresswell, 2018)
Answer the following questions:

1. How different is language research from other kinds of researches? Why is it a complex
process? (10 points)
2. Critical Analysis Part: Using the same language study (research article) you had in lesson
1, identify the following elements and explain your answers ( comments, feedbacks,
suggestions).
a. Approach (10 points)
b. Philosophical Worldview (10 points)
c. Research Design (Note: Please identify and describe the specific research design
and not just the category where this design belongs.) --- (10 points)
d. Research Method (Note: Specify and discuss the method/s used) -- (10 points)
e. Research Objectives/Aims (10 points)
References:
Cresswell, J. & Cresswell J.D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
Mckinley J. & Rose, H. (2020). The Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Applied
Linguistics. New York, NY: Routledge
Posecion, O.; Go, M. & Albano, H. (2011). Language research: principles and application.
Quezon City, Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Lesson 3 - A: Quantitative Approach in Language Research
Introduction
Welcome to Lesson 3 - A! In the previous lesson, you were able to build connections of
different concepts in the context or area of language research. Your serious engagement and
sincere dedication to our lesson would eventually help you to see clearly and understand deeply
the paradigm of language research which would be your guide in the formulation of a language
research study at the end of this course. Now, it’s time for you to explore further these different
concepts in the paradigm to have enough knowledge on the important details and salient
information of these different components. One component which is the ‘worldview’ was
already discussed in details in Lesson 1. Thus, we are now ready to proceed to the detailed
discussion of ‘approaches’ and ‘designs’ which are equally important components in the
paradigm. As briefly mentioned in Lesson 1, there are three common approaches and designs in
research, and these are: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. In this lesson, we will
explore quantitative research first, and the two remaining approaches and/or designs will be
discussed in the succeeding lessons (Lesson 3-B and 3- C).
Objectives:
d. discussed the history and characteristics of quantitative research
e. identified the different quantitative designs in language research
f. Explained the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative research and of common
quantitative designs used in language research.

List down five concepts related to quantitative research that you already know.
1. __________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________
Historical Overview of Quantitative Research
Quantitative social research was originally inspired by the spectacular progress of the
natural sciences in the nineteenth century and therefore early social researchers set out to
adopt what was called the scientific method in their investigation. This method had been
evolving in western thinking since about the mid – sixteenth (the period of the Enlightenment)
through the work of philosophers and scholars such as Copernicus, Bacon, Galilei, Kepler,
Newton, Descartes, Hume, Comte, and Pierce.
Broadly speaking, the scientific method postulates three key stages in the research
process: (a) observing a phenomenon or identifying a problem, (b) generating an initial
hypothesis, and (c) testing the hypothesis by collecting and analyzing empirical data using
standardized procedures.
Once the hypothesis has been successfully tested and further validated through
replication, it becomes accepted as a scientific theory or law. Thus, the scientific method
offered a tool to explore questions in an ‘objective’ manner, trying to minimize the influence of
any researcher bias or prejudice, thereby resulting in what scholars believed was an accurate
and reliable description of the world. This scientific method was closely associated with
numerical values and statistics, along the line of Nobel prize winner Lord Rutherford’s famous
maxim that any knowledge that one cannot measure numerically is a poor sort of knowledge.
Statistics became a fully – fledged subdiscipline of mathematics by the end of 19 th century due
to its major contribution to the mathematical needs of the newly emerging social sciences.
The first half of the twentieth century saw major development both in the scientific
method (most notably through the work of Karl Popper) and in statistics (for example, by
Spearman, Fisher, Neyman, and Pearson) leading to the increased use of quantitative
methodology across the whole range of social disciplines. As a result of this progress, the social
sciences achieved maturity and earned the reputation of being able to study human beings
‘scientifically’ both at the individual and societal levels. Fuelled by the advances in
psychometrics (a subdiscipline focusing on measurement in psychology), classical test theory,
experimental designs, survey research, questionnaire theory, and multivariate statistics, the
middle of the 20th century became dominated by quantitative methodology in the social
sciences.
Historical Background of Quantitative Research in Applied Linguistics
In applied linguistics, according to Lazarton (2005), the period between 1970-1985 saw
significant increase of quantitative articles which went hand in hand with the publication of
several research methods texts in the 1980s, culminating in Hatch and Lazarton’s (1991)
seminal Research Manual; this provided a very detailed summary of quantitative research and
statistics. Lazarton (2005) reports on a survey of 524 empirical studies that appeared in four
major applied linguistics journals between 1991 and 2001. The results show that as many as
86% of the research papers were quantitative (while 13% qualitative and 1% mixed methods),
which led Lazarton to conclude that quantitative studies ‘reign supreme’ in the field of applied
linguistics.
Lazarton (2005) also highlights a major change taking a research orientation in applied
linguistics: while in the 1980s there was an ‘unquestioned reliance’ on quasi – experimental
studies, the past 15 years have brought along broader, multidisciplinary perspective on research
methodology, with an increasing number of alternative, often qualitative, designs employed.
Duff (2002) also highlights the growing sophistication of quantitative in the 1990s, both in
terms of their design and their psychometric refinement, which confirms Lazaraton’s (2000)
conclusion that there has been a ‘coming of age’ of quantitative research in applied linguistics.
Main Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Using numbers
The single most important feature of quantitative research is, naturally, that is centered
around numbers. This both opens up a range of possibilities and sets of some limitations for
researchers. Numbers are powerful, as attested to by the discipline of mathematics. Yet
numbers are also rather powerless in themselves because in research context they do not mean
anything without contextual ‘backing’: they are faceless and meaningless unless we specify
exactly the category that we use the specific number for, and also the different values within
the variable (i.e., knowing what ‘1’ or ‘6’ means in a particular category. Thus, for numbers to
work, we need precise definitions of the content and the boundaries of the variables we use
and we also need exact descriptors for the range of values that are allowed within the variable.
However, if we manage to provide all this, numbers do work and the development of
quantitative research over the last century has been frankly astounding.
A Priori Categorization
Because the use of numbers already dominates the data collection phase, the work
required to specify the categories and values needs to be done prior to the actual study. For
example, respondents are asked to encircle figures in a questionnaire item, they have to know
exactly what those figures represent, and in order to make sure that each respondent gives
their numerical answer based on the same understanding, the definitions and value descriptor
need to be unambiguous. Several weeks and often months of meticulous preparation and
piloting are usually needed before the finalized instrument can be administered. Things also
speed up after the administration of the instrument and preliminary results can be achieved
after a week of data collection. Unlike in qualitative research, the researcher can start the first
interview soon after the instigation of the project. However, the rest of the phases of qualitative
is also labor – intensive except in the preparation phase (to be further discussed later).
Variables than cases

Quantitative researchers are less interested in individuals than in the common features
of groups of people. This means that quantitative research is centered around the study of
variables that capture these common features and which are quantified by counting, scaling, or
by assigning values to categorical data. All the various quantitative methods are aimed at
identifying the relationships between variables by measuring them and also manipulating them
(i.e., experimental research). Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) regard the quest for specifying
the relationships between amongst variables as the defining feature of quantitative research.
Statistics and the language of statistics

This is the most salient feature of quantitative research. Because of the close link of
quantitative research and statistics, much of the statistical terminology has become part of the
quantitative vocabulary, and the resulting quantitative language adds further power to the
quantitative paradigm. (Note: This will be further discussed in Unit 2.)
Standardized procedures to assess objective reality

Quantitative research aspires to eliminate any individual – based subjectivity from the
various phases of the research process by developing systematic canons and rules for every
facet of data collection and analysis. The aim is to standardize research procedures to ensure
that they remain stable across investigators and subjects. The independence of human
variability and bias has been equated with objectivity by quantitative researchers and the
results accumulated through these procedures are thought to describe the objective reality that
is ‘out there’, independent of the researcher’s subjective perceptions. Bachman (2004) claims
that ‘objective reality’ exists, and this validates the claim that when researchers observe the
same pheomenon the same standard procedures, their findings will show agreement and
convergence.
Quest for generalizability and universal laws

Numbers, variables, standardized procedure, statistics, and scientific reasoning are all
part of the quantitative quest for facts that are generalizable beyond the particular and add up
to wide – ranging, ideally universal laws.
Quantitative Designs in Language Research

Research designs in quantitative research are divided into two types, and these are
descriptive (or survey in other research books such as Cresswell, 2018 ) and experiments.
Cresswell (2018) elaborates the concepts of surveys and experiments through the following
example:
In one case, a researcher might be interested in evaluating whether playing violent video games is
associated with higher rates of playground aggression in kids, which is a correlational hypothesis
that could be evaluated in a survey design. In another case, a researcher might be interested in
evaluating whether violent video game playing causes aggressive behavior, which is a causal
hypothesis that is best evaluated by a true experiment. In each case, these quantitative
approaches focus on carefully measuring (or experimentally manipulating) a parsimonious set of
variables to answer theory, guided research questions and hypotheses.
A. Survey Design/Descriptive Design

A survey design provides a quantitative description of trends, attitudes, and
opinions of a population, or tests for associations among variables of a population, by studying
a sample of that population. Survey designs are further divided into several types:
o Descriptive Survey - It is used to analyze, interpret, and report data from a survey.
This design answers descriptive questions
o Descriptive Correlational - It is used to determine whether or not there is a
relationship that exists between two or more quantifiable variables. This correlation may
be positive or negative.
o Descriptive Evaluative - It used to determine the goodness of an existing program. It
is directed to whether or not a particular program has achieved its goals or not. It means
that it is often used in longitudinal study where researcher repeats the design over times.
o Descriptive Comparative - It is used to examine the similarities and differences
between or among variables.
B. Experimental Research
An experimental design systematically manipulates one or more variables in order to
evaluate how this manipulation impacts an outcome (or outcomes) of interest. Importantly, an
experiment isolates the effects of this manipulation by holding all other variables constant. This
design could be further divided into two types, and these are true experimental and quasi –
experimental.
Experimental and quasi-experimental research designs examine whether there is a
causal relationship between independent and dependent variables. Simply defined, the
independent variable is the variable of influence and the dependent variable is the variable
that is being influenced (Loewen & Plonsky, 2016). In other words, the independent variable is
expected to bring about some variation or change in the dependent variable.
For example:
In a study examining the impact of oral corrective feedback on grammatical development, corrective feedback will serve as
the independent variable and grammatical development as the dependent variable. Moderating variables are another type of
variable that are often of interest in experimental and quasi-experimental research. Moderating variables are defined as
variables that modify the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. If the previous study of
corrective feedback also investigates how working memory may influence the extent to which learners benefit from feedback
(e.g., Révész, 2012a), working memory will function as a moderating variable in the design.
o True Experimental Design

True experiments involve the manipulation of one or more independent variables
(variable of influence), and the dependent variables (variable being influenced) are carefully
measured, typically in the form of pre- and posttesting. True experiments also include a
control group and an experimental group. This means that the control only takes part in the
pre- and posttesting, whereas the experimental group receives the experimental treatment
in addition to completing the pre- and posttesting. Finally, true experiments are
characterized by random assignment; that is, participants are randomly placed into the
control and the experimental condition following a chance procedure (Gravetter &
Forzano, 2018; Hatch & Lazaraton, 1991; Kirk, 2009; Loewen & Plonsky, 2016; Nunan,
1992). Random assignment might involve tactics such as flipping a coin, drawing names out
of a hat, rolling dice, or assigning random numbers to participants. There are also two types
of True Experimental Designs, and these are (1) Pre-Test Post-Test Control Group Design
and (2) Post-Test Only Control Group Design.
o Quasi-Experimental Research Design

It is termed by Rogers and Revezs (2020) as non-experiment type. The prefix quasi
means “resembling.” Thus quasi-experimental research is research that resembles
experimental research but is not true experimental research. Although the independent
variable is manipulated, participants are not randomly assigned to conditions or orders
of conditions (Cook & Campbell, 1979). Quasi experiments are a subtype of non-
experiments that attempt to mimic randomized, true experiments in rigor and experimental
structure but lack random assignment (Cook & Wong, 2008; Kirk, 2009). Abraham &
MacDonald (2011) state:
"Quasi-experimental research is similar to experimental research in that there is
manipulation of an independent variable. It differs from experimental research
because either there is no control group, no random selection, no random
assignment, and/or no active manipulation."
Fraenkel et. al (2012) listed several types of this design, and these are The Matching –
Only Design, Counterbalanced design, Time Series Design, and Factorial Design. As mentioned,
quasi-experimental studies do not require a true control group, but may include a
comparison group. A comparison group is an additional experimental group that receives a
different experimental treatment. Non-experiments may also take the form of pre-
experimental designs.
What are pre – experimental designs?
Pre-experimental designs use neither a control nor a comparison group (Nunan, 1992). Types of this
design includes One-Shot Case Study Research Design, One-Group Pre-Test Post-Test Design, and Static
Group Comparison Design. This means this design only used one group (single group) to test the
effectiveness of the independent variable (i.e, corrective feedback). Fraenkel et.al (2013 label this as
‘poor experiment’ because any researcher who uses this design has difficulty assessing the
effectiveness of the independent variable.
In relation with language research, researchers within the field of applied linguistics
have long used experiments to investigate cause–effect relationships regarding the use and
learning of second languages (L2s). As mentioned earlier, in experimental research, one or
more variables are altered and the effects of this change on another variable are examined.
This change or experimental manipulation is usually referred to as the treatment. Researchers
typically draw upon either experimental or quasi-experimental research designs to determine
whether there is a causal relationship between the treatment and the outcome. Thus, in this
lesson we will explore the key features and examples ( common and relevant examples only) of
experimental and quasi-experimental research designs. It also makes recommendations for how
experimental designs might best be applied and utilized within applied linguistics research.
Specifically, we will learn five common research designs used within experimental
and quasi-experimental research, highlighting their advantages and limitations with
a view to helping you select designs that are best suited to address your research
questions, while also taking into account constraints related to practicality and
feasibility.
Pretest–posttest design
The pretest–posttest control group design is probably the most common experimental
research design (Cook & Wong, 2008). In this design, the experimental group takes part in
some type of treatment or intervention, which can consist of single or multiple training sessions.
The design also includes a pretest and a posttest, in which both the experimental and control
groups participate. The purpose of the pretest is to ensure the comparability of the two groups
prior to the treatment, whereas the posttest allows the researchers to determine the immediate
effects of the treatment on the outcome variable(s). In addition to the pretest and immediate
posttest, a delayed posttest or posttests are often included to examine the effects of the
treatment over the longer term. The inclusion of the control group enables researchers to
determine whether any observed changes from the pretest to the posttest in the experimental
group are the result of the experimental treatment or can be attributed to other influences such
as testing effects or maturation. As both experimental and the control group take the tests at
the same time, time-related confounds are minimized (Gravetter & Forzano, 2018).
Example:
Experiment: Peters and Webb (2018, Experiment 1) utilized an experimental pretest– posttest design to examine the effect
of TV viewing on the incidental learning of L2 vocabulary.
Independent variable: viewing versus not viewing L2 television
Dependent variable: form recognition and meaning recall of L2 vocabulary
Design: the participants, Dutch learners of L2 English, were randomly assigned to either a
true control group (n = 27) or an experimental group (n = 36).
The experiment consisted of three sessions: a pretesting session (one week prior to treatment), the treatment session,
and a posttesting session (administered one week following treatment). The control group took part in the testing sessions
only. The experimental group, in addition to completing the pretest and posttest, participated in a treatment that included
viewing a TV program.
Time Series Design

A time-series design is an example of longitudinal design in which researchers collect
samples of language on a regular basis over a set period (Kirk, 2009; Mellow, Reeder, &
Forster, 1996). By collecting data on multiple occasions, time-series designs can allow insight
into the time course of language development, including changes that may be immediate,
gradual, delayed, incubated, or residual (Mellow et al., 1996; Mellow, 2012) as well as the
permanency of any effects resulting from a treatment. A time-series design is characterized by

multiple observations both before and after the treatment. The number of pretreatment and
post treatment observations can vary, and there is no need to have the same number of
observations pre- and posttreatment (Kirk, 2009). The treatment may entail a single or multiple
treatment sessions. Whether involving a single or multiple trainings, the treatment can vary in
length, from including brief to extended sessions.
Experiment: Ishida (2004) utilized a time-series design to investigate the impact of recasting on development in the use of
the Japanese te-i-(ru) construction. Independent variable: presence versus absence of recasting Dependent variable:
accuracy in the use of the Japanese te-i-(ru) construction, as reflected in accuracy rates during oral performance
Design: the participants were four learners of L2 Japanese, who took part in eight 30-minute one-on-one conversation
sessions. The first two sessions served as the pretest, the middle four as the treatment, and the last two as the posttest.
Two participants also participated in a delayed posttest seven weeks after the last posttest. The treatment involved
providing recasts in response to errors in the use of the Japanese te i-(ru) construction.
Latin Square Design

A Latin-square design is frequently used within experiments that utilize multiple data
collection instruments. This design can be traced back to Fischer (1925); it gets its name from
an ancient puzzle that was concerned with the number of ways that Latin letters can be
arranged in a square matrix so that each letter appears once in each row and once in each
column (Kirk, 2009). A Latin-square is a table made with the same number of rows and
columns that can be used to counterbalance data collection instruments and to help control
against test- and task-order effects. Simply put, in a Latin-square design, the ordering of
instruments (e.g., tests or tasks) are different for various participants or groups of participants.
Example:
Lambert, Kormos, and Minn (2017) used a Latin-square design to investigate the effects of task repetition on L2 oral
fluency. Participants carried out four different tasks, three monologue tasks, and an opinion dialogue task. To make
sure that the order of the tasks did not influence the results, the participants were randomly assigned to four groups.
Each group completed the four tasks in a different order following a Latin-square design as shown in the table below:
Source Lambert et. al (2017)
Groups Task Order

1 Instruction Monologue – Narration Monologue – Opinion Monologue – Opinion Monologue
2 Narration Monologue - Opinion Monologue - Opinion Monologue - Instruction Monologue
3 Opinion Monologue - Opinion Monologue - Instruction Monologue - Narration Monologue
4 Opinion Monologue - Instruction Monologue - Narration Monologue - Opinion Monologue
Latin-squares are also commonly employed when multiple versions of tests are included
in a study. For example, to avoid practice effects, studies with pretest–posttest- delayed
posttest designs often use three versions of all testing instruments, and these are typically
administered in a Latin-square design across participants in the testing sessions. Of course,
besides counterbalancing instruments, Latin-square designs can be applied in studies with the
primary goal of examining task- or test-order effects.
Repeated-measures Design (or within-participants design)

Repeated-measures designs, also known as within-participants designs, are
characterized by a single group of participants who take part in all the different
treatment conditions and/or are measured at multiple times (Abbuhl & Mackey, 2017;
Gravetter & Forzano, 2018). In a within-participants design, the participant is subjected to all
levels of the independent variable. This design derives its name from the fact that the design
involves ‘repeated’ measurements of the same participant. Within-participants designs
differ from between-participants designs where the treatment conditions are
assigned to different groups of participants; that is, different participants are tested
on the various levels of the independent variable.
Example:
Rogers and Cheung (2018) investigated the impact of spacing on L2 vocabulary learning in an authentic classroom
setting.
Independent variable: temporal spacing of treatment sessions (1 day versus 8 days)
Dependent variable: learning of English adjectives, measured by performance on a multiple choice

picture identification task
Design: the participants were Cantonese primary school students of L2 English in four different intact classes. They
were taught half of the target vocabulary items under spaced-short conditions (one day between treatment sessions)
and half of the items under spaced-long conditions (eight days between treatment sessions). The items were
counterbalanced across the two treatment conditions. All participants took part in the pretest and posttest as well as
the treatment.
In this study, rather than assigning each of the four participating classes to a different
experimental condition (a feature of between – subject design), the researchers manipulated
the independent variable within participants; that is, each class studied half of the target items
under one experimental condition and the other half under another experimental condition.
Always Remember This!
In Between – Subject Design, you divide the participants in groups and compare the results of the treatment; while in Within
– Subject Design, there is only one group of participants in which all of them are exposed to every treatment or condition.
Factorial design
Factorial designs include more than one independent variable; that is, factorial designs
are employed to investigate the effects of two or more independent variables on the dependent
variable. The independent variables in a factorial design are also referred to as factors. Factorial
designs allow researchers to examine not only the impact of each independent variable
separately but also the combined effects of the independent variables on the dependent
variable. The separate effects of the independent variables are described as main effects and
their combined effects are referred to as interaction effects. In factorial designs, a notation
system is used to denote the number of levels associated with each independent variable. For
instance, in a 2 × 3 design, there are two independent variables or factors: the first factor has
two levels and the second factor has three. Factorial designs can include between-participants
or within-participants factors only or can combine between- and within-participants factors.
Factorial designs that include both between-participants and within-participants factors are
usually described as mixed factorial designs.
Example:
Zalbidea (2017) provides a recent example of a study utilizing a factorial design. The researcher employed a
mixed 2 × 2 factorial design to examine the impact of task complexity and modality on L2 performance. The
two independent variables were task complexity, a within-participants factor, and modality (a between-
participants variable). As shown below, each of the two independent factors had two levels (task complexity:
simple versus complex; modality: written versus spoken). Task complexity was counterbalanced across
participants to avoid order effects. Through adopting a factorial design, Zalbidea was not only able to
examine the impact of modality and task complexity independently but also tease out how these independent
factors interacted in influencing task performance.
Considerations when Designing an Experiment

Assignment of participants to experimental conditions
Randomized experimental designs are considered the gold standard for research
investigating causal relationships (Cook & Wong, 2008). As such, randomized assignment is
preferred over non-randomization in that it eliminates systematic differences that may preexist
among groups (Kirk, 2009; Plonsky, 2017). It is not surprising, therefore, that in some research
domains non-randomized designs have systematically been shown to result in smaller effect
sizes than experimental research, presumably due to extraneous factors that are less closely
controlled in the absence of randomization (e.g., Bloom, Michalopoulos, & Hill, 2005).
However, in applied linguistics research, random assignment is not always possible
due to reasons of practicality and/or ethical concerns. Further, randomization might not
be appropriate given the objectives of the research. For instance, instructed second language
acquisition researchers often wish to trial instructional interventions in authentic learning
environments involving the use of intact classes. Clearly, the lack of random assignment in such
cases may open the door for potential confounds that can limit the internal validity of the study.
However, the resulting threats to internal validity may be offset by the enhanced ecological
validity afforded by conducting research in a context that closely resembles natural classroom
environments to which the results are meant to be generalized (Mackey, 2017). To conclude,
when deciding whether to randomize or not to randomize participant assignment, researchers
need to carefully consider the objectives of the study, while taking account of potential
practical constraints and ethical issues.
Control or comparison group

Another key consideration is whether to include a true control group or a comparison group
in quasi-experimental research. While the use of a control group is generally recommended, it is
often not possible to include a true control group in quasi-experimental research for practical
or ethical reasons (e.g., Mackey & Gass, 2016; Plonsky, 2017). It is also worth noting that,
in some circumstances, the inclusion of a comparison group might, in fact, be the preferred
option. For instance, as mentioned earlier, when researchers investigate the impact of a
particular instructional intervention, they may decide that intact classes constitute the most
ecologically valid setting for the research to take place. In this case, a comparison group,
engaged in normal classroom instruction, may serve as the best baseline to the experimental
condition. Using a comparison rather than a control group might also offer advantages in some
experimental contexts. For instance, Hamrick and Sachs (2018) have argued that the use of a
trained control (i.e., comparison) group rather than a true control group may help control for
hidden bias among participants in experimental SLA research utilizing artificial language
systems.
Controlling for extraneous variables

The hallmark of experimental and quasi-experimental designs is using strict experimental
control to maintain the internal validity of the findings. As such, researchers should take care to
control for extraneous variables and to document how they have done so when reporting their
research. Researchers can help guard the internal validity of their research design in several
ways. Some key methods include employing random assignment to avoid selection bias, using
a control and/or a comparison group to control for the effects of testing, using multiple pre and
posttests to asses preexisting trends and gain a fuller picture of longer-term treatment effects,
establishing that test versions designed to be parallel are indeed comparable, piloting
instruments and procedures, and reducing test- and task-order effects.
Reporting
Finally, it is also worth considering what details to include when writing up an
experimental study. A general rule of thumb is that the description of the methodology should
be sufficiently detailed to enable replication. To achieve this, it is essential to include details
about the sampling procedures, the sample, the number and timing of the treatment and
testing sessions (both duration and amount of time between sessions), the instruments used in
the treatment and testing sessions, and the steps and procedures followed. It is also important
to highlight how potential extraneous variables were controlled for. Although the importance of
detailed reporting is widely acknowledged in the field of applied linguistics, crucial
methodological details are often left unaccounted for in published research. For example,
published research studies often do not include information about the number and length of
treatment sessions and the amount of time separating them. Given that the frequency and
duration of treatment sessions and the interval between them has been shown to influence
learning and retention (Rogers, 2017), it is recommended that researchers include such details
when writing up reports on experimental research.

What do you think are the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative approach and of different
quantitative designs? -- 70 points
Approach/Design Strengths Weaknesses
Quantitative Approach (in

general)
Descriptive/Survey Design
Pretest – Posttest Design
Time Series Design
Latin Square Design
Repeated Design
Factorial Design
References:
Cresswell, J. & Cresswell J.D. (2018). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
Dornyei, Z. (2011). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford
University Press.
Fraenkel, J.; Wallen, N. & Hyun, H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education
(8th ed.). New York, NY: The Mcgraw – Hill Companies.
Mckinley J. & Rose, H. (2020). The Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Applied
Linguistics. New York, NY: Routledge.

What do you think are the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative approach and of different
quantitative designs? -- 70 points
Approach/Design Strengths Weaknesses
Quantitative Approach (in

general)
Descriptive/Survey Design
Pretest – Posttest Design
Time Series Design
Latin Square Design
Repeated Design
Factorial Design
Introduction
Since you are already familiar with the characteristics of quantitative research as well as
with the different quantitative designs, it’s now time to proceed to another approach which is
qualitative approach. As a review, this approach is anchored on the constructivist and
transformative worldviews while quantitative approach is under the positivist worldview. In this
lesson, you will explore further important and relevant information about qualitative research.
Specifically, you will the historical overview of qualitative research as well as its main
characteristics. Various qualitative research designs are also included in this lesson to provide
you with several choices if you wish to pursue a qualitative approach in your future study.
Objectives:
g. discussed the history and characteristics of qualitative research;
h. identified the different qualitative designs in language research;
i. explained the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative research and of common
quantitative designs used in language research; and
j. differentiated qualitative approach from quantitative approach
Historical Overview of Qualitative Research
Research that can be considered ‘qualitative’ in retrospect has been around for about a
century in the social sciences
Qualitative – like methods were introduced into sociology at the end of the first decade
of the 20th century.
It was also introduced during the first third of the century when renowned scholars such
as Boas and Malinowski produced seminal studies in anthropology.
The basic qualitative ideas and principles are not new at all, yet the first text that tried
to define ‘qualitative methodology’ – Glaser and Strauss (1967) The Discovery of
Grounded Theory: Strategies of Qualitative Research – did not appear until the sixties
The middle of 20th century was dominated by quantitative research. However, Glasser
and Strauss’ book offered viable challenge to this hegemony.
These authors (through their book) focused on the systematization of the collection of
data, coding and analysis of qualitative data for the generation of theory. This has
provided qualitative researchers with theoretically based methodology for their research.
Historical Background of Qualitative Research in Applied Linguistics

In applied linguistics, there has been an increasing visibility and acceptance of
qualitative research since the mid1990s
Growing recognition of qualitative research in the field was due to that fact that almost
every aspect of language acquisition and use is determined by or significantly shaped by
social, cultural, and situational factors. Qualitative research is deal for providing insights
into such mentioned factors.
However, Lazarton (2003) highlighted that there have been too few qualitative studies
published in the leading applied linguistics journal (with the possible exception of TESOL
Quarterly)
Although the frequency of published qualitative studies is still relatively low, the impact
of qualitative research in applied linguistics over the past three decades has been profound.
Early case studies of 1870s and 1980s had a groundbreaking effect on our
understanding of SLA and generated many of the prevailing principles and models.
With regard to contemporary research, qualitative studies would focus on topics across
the whole research spectrum, even including core quantitative areas such as language
testing, and several key areas of applied linguistics (i.e., the study of gender, race,
ethnicity, and identity) which are being driven by qualitative research.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Creswell (2016), Hatch (2002), and Marshall and Rossman (2016) present various
characteristics of qualitative research, and these are the following:
a. Natural setting
Qualitative researchers tend to collect data in the field at the site where
participants experience the issue or problem under study. Researchers do not bring
individuals into a lab (a contrived situation), nor do they typically send out
instruments for individuals to complete. This up-close information gathered by
actually talking directly to people and seeing them behave and act within their
context is a major characteristic of qualitative research. In the natural setting, the
researchers have face-to-face interaction, often extending over a prolonged period
of time.
b. Researcher as key instrument
Qualitative researchers collect data themselves through examining documents,

observing behavior, or interviewing participants. They may use a protocol—an
instrument for recording data—but the researchers are the ones who actually gather
the information and interpret it. They do not tend to use or rely on questionnaires or
instruments developed by other researchers.
c. Multiple sources of data
Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as
interviews, observations, documents, and audiovisual information rather than rely on
a single data source. These are all open-ended forms of data in which the
participants share their ideas freely, not constrained by predetermined scales or
instruments. Then the researchers review all of the data, make sense of it, and
organize it into codes and themes that cut across all of the data sources.
d. Inductive and deductive data analysis
Qualitative researchers typically work inductively, building patterns, categories,
and themes from the bottom up by organizing the data into increasingly more
abstract units of information. This inductive process illustrates working back and
forth between the themes and the database until the researchers have established a
comprehensive set of themes. Then deductively, the researchers look back at their
data from the themes to determine if more evidence can support each theme or
whether they need to gather additional information. Thus, while the process begins
inductively, deductive thinking also plays an important role as the analysis moves
forward.
e. Participants’ meanings
In the entire qualitative research process, the researchers keep a focus on
learning the meaning that the participants hold about the problem or issue, not the
meaning that the researchers bring to the research or that writers express in the
literature.
f. Emergent design
The research process for qualitative researchers is emergent. This means that
the initial plan for research cannot be tightly prescribed, and some or all phases of
the process may change or shift after the researcher enters the field and begins to
collect data. For example, the questions may change, the forms of data collection
may shift, and the individuals studied and the sites visited may be modified. These
shifts signal that the researchers are delving deeper and deeper into the topic or the
phenomenon under study. The key idea behind qualitative research is to learn about
the problem or issue from participants and to address the research to obtain that
information.
g. Reflexivity
In qualitative research, inquirers reflect about how their role in the study and
their personal background, culture, and experiences hold potential for shaping their
interpretations, such as the themes they advance and the meaning they ascribe to
the data. This aspect of the methods is more than merely advancing biases and
values in the study, but how the background of the researchers actually may shape
the direction of the study.
h. Holistic account
Qualitative researchers try to develop a complex picture of the problem or issue
under study. This involves reporting multiple perspectives, identifying the many
factors involved in a situation, and generally sketching the larger picture that
emerges. This larger picture is not necessarily a linear model of cause and effect but
rather a model of multiple factors interacting in different ways. This picture
qualitative researchers would say, mirrors real life and the ways that events operate
in the real world. A visual model of many facets of a process or a central
phenomenon aids in establishing this holistic picture (see, for example, Creswell &
Brown, 1992).
Qualitative Research Designs

1. Narrative research is a design of inquiry from the humanities in which the
researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals
to provide stories about their lives (Riessman, 2008). This information is
then often retold or restoried by the researcher into a narrative chronology.
Often, in the end, the narrative combines views from the participant’s life
with those of the researcher’s life in a collaborative narrative (Clandinin &
Connelly, 2000).
2. Phenomenological research is a design of inquiry coming from philosophy

and psychology in which the researcher describes the lived experiences of
individuals about a phenomenon as described by participants. This
description culminates in the essence of the experiences for several
individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon. This design has
strong philosophical underpinnings and typically involves conducting
interviews (Giorgi, 2009; Moustakas, 1994).
3. Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from sociology in which the

researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or
interaction grounded in the views of participants. This process involves
using multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and
interrelationship of categories of information (Charmaz, 2006; Corbin &
Strauss, 2007, 2015).
4. Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming from anthropology and

sociology in which the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors,
language, and actions of an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a
prolonged period of time. Data collection often involves observations and
interviews.
5. Case studies are a design of inquiry found in many fields, especially
evaluation, in which the researcher develops an in-depth analysis of a case,
often a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals. Cases
are bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed
information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained
period of time (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009, 2012, 2014).
Common Qualitative Designs in Language Research

Brown and Coombe (2015) claim that although qualitative research is now well –
established in the field of language research, there is still no general agreement on which
approaches should be included under its umbrella. However, there is still general consensus
that ethnography is representative. Ethnography, which depends on extended exposure to the
field collecting data primarily through observation and interviews, has all the characteristics of a
qualitative research.
Other traditions which might be described as essentially qualitative in their orientation and which feature in
research on language learning include autoethnography, linguistic ethnography, conversation analysis, and
narrative inquiry. Action research and case study are also often included in the list, probably because much
research in these traditions has been qualitative. However, they are perfectly amenable to mixed methods
research and there are signs that case study research is moving in this direction (Brown and Coombe, 2015).
Note: Some of these mentioned designs will be discussed in details in Unit 3 (Trends in Language Research and
Applied Linguistics)

What makes qualitative approach different from quantitative approach? Please complete the
matrix below. (70 points)
Criteria Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Purpose
Studied Group
Data Type
Data Form
Types of Data
Analysis
Researcher’s Roles
Results

In 500 words, discuss the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative approach. – 30 points
References:
Brown, J. & Coombe, C. (2015). The Cambridge guide to research in language teaching and
learning. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
University Press.
Lesson 3-C: Mixed Methods Approach in Language Research
Introduction
We have come to the last lesson of this unit! Congratulations and I hope you are still
enjoying your journey. Just keep going and continue exploring the world of language research.
In this last lesson, you will explore the third or the last of the three common approaches in
language research. Riazi (2017) claims that this approach is gaining increasing prominence and
utility across academic disciplines including applied linguistics and language teaching and
learning. This approach is called mixed methods approach. The term “mixed methods” refers to
an emergent methodology of research that advances the systematic integration, or “mixing,” of
quantitative and qualitative data within a single investigation or sustained program of inquiry.
The basic premise of this approach is that such integration permits a more complete and
synergistic utilization of data than do separate quantitative and qualitative data collection and
analysis. It is believed that the type of research you undertake will greatly affect the type of
insights generated at the end of your study; so attaining a working knowledge of qualitative
and quantitative research methodologies is essential in order to plan and implement a
successful research project.
Objectives:
k. discussed the history and purposes of mixed methods research;
l. identified the different mixed methods designs in language research;and
m. analyzed a sample language study which employs mixed methods approach
What are your expectations on the use of mixed methods design in language research? List
them down below:
6. __________________________________________________________
7. __________________________________________________________
8. __________________________________________________________
9. __________________________________________________________
10. __________________________________________________________
Historical Overview of Mixed Methods Research

The practice of collecting multiple data types dates back to the earliest social science
research at the beginning of the 20th century.
Maxwell and Loomis (2003) pointed out that the practice of mixing very different
research approaches – for example naturalistic, contextualized and inductive approaches
with experimental manipulation and theory verification – has an even longer history in
discipline such as ethology and animal behavior, paleontology and geology
The real breakthrough in combining qualitative and quantitative research occurred in the
1970s with introduction of the concept of ‘triangulation’ into the social sciences.
The term (mixed method was borrowed from naval navigation and land surveying,
where it refers to a method for determining the yet unknown position of a certain spatial
points (Erzberger and Kelle, 2003), but in social research it became synonymous with
combining data sources to study the same phenomenon.
Methodological triangulation as a key tenet of mixed method can help reduce the
inherent weaknesses of individual methods by offsetting them by the strength of
another, thereby maximizing both the internal and external validity of research (Denzin,
1978 in Dornyei, 2018).
After the paradigm war (between qualitative and quantitative) had lost its edge in the
1990s and mixed methods researchers gained confidence, research methodology text
started to include chapters on combined, integrated or mixed methods (i.e. Cresswell,
1994). This means there was a period of reconciliation in which quantitative and
qualitative researchers have not only started to accept each other but have even begun
to integrate the two approaches.
Two high profile publications by Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998, 2003a) finally
established mixed methods research as a legitimate form of inquiry in the social
sciences.
Historical Background of Mixed Methods Research in Applied Linguistics
In applied linguistics, many studies have combined methodologies. For example,
Magnam (2006) reports that over the 1995 – 2005 period, 6.8 % of the research
papers appearing in The Modern Language Journal used mixed methods, which
is relatively high compared to the total number of qualitative studies (19.8 %)
However, it must be noted that most of the studies in which some sort of
method mixing has taken place have not actually foregrounded the mixed
methods approach and hardly any published papers have treated mixed
methodology in a principled way
Currently, there is a general call from applied linguist from both qualitative and
qualitative for the engagement with this design or practice.
Purposes of Mixed Methods Research
According to Sandelowski (2003), there are two main and somewhat conflicting
purposes for combining methods: (a) to achieve a fuller understanding of a target phenomenon
and (b)to verify one set of findings against each other.
Expanding the understanding of a complex issue

According to Mertens (2005), mixed methods have particular value when we want to
examine an issue that is embedded in a complex educational or social context. She argues that
many researchers have used mixed methods because it seemed intuitively obvious to them that
combining and increasing the number of research strategies used within a particular project
would broaden the scope of the investigation and enrich the scholars’ ability to draw
conclusions about the problem under study.
In an important paper in 1989, Greene, Caracelli and Graham listed four specific
functions by which mixed methods research can produce a fuller picture of an issue:
1. Complementarity function - Qualitative and quantitative methods are used
to measure overlapping but also different facets of a phenomenon, yielding an
enriched understanding by illustrating, clarifying, or elaborating on certain aspects.
The assumption therefore is that supplementary findings can produce a fuller
portrait of the social world, similarly to pieces of a jigsaw puzzle when put together
in the correct way (Erzberger and Kelle, 2003). This idea underlies the often
mentioned conception about the QUAL—QUAN ‘division of labour’ (for example,
McCracken 1988) whereby qualitative research is used to explore a new
phenomenon and develop an initial hypothesis, which is then tested in terms of the
breadth of its distribution in the population by a quantitative method (for example, a
survey).
2. Development function - Qualitative and quantitative methods are used sequençially
so that the results of the first method inform the development of the second. For
example, a focus group interview is used to develop items for a quantitative

questionnaire. ‘Development’ can also be understood here to inform sampling
decisions (for example, a questionnaire is used to select participants for a follow-up
interview study).
3. Initiation function - Results obtained by multiple methods do not always produce
corroborating or complementary results; however, divergent results can also be
illuminating. Therefore, researchers may intentionally utilize varied methods to
generate discrepancies, paradoxes, or contradictions, which are meant to be
provocative through the recasting of questions, leading hopefully to new
perspectives.
4. Expansion function - It is a frequent desire of researchers to expand the scope and
breadth of a study by including multiple components. For example, qualitative
methods can be used to explore the processes of a certain instructional programme
and quantitative methods to assess the programme outcomes.
Mixed Methods Research Designs

Cresswell (2018) presents four types of mixed methods designs, and these are the
following:
Convergent mixed methods - A form of mixed methods design in which the researcher
converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a
comprehensive analysis of the research problem. In this design, the investigator typically
collects both forms of data at roughly the same time and then integrates the information
in the interpretation of the overall results. Contradictions or incongruent findings are
explained or further probed in this design.
Explanatory sequential mixed methods – In this design, the researcher first conducts
quantitative research, analyzes the results and then builds on the results to explain them
in more detail with qualitative research. It is considered explanatory because the initial
quantitative data results are explained further with the qualitative data. It is considered
sequential because the initial quantitative phase is followed by the qualitative phase.
This type of design is popular in fields with a strong quantitative orientation (hence the
project begins with quantitative research), but it presents challenges of identifying the
quantitative results to further explore and the unequal sample sizes for each phase of
the study.
Exploratory sequential mixed methods – This is the reverse sequence from the
explanatory sequential design. In the exploratory sequential approach the researcher
first begins with a qualitative research phase and explores the views of participants. The
data are then analyzed, and the information used to build into a second, quantitative
phase. The qualitative phase may be used to build an instrument that best fits the
sample under study, to identify appropriate instruments to use in the follow-up
quantitative phase, to develop an intervention for an experiment, to design an app or
website, or to specify variables that need to go into a follow-up quantitative study.
Particular challenges to this design reside in focusing in on the appropriate qualitative
findings to use and the sample selection for both phases of research.
Dornyei (2015) also presents various mixed methods designs which can be used
in applied linguistics research. These are viewed into two important concepts: typological
organization and exemplar-based typology.
Typological Organization
According to Tashakkori and Teddlie’s (2003) summary, the terminology currently
describing mixed methods designs as ‘chaotic’. In order to create some order, a number
of different typologies have been proposed, centered around various organizing
principles. The two most widely accepted typological principles have been the
sequence and the dominance of the method constituents and scholars have also
developed a simple symbol system to produce a straightforward visual representation
(for example, Johnson and Christensen, 2004):
 ‘QUAL’ or ‘quai’ stand for qualitative research.

 ‘QUAN’ or ‘quan’ stand for quantitative research.
 Capital letters denote priority or increased weight.
 Lowercase letters denote lower priority or weight.
 A plus sign (+) represents a concurrent collection of
data.
 An arrow ( ) represents a sequential collection of
data.
For example:
‘quai - QUAN’ indicates a study that consists of two phases, with the second,
quantitative phase dominating; this symbol combination would describe, for
example, a questionnaire survey where initial focus-group interviews were used to
facilitate the development of the instrument.
If a study has only two components, a qualitative and a quantitative, both the
sequence and the dominance dimensions have three categories (qualitative first,
quantitative first or concurrent; and qualitative dominant, quantitative dominant or
equal status), resulting in nine possible combinations:
1. QUAL + QUAN 6. QUAL quan

2. QUAL + quan 7. qual QUAN
3. QUAN + qual 8. QUAN qual
4. QUAL QUAN 9. quan QUAL
5. QUAN QUAL
Exemplar-Based Typology
This view focuses more on pragmatic approach in presenting various mixed
designs that are organized around the actual data collection methods applied and
the main functions of the mixing. Listing design types in this way has a positive and
a negative side: on the positive side, it uses descriptive labels to facilitate
understanding (for example, ‘Questionnaire survey facilitated by preceding interview’
instead of ‘quai - QUAN’ as seen in the ‘typological organization’ above ). On the
negative side, the list is selective rather than comprehensive; that is, it only
includes the most prominent basic combinations. This selective approach is useful to
familiarize researchers with the concept of mixing so that they can then produce
their own made-to-measure variations.
1. Questionnaire survey with follow-up interview or retrospection (QUAN quai)

Questionnaire survey is a versatile technique that allows us to collect a large amount of

data in a relatively short time, it also suffers from an inherent weakness: the respondents’
engagement tends to be rather shallow and therefore we cannot explore complex meaning
directly with this technique: The use of sophisticated statistical procedures allows us to
examine the interrelationship of the variables measured but if we find some unexpected
results (and there are always some unexpected results!) we cannot usually interpret those
on the basis of the questionnaire data. And even if an observed relationship makes sense,
the questionnaire data usually reveals little about the exact nature of the relationship.
Adding a subsequent qualitative component to the study can remedy this weakness. In a
follow – up interview (either in an individual or group format (, respondent could be asked
to explain or illustrate the obtained patterns, thereby adding flesh to the bones.
Note: Cresswell and Cresswell (2003) labeled this combination ‘ a sequential exploratory design.’
2. Questionnaire survey facilitated by preceding interview (quai QUAN)

A frequently recommended procedure for designing a new questionnaire involves
conducting a small-scale exploratory qualitative study first (usually focus group
interviews but one-to-one interviews can also serve the purpose) to provide background
information on the context, to identify or narrow down the focus of the possible
variables and to act as a valuable source of ideas for preparing the item pool for the
purpose of questionnaire scale construction. Such a design is effective in improving the
content representation of the survey and thus the internal validity of the study. It is
routinely used when a researcher is building a new instrument.
3. Interview study with follow-up questionnaire survey (QUAL quan)

A broad generalization in research methodology that is by and large true is that
one of the strengths of qualitative research is its exploratory nature, allowing us to gain
new insights and formulate new theories. However, because of the non-
representativeness of the typical samples, qualitative data cannot inform us about how
widely what is discovered exists in the rest of the world—examining the distribution of a
phenomenon in a population is a typical quantitative objective. Combining a qualitative
interview study with a follow-up survey can offer the best of both worlds, as the
questionnaire can specifically target the issues uncovered in the first phase of the
research and investigate the generalizability of the new hypotheses in wider populations.
Alternatively, or in addition to this, the questionnaire can also be used to test certain
elements of the theory emerging from the qualitative phase.
4. Interview study facilitated by preceding questionnaire survey (quan QUAL)

It was pointed out that an area where qualitative research shows vulnerability is
the usually small sample sizes of the respondents examined. One way of dealing with
this issue is to apply purposive sampling and this procedure can be made more
principled if we include an initial questionnaire in the study whose role is to help to
select the participants for the subsequent qualitative phase systematically. Thus, as Duff
(in press) points out, the design can help to establish the representativeness of the
cases presented. The strength of this design is its flexibility because it can be used for
most theoretical sampling purposes (for example, to choose extreme or typical cases or
to highlight individuals with certain traits). However, the design also has one possible
drawback: it does not work if the initial questionnaire is anonymous because then we
cannot identify the appropriate survey participants.
5. Concurrent combinations of qualitative and quantitative research (QUAL/qual +

QUAN/quan)
So far we have looked at sequential designs in which a dominant phase was
accompanied by a secondary component to enhance certain strengths or
reduce certain weaknesses of the main method. An alternative to sequential
designs is the variety of ‘concurrent designs’, in which we use two methods in
a separate and parallel manner (i.e. they do not influence the operationalize tion of each
other) and the results are integrated in the interpretation phase.
The main purpose of this design is to broaden the research perspective and
; thus provide a general picture or to test how the different findings complement or
corroborate each other. Depending on how much weight ¡s assigned to the contribution
of the various methods, a study can be (a) QUAL + quan, which is frequent in case
studies where the primarily qualitative data can be supplemented by questionnaire or
testing data; (b) QUAN + qual, which is useful, for example, to describe an aspect of a
quantitative study that cannot be quantified or to embed a qualitative component within
a larger primarily quantitative study such as a programme evaluation; and (c) QUAL +
QUAN, which is employed, for example in a traditional triangulation design con ducted
for validation purposes.
In general, concurrent designs are invaluable when we examine a phenomenon
that has several levels. For example, the impact of teacher cognition can be studied at
the teacher’s level using interviews and at the class (i.e. students’) level using
questionnaires. Concurrent designs are also useful for combining micro and macro
perspectives: for example, quantitative research can tap large-scale trends in social life,
while qualitative research can provide a micro-analysis of how the broad trends affect or
are perceived by the individuals.
6. Experiments with parallel interviews (QUAN + qual)

The mixed methods patterns described above have involved the use of the two
most common research methods, the questionnaire survey and the interview study, as
the key research components, but method mixing is not confined to these. Johnson and
Christensen (1004), for example, point out that we can sometimes improve experiments
even further by conducting interviews (one to-one or focus groups) to get at the
research participants’ perspectives and meanings that lie behind the experimental
research findings. In fact, because experiments involve featured process elements (i.e.
the development of the participants as a result of the treatment), including a qualitative
phase to explore the nature of such processes is a natural and potentially highly fruitful
design that can greatly enhance the study’s internal validity.
7. Longitudinal study with mixed methods components (QUAN + QUAL)

The experimental design described above is already an example of a longitudinal
study and we can conclude in general that longitudinal designs lend themselves to
various combinations of qualitative and quantitative methods at different stages of the
project.
8. Combining self-report and observational data (QUAL + QUAN)

Two fundamental ways of gaining information about people are: (a) through self-
report, that is, through the individuals’ own accounts (for example, in interviews or
questionnaires) and (b) through external observation of the individual. (A third way
involves assessing the performance of the individual on an instrument or a task, but this
falls under the auspices of testing and is therefore outside the scope of this book.) Both
methods have advantages and disadvantages, and combining them offers the classic
merit of mixed methods research, namely to increase the strengths and mitigate the
weaknesses of the study. Indeed, classroom observation studies are often accompanied
by various self-report measures, with researchers being interested in both the
convergent and divergent results. (For more details on mixed methods classroom
research, see Section 8.3.)
Express Your Understanding
Look for a mixed methods study and fill out the matrix below. You may make use of the study
in the previous lesson as long as it employs a mixed methods design. (50 points)
Title, Author/s,
and
Objectives
Describe the design of the study. How did

the researcher employ the research
design? Specify the procedure.
Comment on the Design (Do you think the

researcher employed appropriate design
for the study? Explain.
References:
University Press.
Unit II – Research Ethics

Introduction
Welcome to Unit II. The previous unit has introduced and presented the various salient
concepts in language and education research. This unit presents and discusses significant topics
in research ethics. Ethics are the moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour. Research
ethics may be referred to as doing what is morally and legally right in research. They are
actually norms for conduct that distinguish between right and wrong, and acceptable and
unacceptable behaviour.
According to The Research Excellence Framework (2014) research is "a process of
investigation leading to new insights, effectively shared.” Research is a multi-stage process.
Ethics are central to the research process. Researchers need to take care of various ethical
issues at different levels of this process. The reality is there can be ethical concerns at every
step of the research process (Bickman & Rog, 2009).
Moral values mostly govern the conduct of research. Ethical considerations have been
gaining paramount importance across the research community. With an increase in the public
concern about the limits of the inquiry and legislative changes in human rights and data
protection, the ethical considerations have come to the forefront in the conduct of research.
With the advent of technology, more and more ethical issues have been arising in the field of
research.
Despite dealing mostly with human and animal participants, different branches of social
sciences deal with different techniques and ethical issues. Besides decisions to be informed by
shared values and experiences, ethical guidelines may enable the researcher’s individual ethical
judgments in addition to the professional ethics.
This unit will also discuss authorship and plagiarism. There are important questions
raised regarding authorship and plaigiarism. Can we identify the anonymous author of a text by
comparing the text with the writings of known authors? Can we determine if a text, or parts of
it, has been plagiarized? Such questions are clearly of both academic and commercial
importance. We hope that by the end of this unit, you will become more responsible
researchers.
At the end of this unit, you must have:

1. Identified and discussed ethical standards in research;
2. Recognized various tips and strategies to avoid plagiarism in research writing
Lesson 4: Ethical Standards in Research Writing
Objectives:
1. Identified and discussed the importance of practice of research ethics;

2. Recognized the necessity of ethical behaviour in all aspects of research;
3. Identified and discussed ethical principles in the conduct of research;
4. Demonstrated knowledge and understanding of researcher’s consent and
information sheet; and
Introduction

Directions: Using the sample illustration below, create a mind map about research ethics. You
may also make your own template of a mind map.
Research
Ethics
Why Study Research Ethics?

Knowing what constitutes ethical research is important for all people who conduct
research projects or use and apply the results from research findings. All researchers should be
familiar with the basic ethical principles and have up-to-date knowledge about policies and
procedures designed to ensure the safety of research subjects and to prevent sloppy or
irresponsible research, because ignorance of policies designed to protect research subjects is
not considered a viable excuse for ethically questionable projects. Therefore, the duty lies with
the researcher to seek out and fully understand the policies and theories designed to guarantee
upstanding research practices.
Research is a public trust that must be ethically conducted, trustworthy, and socially
responsible if the results are to be valuable. All parts of a research project – from the project
design to submission of the results for peer review – have to be upstanding in order to be
considered ethical. When even one part of a research project is questionable or conducted
unethically, the integrity of the entire project is called into question.
Ethical Concepts
Ethics aims to achieve two fundamental objectives: to tell us how we ought to act in a
given situation, and to provide us with strong reasons for doing so. Philosophical ethics, the
conceptual heart of research ethics, consists of a variety of competing ethical theories. This has
con-sequences for ethical analyses because the type of ethical theory or religious framework a
given ethicist utilises will very significantly influence, if not pre-determine, the outcome of such
a professional’s advice. You might think that this suggests that ethics is somewhat arbitrary,
and up to a point it probably is. After all, the ethical theory that someone chooses might well
influence her to act in particular ways, but there does not seem to be a consensus among
professionals in the field as to which of these theories we should choose in the first place. The
plurality of ethical theories should not surprise us too greatly, however. It is merely an
expression of the deeply held values that people in pluralistic societies hold. As we will see, this
does not mean that ‘everything goes’ in ethics, quite to the contrary. There is a remarkable
overlap on practical issues, as far as the recommendations of even competing concepts are
concerned. What is important for you is to recognize how such conclusions are derived (i.e.
what their ethical rationale or reason is), and ideally to be able to negotiate different ethical
views by virtue of a reasonable understanding of the different ethical backgrounds from which
people operate who may disagree with you. You might sometimes even be able to show that
their conclusions do not actually follow from their own professed values. If you can achieve this
at the end of this module, you have gained a lot by way of building your own ethical reasoning
capacity (Schüklenk, 2005).
Who is Responsible for Following Ethical Principles?

Many different people are involved in making a research project happen. The
researchers conduct the study. Private funders or governments pay for the study. Outside
ethics boards are required to review the study before it can be done. All of these groups have
responsibility for making sure that ethical principles are followed. Study investigators must
design and implement research in a way that minimizes harms and chooses study populations
fairly, they must recruit volunteers in ways that are respectful and that make sure volunteers
understand what the study involves and that they don’t have to join it if they don’t want to.
Funders are responsible for making sure ethics procedures are followed and making sure
investigators know that any violation in ethics rules could result in loss of support. Finally, all
human research should be reviewed by an external ethics board. In the U.S., these are called
Institutional Review Board (IRB); in other countries these are often called Research Ethics
Committees. IRBs/RECs are responsible for reviewing planned research before it is conducted to
make sure all procedures are consistent with the requirements of the three ethical principles.
This group is responsible for ensuring ‘the rights and welfare of humans participating as
subjects in research. The IRB approves study processes before the study starts, and keeps
track of how the study is doing. Members of IRBs can be ethicists, investigators, and people
who know the community in which the study will be conducted.
Ethical Principles:
1. Norms and values of research: Researchers are obliged to comply with recognise norms
of research ethics.
2. Freedom of research: Both researchers and research institutions are responsible for
preserving the freedom and independence of research, especially when the topic is
controversial or when strategic or commercial considerations impose pressure and constraints
on research.
3. Responsibility of research: Responsible research requires freedom from control and
constraints, while trust in research requires the exercise of responsibility by both researchers
and research institutions.
4. Responsibility of institutions: Research institutions must guarantee that research is good
and responsible by preventing misconduct and promoting the guidelines for research ethics.
5. Human dignity: Researchers must base their work on a fundamental respect for human
dignity.
6. Privacy: Researchers must respect the participants’ autonomy, integrity, freedom and right
of co-determination.
7. Duty to inform: Researchers must provide participants with adequate information about the
field of research, the purpose of the research, who has funded the project, who will receive
access to the information, the intended use of the results, and the consequences of
participation in the research project.
8. Consent and obligation to notify: When a research project deals with personal data,
researchers are obliged to inform the participants or subjects of research and to obtain their
consent. The consent must be freely given, informed, and in an explicit form.
9. Confidentiality: Generally, researchers must process data acquired about personal matters
confidentially. Personal data must normally be deidentified, while publication and dissemination
of the research material must normally be anonymised. In certain situations, researchers must
nonetheless balance confidentiality and the obligation to notify.
10. Storage of personal data: Data related to identifiable individuals must be stored
responsibly. Such data must not be stored any longer than what is necessary to achieve the
objective for which it was collected.
11. Responsibility for avoiding harm: Researchers are responsible for ensuring that
participants are not exposed to serious physical harm or other severe or unreasonable strain as
result of the research.
12. Protection of children: Children and adolescents who take part in research are
particularly entitled to protection.
13. Respect for the values and motives of others: Researchers must not ascribe irrational
or unworthy motives to participants without providing convincing documentation and
justification. Researchers must show respect for the values and views of research participants,
not least when they differ from those generally accepted by society at large.
14. Defining roles and responsibilities: Researchers are responsible for explaining to the
participants the limitations, expectations and requirements associated with their role as
researchers.
19. Respect for vulnerable groups: Researchers have a special responsibility to respect the
interests of vulnerable groups throughout the entire research process.
20. Research on other cultures: A particular requirement of research on other cultures is
that there ought to be dialogue with representatives of the culture being studied.
21. Limits on cultural recognition: Researchers must strike a balance between recognising
cultural differences and recognising other fundamental values and general human rights.
22. Co-authorship: Researchers must observe good publication practice, respect the
contributions of other researchers, and observe recognized standards of authorship and
cooperation.
23. Good citation practice: All researchers and students are obliged to follow good citation
practice. This is a prerequisite for critical examination and important for enabling further
research.
24. Plagiarism: Plagiarism is unacceptable and constitutes a serious breach of recognised
norms of research ethics.
25. Scientific integrity: Both researchers and research institutions must promote norms for
good scientific practice.
26. Data sharing: Research material should be made available to other researchers for
secondary analysis and further use.
27. Impartiality: Both researchers and research institutions are obliged to report and consider
possible conflicts of interest and of roles.
Informed Consent
Informed Consent is a process through which researchers tell people interested in a
research project what the study is about. The informed consent process tells people details like
why the study is being done, why they specifically are being invited to join, what they will have
to do if they join, what the possible risks and benefits are, and that joining is completely up to
them. The informed consent process should both allow researchers to provide key
information that most people would want to know about a research study and also allow
potential volunteers the time to ask questions that they might have about the research.
Informed consent as a process can help to ensure that a person who has agreed to be part of a
study really understands what he or she has agreed to do. It is not appropriate for another
person to read through a document and ask someone else to sign the paper. People should be
able to take the informed consent form home with them to review and discuss with others
before deciding whether or not to participate in the trial. They should also have plenty of time
to ask questions about the study before making their decision. It is important to make sure that
the informed consent is a process and that the information described in the consent form can
be revisited by the patient over the course of the study.
The components of a basic Informed Consent document or form include the

following:
• Name of the study and study rationale
• Study Question
• Explanation of study processes
• Known and potential risks and adverse events
• Known and potential benefits for participating in the study
• Explanation of volunteering and what that means for the person participating (i.e.
amount of study visits, duration of study, samples needed from the volunteer, and an
explanation that no one has to continue to be part of a research study if they do not
want to)
• Explanation of how study information will be used
• Description how the information obtained from study participants will be kept
confidential
• Names and contact information for study investigators; sometimes information to

contact the IRB can be included
SAMPLE PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM

Research Title: __________________________________________________________________
Researcher’s name: ______________________________________________________________
Supervisor’s name: _______________________________________________________________
 I have read the Participant Information Sheet and the nature and purpose of the research
project has been explained to me. I understand and agree to take part.
 I understand the purpose of the research project and my involvement in it.
 I understand that I may withdraw from the research project at any stage and that this will
not affect my status now or in the future.
 I understand that while information gained during the study may be published, I will not be
identified and my personal results will remain confidential.
 I understand that I will be audio recorded during the interview.
 I understand that data will be stored until the interview transcripts will be properly
recorded. I also understand that after the study is finished in _____________________, all the
recorded audio will be deleted and securely destroyed.
 I understand that I will be provided with a privacy notice under the General Data
Protection Regulation
 I understand that I may contact the researcher or tutor if I require further information about
the research, and that I may contact the Research Ethics Committee of
___________________________________________if I wish to make a complaint relating to my
involvement in the research.
Signed …………………………………………………………………………
Print name …………………………………… Date …………………………………
Contact details
Researcher’s Name:
Email Address:
Let us process your understanding

1. Identify three most important ethical principles and discuss why you have chosen so.
(30 points)
2. Do you think that special populations, such as orphaned children, deserve extra
protection when they are involved in research studies? Why? If so, how would you
ensure this? (20 points)
Let us apply your understanding

Instructions:
Imagine you have been assigned the task of sitting on an Institutional Ethics Committee
and have been asked to consider the following research proposals. Each proposal involves
ethical issues. Read each proposal and answer the questions below.
Proposal One
Tyrone wants to study the impact of watching sexually suggestive/explicit television on
people’s attitudes toward sex. He plans to test ninth graders because he believes they are still
young enough to be highly impressionable. He will solicit volunteers to come after school. Half
will be assigned to watch one hour of sexually explicit clips from a cable TV show while the
other half will view an hour of clips from the same show that deal with nonsexual topics. After
watching the TV shows, all participants will fill out a questionnaire about the attitudes toward
sex.
Questions: (10 points each)

1. What additional information might you want to know about the study in order to decide
whether or not it should be approved?
2. What are the benefits that might result from this research? What are the potential
harms?
3. If you were on an IRB reviewing this proposal, what would your recommendation be?
Proposal Two
Priya is interested in whether listening to music while working out makes people
exercise harder. She plans to ask college students to come to the gym and run on a treadmill
for half an hour either while listening to music or in silence. The dependent measure will be the
number of miles run in that time period.
Questions: (10 points each)
1. What additional information might you want to know about the study in order to decide
whether or not it should be approved?
2. What are the benefits that might result from this research? What are the potential
harms?
3. If you were on an IRB reviewing this proposal, what would your recommendation be?
Lesson 5: Authorship and Plagiarism

Introduction
This lesson will present and discuss authorship and plagiarism as important aspects of
language and education research. According to the Council of Science Editors (2020) trust is
fundamental to scientific communication: Trust that the authors have accurately reported their
contributions, methods and findings; trust that authors have disclosed all potential conflicts of
interest; and trust that editors have exercised sufficient diligence to ensure accurate reporting
and disclosure by authors. On the other hand, writing a research paper poses challenges in
gathering literature and providing evidence for making paper stronger. Drawing upon previously
established ideas and values and adding pertinent information in a paper are necessary steps,
but these need to be done with caution without falling into the trap of plagiarism.
EnagoAcademy (2020) defines plagiarism as an unethical practice of using words or ideas
(either planned or accidental) of another author/researcher or your own previous works without
proper acknowledgment. Considered as a serious academic and intellectual offense, plagiarism
can result in highly negative consequences such as paper retractions and loss of author
credibility and reputation. It is currently a grave problem in academic publishing and a major
reason for paper retractions.
Problems with authorship and plagiarism are not uncommon and can threaten the
integrity of scientific research. With the aim to decrease such problems, this section focuses on
principles to guide authorship-related decisions, policies, practices, and responsibilities and
practice academic integrity without resorting to plagiarism.
Learning Objectives:
1. defined and discussed the importance of authorship and plagiarism;
2. increased understanding of authorship and plagiarism;
Authorship: Definition and Importance

Authorship is the process of deciding whose names belong on a research paper. In
many cases, research evolves from collaboration and assistance between experts and
colleagues. Some of this assistance will require acknowledgement and some will require joint
authorship.
Responsible authorship practices are an important part of research. Reporting and
analysing results is the key to applying research findings to the real world. Despite its vital role,
authorship remains a murky and vague area for many scientists who frequently run into
difficulty when deciding which colleagues should be listed as authors or co-authors, and which
colleagues should instead receive acknowledgement. Despite the challenges, researchers should
familiarize themselves with proper authorship practices in order to protect their work and ideas
while also preventing research fraud.
Ethical Guidelines in Authorship

Each person listed as an author on an article should have significantly contributed to
both the research and writing. In addition, all listed authors must be prepared to accept full
responsibility for the content of the research article.
Authorship credit should be based on:
1. Substantial contributions to conception and design, or acquisition of data, or
analysis and interpretation of data;
2. Drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content;
3. Approved the final version of the entire article.
Conditions 1, 2, and 3 must all be met. Acquisition of funding (if there is), the collection
of data, or general supervision of the research group, by themselves, do not justify authorship.
All the contributing co-authors of an article must jointly decide the order of the listing of names.
The first person listed should be the person most closely involved with the research. This
person is called the lead author.
Key Tasks of Lead Author
1. Obtaining the journal guidelines and ensuring the requirements are met;
2. Producing the first draft of the manuscript;
3. Coordinating the feedback from co-authors;· Ensuring all authors are in
agreement before the final version is submitted;
4. Coordinating the signing of the copyright agreement;

5. Acting as the corresponding author,the person who corresponds with the
journal’s editor(s);
6. Responding to reviewer comments (if invited);
7. Reviewing the proofs
Let us process and apply your understanding

Directions: Answer the following questions comprehensively.
1. What should a researcher do if an undeserving author in a position of some authority
demands authorship status on a paper?
2. Should researchers be allowed to omit some details from the methods section of their
publications until they have had time to patent their methods?
3. What should a researcher do if the journal that has accepted a publication will not let
the research publish the method or results in as much detail as the research feels is
necessary?
Plagiarism: Definition
Plagiarism is part of the total number of serious deviations from good research practice.
(Titus et al, 2008; Vitse and Poland, 2012) For some journals it is indeed a serious problem,
with up to a third of the published papers containing plagiarism.
In the scholarly definitions, the more technical notions of “appropriation” and “credit”
are central: “Plagiarism is the appropriation of other people’s material without giving proper
credit” (The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity); “Plagiarism is the appropriation
of another person’s ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit” (US
Federal Policy on Research Misconduct). So the basic ideas seem to be that someone
deliberately takes someone else’s work, whether in the form of an idea, a method, data, results,
or text, and presents it as their own instead of giving credit to the person whose ideas, results,
or words it is. This is mirrored in the definition given by Merriam-Webster: “to steal and pass off
(the ideas or words of another) as one’s own: use (another’s production) without crediting the
source”.
Plagiarism is the act of passing off somebody else’s ideas, thoughts, pictures,
theories, words, or stories as your own. If a researcher plagiarizes the work of others, they are
bringing into question the integrity, ethics, and trustworthiness of the sum total of his or her
research. In addition, plagiarism is both an illegal act and punishable, considered to be on the
same level as stealing from the author that he or she originally created. Plagiarism takes many
forms. On one end of the spectrum are people who intentionally take a passage word-for-word,
put it in their own work, and do not properly credit the original author. The other end consists
of unintentional (or simply lazy) paraphrased and fragmented texts the author has pieced
together from several works without properly citing the original sources.
Forms of plagiarism
1. Verbatim (word for word) quotation without clear acknowledgement
Quotations must always be identified as such by the use of either quotation marks or
indentation, and with full referencing of the sources cited. It must always be apparent to the
reader which parts are your own independent work and where you have drawn on someone
else’s ideas and language.
2. Cutting and pasting from the Internet without clear acknowledgement

Information derived from the Internet must be adequately referenced and included in
the bibliography. It is important to evaluate carefully all material found on the Internet, as it is
less likely to have been through the same process of scholarly peer review as published
sources.
3. Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing the work of others by altering a few words and changing their order, or by
closely following the structure of their argument, is plagiarism if you do not give due
acknowledgement to the author whose work you are using.
A passing reference to the original author in your own text may not be enough; you
must ensure that you do not create the misleading impression that the paraphrased wording or
the sequence of ideas are entirely your own. It is better to write a brief summary of the
author’s overall argument in your own words, indicating that you are doing so, than to
paraphrase particular sections of his or her writing. This will ensure you have a genuine grasp
of the argument and will avoid the difficulty of paraphrasing without plagiarising. You must also
properly attribute all material you derive from lectures.
4. Collusion
This can involve unauthorised collaboration between students, failure to attribute
assistance received, or failure to follow precisely regulations on group work projects. It is your
responsibility to ensure that you are entirely clear about the extent of collaboration permitted,
and which parts of the work must be your own.
5. Inaccurate citation
It is important to cite correctly, according to the conventions of your discipline. As well
as listing your sources (i.e. in a bibliography), you must indicate, using a footnote or an in-text
reference, where a quoted passage comes from. Additionally, you should not include anything
in your references or bibliography that you have not actually consulted. If you cannot gain
access to a primary source you must make it clear in your citation that your knowledge of the
work has been derived from a secondary text (for example, Bradshaw, D. Title of Book,
discussed in Wilson, E., Title of Book (London, 2004), p. 189).
6. Failure to acknowledge assistance

You must clearly acknowledge all assistance which has contributed to the production of
your work, such as advice from fellow students, laboratory technicians, and other external
sources. This need not apply to the assistance provided by your tutor or supervisor, or to
ordinary proofreading, but it is necessary to acknowledge other guidance which leads to
substantive changes of content or approach.
7. Use of material written by professional agencies or other persons

You should neither make use of professional agencies in the production of your work nor
submit material which has been written for you even with the consent of the person who has
written it. It is vital to your intellectual training and development that you should undertake the
research process unaided. Under Statute XI on University Discipline, all members of the
University are prohibited from providing material that could be submitted in an examination by
students at this University or elsewhere.
8. Auto-plagiarism
You must not submit work for assessment that you have already submitted (partially or
in full), either for your current course or for another qualification of this, or any other,
university, unless this is specifically provided for in the special regulations for your course.
Where earlier work by you is citable, ie. it has already been published, you must reference it
clearly. Identical pieces of work submitted concurrently will also be considered to be auto-
plagiarism.
Let us process and apply your understanding

I. Direction: Please answer the following questions comprehensively.
1. What is the common form of plagiarism have you observed in your academic
institution? (10 points)
2. Why do you think students plagiarize? (10 points)
3. How can teachers try to prevent students from plagiarizing? (10 points)
II. Direction: Paraphrase the passages below. (10 points each)

1. Matisse is the best painter ever at putting the viewer at the scene. He's the most
realistic of all modern artists, if you admit the feel of the breeze as necessary to a
landscape and the smell of oranges as essential to a still life. "The Casbah Gate" depicts
the well-known gateway Bab el Aassa, which pierces the southern wall of the city near
the sultan's palace. With scrubby coats of ivory, aqua, blue, and rose delicately fenced
by the liveliest gray outline in art history, Matisse gets the essence of a Tangier
afternoon, including the subtle presence of the bowaab, the sentry who sits and surveys
those who pass through the gate. From Peter Plagens, "Bright Lights." Newsweek (26
March 1990): 50.
2. The United States, Germany, Japan and other industrial powers are being
transformed from industrial economies to knowledge and information based service
economies, whilst manufacturing has been moving to low wage countries. In a
knowledge and information based economy, knowledge and information are the key
ingredients in creating wealth.
(Source: Laudon & Laudon 2002, Management information systems: managing the
digital firm, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.)
References:
Weseley, A. J. (ND). Research Ethics. Roslyn High School, Roslyn Heights.
NYhttps://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/topss/lessons/research-ethics.pdf
Sharma, V. K (ND). Ethics in Social Work Research.http://www.mgcub.ac.in/pdf/materia
/202004281027013d3c5efbc5.pdf
Council of Science Editors (2020). Authorship and Authorship Responsibilities
https://www.councilscienceeditors.org/resource-library/editorial-policies/white-
paper-on-publication-ethics/2-2-authorship-and-authorship-responsibilities
Helgisson, G. and Eriksson, S. ( 2014) Plagiarism in research. ResearchGate Journal.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263743965_Plagiarism_in_research
Unit III – The Whats and Hows of Language and

Education Research
Lesson 6 - Research Problem, Research Questions and
Hypothesis
Lesson 7 - The Literature Review
Lesson 8 - Citing and Referencing
Introduction
Why do you need proper citing and referencing in writing your research papers?
Neville (2010) emphasized that citing intellectual works is part of a societal value system that
vigorously supports the idea of the intellectual property rights of others. It has been argued
that in countries characterized by individualism, which includes competition, self-interest, self-
reliance and personal achievement, the respect for copyright is usually strong (Hampden-Turner
and Trompenaars, 2000; in Neville, 2010).
The purpose of a citation and referencing is to provide enough bibliographic information

for the reader to be able to identify and obtain the original source of information being
presented. Complete, correct and consistent citations are therefore very important. You may
reference a wide variety of resources in your assignment, including books, e-journal articles,
checklists and websites. By using citations and references, you acknowledge the work of others
and show how their ideas have contributed to your own work. It is also a way of demonstrating
that you have read and understood key texts relating to the area you are writing about. The
terms reference list and bibliography are usually used interchangeably, although strictly
speaking, a bibliography refers to all the reading you have undertaken for your assignment, not
just the work you have referred to in your writing. The terms reference and citation are also
often used to refer to the same thing although a citation tends to mean the part of the text
within your assignment where you acknowledge the source; whilst a reference usually refers
to the full bibliographic information at the end.
Objectives:
n. appreciate the importance of citing and referencing in writing a research paper;
o. discussed the APA style of citation and referencing;
p. construct in-text citations in APA style;
q. cite print resources on a works-cited page in APA style
r. cite online resources on a works-cited page in APA style

In a short paragraph, discuss the reasons why citing and referencing is important in
writing a research paper?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
Why We Cite: Objectives

Quality academic writing is built upon the work of others, to which we add our own
unique analysis and contributions. Citation allows us to acknowledge how the scholarship of
others has contributed to our own work, to distinguish for our readers which ideas are our own
and which are borrowed, and to give our readers a path by which they can trace the
intellectual development of the ideas we present. To fail to distinguish our original ideas from
those of our forebears is plagiarism, "the act of appropriating the literary composition of
another author, or excerpts, ideas, or passages there from, and passing the material off as
one's own creation." (West's Encyclopedia of American Law) After completing this section you
will know:
• The intellectual and ethical rationales for citing the work of others
• What types of information must be cited and what types of information need not
• How to avoid plagiarism
Why We Cite: The Purposes of Citation

Citations serve three major roles in scholarly work:
• They allow you to show how your argument is built upon the ideas of others.
• They allow you to indicate which ideas are taken from others, and from whom those
ideas were taken; in other words, to give credit where it's due.
• They allow the interested reader to follow your argument and confirm its logic by
investigating the ideas on which the argument is built, or to further explore those ideas
on their own.
In each case, it's important that you acknowledge the ways in which others' ideas contributed
to your own. Otherwise, you run the risk of plagiarism.
Why We Cite: What Needs to be Cited?
When you write a paper or create a project, you often use and build upon information that
other people have researched and compiled and ideas that others have developed. If you
incorporate or refer to others' theories, words, ideas or concepts in your paper, you must
document each one using a citation. In addition, you must likewise acknowledge the use of
facts and statistics that another has compiled.
You need to document:
• Direct quotes, both entire sentences and phrases

• Paraphrases (rephrased or summarized material)
• Words or terminology specific to or unique to the author's research, theories, or ideas
• Use of an author's argument or line of thinking
• Historical, statistical, or scientific facts
• Graphs, drawings, or other such aggregations of information or data
• Articles or studies you refer to within your text You do not need to document:
• Proverbs, axioms, and sayings ("A stitch in time saves nine.")

• Well-known quotations ("Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so
many to so few.")
• Common knowledge (Thomas Edison invented the phonograph; "Starry Night" was
painted by Vincent Van Gogh; Oxygen has the atomic number 8)
Sometimes it can be difficult to be sure what counts as common knowledge, especially

when writing in a discipline that's new to you. A good rule of thumb is to ask yourself if a
knowledgeable reader would be familiar with the information in question. If he or she would
have to look it up to confirm it, you should usually document it. If you're not sure, document it
to play it safe.
Why We Cite: Avoiding Plagiarism

Plagiarism is theft; it is a violation of professional ethics; it is a violation of UNC at
Chapel Hill's Honor Code; furthermore, the courts have recognized it as a violation of copyright.
There are many ways to violate copyright, including failure to acknowledge direct quotes or the
paraphrasing of another person's work, and the insufficient acknowledgment of such works.
The research process involves familiarizing yourself with the ideas of others in order to form
your own perspectives or arguments, perform experiments, and create new work. In doing
research you will often read books and articles that present different ideas and arguments from
many authors. From these ideas you will create your own and incorporate them into your
writing. As a responsible researcher, it is essential to give credit to the ideas and work of other
researchers.
The UNC Honor Code defines plagiarism as "the intentional representation of another person's
words, thoughts or ideas as one's own" (Instrument of Student Judicial Governance, Section
II.B.1). This is a serious offense in the academic world and can take various forms. Here are
some examples of plagiarism:
• Buying or using any sort of paper or project from another person or service and turning
it in as the product of your own work
• Turning in someone else's work as your own with or without that person's knowledge
• Submitting or presenting work turned in for one class to fulfill an assignment in another
class without the prior agreement of the instructor involved
• Copying statements from a source and using them without proper use of quotation
marks and citations
• Paraphrasing information from a source without proper citations
This list is by no means exhaustive. The most important tools for avoiding plagiarism are
common sense and due diligence. If you ever have to ask yourself whether an act might be
considered plagiarism, err on the side of caution.
APA OBJECTIVES
Background
APA style refers to the citation format established by the American Psychological
Association. APA is the style preferred by most of the disciplines in the social sciences.
APA: In-text Citations

For all in-text citations except for those following block quotations (see below), the reference is
placed immediately before the final punctuation mark of the sentence that refers to that
source. In all citations, elements (such as author, publication year, and page number) are
separated from each other by commas.
For Exact Quotations:
In the examples below, the citations indicate page number (using the abbreviation "p."). One
may also use chapter numbers (abbreviated "chap."), section numbers, equation numbers,
table numbers, or any other organizational numbering that exists in the source to indicate the
reference for a citation.
Rule: Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name
followed by the date of publication in parentheses. Put the page number in parentheses
at the end of the quotation before the ending punctuation mark.
Example:
As Davis (1978) reported, "If the existence of a signing ape was unsettling for linguists,
it was also startling news for animal behaviorists" (p. 26).
Rule: When the author's name does not appear in the signal phrase, place the author's name,
the date, and the page number in parentheses at the end of the quotation. Use commas
between items in the parentheses.
Example:
"If the existence of a signing ape was unsettling for linguists, it was also startling news
for animal behaviorists" (Davis, 1978, p. 26).
Rule: When the quotation is more than 40 words in text, do not use quotation marks, but
indent the quotation into its own block of text. Note that for blocks of text, the citation
follows the final punctuation of the quoted text.
Example:
Students having a hard time finding databases isn't a new phenomenon. At the
University of Washington, they have problems too.
With the addition of so many new databases to the campus online system, many
students were having difficulty locating the database they needed. At the same time,
the role of Session Manager had evolved. The increased importance of the Session
Manager as a selection tool made it a part of the navigation process itself (Eliasen,
1997, p. 510).
For Paraphrased Ideas:
In general, no quotation marks are required when paraphrasing ideas. Likewise, page
numbers or other indication of specific parts of a source are not necessary unless a
specific part of the text is being referenced.
Examples:
According to Davis (1978), when they learned of an ape's ability to use sign language,
both linguists and animal behaviorists were taken by surprise.
When they learned of an ape's ability to use sign language, both linguists and animal
behaviorists were taken by surprise (Davis, 1978).
Additional Circumstances:
Rule: Work with two authors

Examples:
Patterson and Linden (1981) agreed that the gorilla Koko acquired language more
slowly than a normal speaking child.
Koko acquired language more slowly than a normal speaking child (Patterson & Linden,
1981).
Rule: Work with 3-5 authors: In the first reference to such a work, list all authors.
Example:
The study noted a fluctuating divorce rate in Middletown between the 1920s and the
1970s (Caplow, Bahr, Chadwick, Hill, & Williamson, 1982).
In subsequent citations, use the first author's name followed by "et al." (note the period
after the word "al").
Example:
While the incidence of wife abuse may not be higher than in the past, the researchers
found that women were more willing to report it (Caplow et al., 1982).
Rule: Work with 6+ authors (for first and subsequent citations)

Example:
Communes in the late 1960s functioned like extended families, with child-rearing
responsibilities shared by all adult members (Berger et al., 1971).
Rule: Work by an association, government agency, or corporation

Examples:
First citation: (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 1996)
Later citations: (NIMH, 1996)
Rule: When citing from a source that does not provide page numbers (such as an
electronic source), use paragraph numbers if available, or the name of the
section followed by the number of the paragraph within that section.
Examples:
(Myers, 2000, para. 5)
(Beutler, 2000, Conclusion section, para. 1)
When citing from a source with no author given, or when citing from legal
materials, use the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title)
and the year as your citation. Place article, web page, chapter, and section
titles in double quotation marks, and italicize the titles of books, periodicals,
reports, and websites. When a work's author is designated as "Anonymous,"
cite in text the word Anonymous followed by a comma and the date:
(Anonymous, 1998).
Examples:
("Former FBI Agent," 2007)
...as seen in Preparing for the GRE (2003).
APA: REFERENCING
Presented below are a number of examples of citations for print resources as they may
appear in a works-cited page in APA style. The examples are meant to be illustrative
and do not encompass every possible situation. If you have questions about citing
particular types of sources or dealing with particular situations, you should consult the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association or contact a reference
librarian.
Note that titles of periodicals (newspapers, journals, magazines) are capitalized as they
normally are; book titles and article titles have only the first word of the title (and of
any subtitles), as well as proper nouns, capitalized. Use single spaces between all
words/items within each citation.
Book
Kurlansky, M. (2002). Salt: A world history. New York, NY: Walker and Co.
Edited Book
Scholnick, E. K. (Ed). (1999). Conceptual development: Piaget's legacy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Chapter from an Edited Book

Denmark, F. L. (1999). Enhancing the development of adolescent girls. In N. G. Johnson & M.
C. Roberts (Eds.), Beyond appearance: A new look at adolescent girls (pp. 377404).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.
Translation (Book)
Freud, S. (1950). Beyond the pleasure principle (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York, NY: Liveright.
(Original work published 1920).
Note: In-text citation would appear as: (Freud, 1920/1950)
Article from a Scholarly Journal

Note: Volume number is italicized. Include issue number in parentheses immediately after
volume number (no space between volume number and open parens) only if issues are not
continuously paginated.
Fechner, P. Y. (2002). Gender differences in puberty. Journal of Adolescent Health, 4, 44-48.
Article from a Newspaper

Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The Washington
Post, pp. A1, A4.
Newspaper Article with No Author Given

Gene therapy to be tried. (2002, October 11). The News & Observer, p. 9A.
Article from a Magazine

Posner, M. I. (1993, October 29). Seeing the mind. Science, 262, 673-674.
Proceedings of Meetings and Symposia

Franklin, M. L. (1991). A motivational approach to exercise. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, USA, 73, 21-28.
APA: Online and Nonprint Sources

Note: Changes in the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American
PsychologicalAssociation
According to the sixth edition of the APA manual, when available, you should include the DOI
(digital object identifier) for print and electronic sources in the reference entry. The DOI
number is placed at the end of the entry without ending punctuation:
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume
number. doi:0000000/000000000000
When a DOI is not available, and a URL is included, do not include retrieval dates unless the
source material may change over time (e.g., wikis). When citing an entire website (when you
are not quoting from, but rather making reference to an entire website), it is sufficient to give
the address of the site in just the text (no entry in the reference list is necessary). In general, it
is not necessary to include database (ERIC, JSTOR, OVID) information.
Website
Bass, R. (1997). Technology & learning: A brief guide to interactive multimedia and the study of
the United States. Retrieved from http://www.georgetown.edu/crossroads/mltmedia.html
Multi-Document Published on the Internet
If the document is composed of multiple web pages, give the URL of the home page or
entry page for the document. If no publication or "last modified" date is apparent, use
n.d. in place of the publication date.
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Libraries. (2007, March 23).

Introduction to Library Research. Retrieved from
http://www.lib.unc.edu/instruct/tutorial/
Specific Chapter or Section of Document Published on the Internet

Give chapter or section numbers (if available) in place of page numbers. Provide the
URL that points to the first page of the chapter or section you are citing.
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Libraries. (2007, July 12). APA
Citation Style. Citing Information (section 3). Retrieved from
http://www.lib.unc.edu/instruct/citations/apa/index.html
E-Book
When citing books or chapters only available online, the electronic retrieval statement
replaces the publisher location and name.
Wilson, T. L., Rohlfs, K. & Hüttemeister, S. (2009). Tools of radio astronomy

[SpringerLink version]. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-85122-6
Article from a Scholarly Journal, Retrieved from an Online Database

Dorman, S. M. (1997). Video and computer games: Effect on children and implications
for health education. Journal of School Health, 67, 133-138.
Full-text Newspaper Article with No Author Given, Retrieved from an
Online Database
Provide the URL of the newspaper home page when the online version of the article is
available by search to avoid nonworking URLs.
Don't even think about turning here. (2002, October 3). The New York Times.
Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/
Entry in an online reference work, no author or editor
If the online version refers to an existing print edition, include the edition number of the
print version after the title.
Obsequious. (n.d.) In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary (11th ed.). Retrieved from

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/obsequious.
Motion Picture
For a motion picture, the first executive producer and the first director should be listed
as the responsible parties. If one of these parties fulfilled multiple creative roles in the
film, all such roles should be listed. If credits for director and producer are not
available, provide the name of the individual or organization most responsible for the
work.
Hardy, J. (Producer) & Brest, M. (Writer/Director). (2003). Gigli [Motion picture]. United
States: Columbia Pictures.
Software
Do not italicize the names of software, programs, or languages. Include the version
number (if any) in parentheses immediately after the title. Also, provide the location
and name of the organization that produced the work (if applicable).
Adobe Creative Suite 3 (Web Standard) [Computer software]. San Jose, CA: Adobe
Systems Incorporated.
NOTE: For the following three entries, Provide the author's full name (if available) in the
form of last name followed by first initials. If only a screen name is available, provide the
screen name in place of the author. Include the exact date of the posting followed by the
subject line of the message or "thread." Also, if available, provide the name of the list to which
the message was posted if this information is not already included in the URL.
Message posted to a newsgroup, online forum, or discussion group

Adams, P. (2009, November 12). Re: A turning point for eminent domain?
[Online forum comment]. Retrieved from
http://roomfordebate.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/11/12/a-turning-point-for-
eminentdomain/?scp=2&sq=room%20for%20debate&st=cse.
Blog post
Miko. (2009, November 16). Re: The way we were [Web log message]. Retrieved from
http://www.metafilter.com/86709/The-Way-we-Were
YouTube / Video blog post

EduFactory2009. (2007, March 31). Stanley Aronowitz interview part I [video file].
Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=koqfxZPHjCU&feature=related
APA: Sample References Page

The citation examples provided in this tutorial are listed here as they would be on a
references page in a paper using APA style. For titles starting with articles ("a" and
"the"; equivalents in other languages), the article is not considered when alphabetizing.
Numerals and numbers are alphabetized as though they are spelled out.
In APA style, every reference cited in your text must be reflected in an entry on your
references page. The sole exceptions to this rule are personal communications with the
author such as e-mails, conversations, and letters—need only be cited in text. Likewise,
every item on the references page must correspond to an in-text citation somewhere in
your work. Do not include works that you do not cite in the body of your paper.
APA style dictates that the references page should be double-spaced, and that entries
should be formatted with a hanging indent—that is, the first line of each entry should
be at the left margin and subsequent lines in the same entry should be indented.

A. Instructions: The links below contain various articles on teaching and learning in times
of COVID-19. Select at least two links where you can find the articles. Read each article
and make in-text citations whether exact quotations or paraphrased. After each citation,
provide the proper referencing format. Each activity is worth 50 points. Use the boxes
below for your answers.
URL
Title of the Article/Study

https://doaj.org/article/
05d2d91499e74954acc44d11623c376d
Using Mixed Methods to
Understand Teaching and
Learning in COVID 19
Times
https://doaj.org/article/07bb3faf7ae6494f9c9d7d66e5394a5d
Remote education to
deaf students in
pandemic times
https://doaj.org/article/0db5c423e69647ab8590eefd51589505
Asynchronous, digital
teaching in times of
COVID-19: a teaching
example from general
practice
B. Instructions. Make a reference list from the following book sources. Each
correct answer is worth 10 points.
Books
1. A book with one author:
Author: Barbara Oakley,
Title: A mind for numbers : how to excel at math and science (even if you flunked algebra)
Publication info.: New York : Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin, [2014]
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
________________________
2. A book with 3 authors http://catalog.plsinfo.org/record=b1311379

Authors: Keith S. Folse, Elena Vestri Solomon, Barbara Smith-Palinkas
Title:Top 20 : great grammar for great writing
Publication info.:Houghton Mifflin, c2004.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
________________________
3. Chapter in a book with an editor http://catalog.plsinfo.org/record=b2391858

Editor: Kimberly B. Morland
Title of book: Local food environments : food access in America
Chapter author: Barbara A. Laraia
Chapter title: Local food environments and dietary intake
Publication Info.: Boca Raton : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, [2015]
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
References
Bass, R. (1997). Technology & learning: A brief guide to interactive multimedia and the study
of the United States. Retrieved from
http://www.georgetown.edu/crossroads/mltmedia.html
Denmark, F. L. (1999). Enhancing the development of adolescent girls. In N. G. Johnson
& M. C. Roberts (Eds.), Beyond appearance: A new look at adolescent girls (pp.
377-404). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.

Don't even think about turning here. (2002, October 3). The New York Times.
Dorman, S. M. (1997). Video and computer games: Effect on children and implications for
health education. Journal of School Health, 67, 133-138.
Fechner, P. Y. (2002). Gender differences in puberty. Journal of Adolescent Health, 4,
44-48.
Franklin, M. L. (1991). A motivational approach to exercise. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, USA, 73, 21-28.
Freud, S. (1950). Beyond the pleasure principle (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York, NY:
Liveright. (Original work published 1920).
Gene therapy to be tried. (2002, October 11). The News & Observer, p. 9A.
Hardy, J. (Producer) & Brest, M. (Writer/Director). (2003). Gigli [Motion picture].
United States: Columbia Pictures.
Kurlansky, M. (2002). Salt: A world history. New York, NY: Walker and Co.
Neville, C. (2010). The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism. McGraw-Hill
Open University Press
Posner, M. I. (1993, October 29). Seeing the mind. Science, 262, 673-674.
Scholnick, E. K. (Ed). (1999). Conceptual development: Piaget's legacy. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The
Washington Post, pp. A1, A4.
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Libraries. (2007, March 23). Introduction to
Library Research. Retrieved from http://www.lib.unc.edu/instruct/tutorial/

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Libraries. (2007, July 12). APA Citation Style.
Citing Information (section 3). Retrieved from
http://www.lib.unc.edu/instruct/citations/apa/index.html
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Libraries. (2007, March

23). Citing Information. Retrieved from http://www.lib.unc.edu/instruct/citations/index.html)
Wilson, T. L., Rohlfs, K. & Hüttemeister, S. (2009). Tools of radio astronomy
[SpringerLink version]. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-85122-6
Lesson 9- The Use of Theory
(Theoretical Framework/Conceptual Framework)
Introduction
A problem exists because of certain reasons. Even if the cause or causes of a problem cannot
be pinpointed, its existence may be discussed by examining certain patterns that related to the
problem situation. In explaining the existence of a problem, a researcher may base the
explanation of the theory. A theory is a set of concepts which explains the occurrence
of a certain phenomenon.
Theoretical Framework and Conceptual Framework are a bit like a recipe or a blueprint. It
provides an outline of how you plan to conduct the research for your thesis, but it goes further
than that by also positioning your work within the larger field of research. Writing a conceptual
framework can not only help to guide your thesis to ensure that your research stays on track,
but it also helps to guide fellow researchers or advisers who are analyzing your thesis (Magher,
n.d.; Melegrito and Mendoza, 2016).
The theoretical and conceptual framework explains the path of a research (Adom and
Hussein, 2018). These frameworks enable the research to be grounded on substantial and
appropriate concepts. The overall aim of the two frameworks is to make research findings more
meaningful, acceptable to the theoretical constructs in the research field and ensures
generalizability. They assist in stimulating research while ensuring the extension of knowledge
by providing both direction and impetus to the research inquiry. They also enhance the
empiricism and rigor of a research. Thus, it is no exaggeration for Imenda (2014) to say that
both the theoretical and conceptual frameworks give life to a research. Unfortunately, many
postgraduate students and faculty staff at universities are confused of the two terms and apply
them wrongly in their research papers (Adom and Hussein, 2018).
As a result, their research findings become weak because of the inappropriate application of a
suitable theoretical framework and/or conceptual framework. This blurs the understanding of
readers of the research paper who are lost, not knowing the purpose of the study, the
importance of the study and the scholars the researcher is in dialogue with, whether in
agreement or disagreement (Evans, 2007). A research without the theoretical or conceptual
framework makes it difficult for readers in ascertaining the academic position and the
underlying factors to the researcher’s assertions and/or hypotheses. This renders the research
sloppy and not appreciable as contributing significantly to the advancement of the frontiers of
knowledge.
Objectives:
s. distinguished the differences between the theoretical and conceptual framework;
t. determined the importance of theoretical and conceptual framework;
u. constructed theoretical and conceptual framework
v. selected an appropriate theoretical or conceptual framework suited for their study;

Using the Venn Diagram below, write the similarities and differenes of a theoretical and
conceptual framework.
What is a Theoretical Framework?
Theoretical Framework presents a theory that explain why the problem under study exists and
explain the connection between certain factors and problems.
It is the ‘blueprint’ or guide for a research (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). It is a framework based on
an existing theory in a field of inquiry that is related and/or reflects the hypothesis of a study. It
is a blueprint that is often ‘borrowed’ by the researcher to build his/her own house or research
inquiry. It serves as the foundation upon which a research is constructed. Sinclair (2007) as
well as Fulton and Krainovich-Miller (2010) compare the role of the theoretical framework to
that of a map or travel plan. Thus, when travelling to a particular location, the map guides your
path. Likewise, the theoretical framework guides the researcher so that s/he would not deviate
from the confines of the accepted theories to make his/her final contribution scholarly and
academic. Thus, Brondizio, Leemans, and Solecki (2014) concur that the theoretical
framework is the specific theory or theories about aspects of human endeavor that
can be useful to the study of events. The theoretical framework consists of theoretical
principles, constructs, concepts, and tenants of a theory (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
In a postgraduate thesis or dissertation research, all aspects of the research are expected to
connect to the theoretical framework (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). The student must tactfully select
the relevant theory or theories that underpin the knowledge base of the phenomenon to be
investigated. The student is expected to make a unique application of the selected theory so as
to apply the theoretical constructs to his/her dissertation study.
Functions of Theoretical Framework in Research
It provides the general framework which can guide data analysis.

It identifies the variables to be measured.
It explains why one variable can possibly affect another.
it limits the scope of data relevant to the framework by focusing on specific variables.
It stimulates the specific frame of mind or view point that the researcher will take in
analyzing and interpreting the data.
The Importance of Theoretical Framework in Research
The Theoretical Framework has several importance:
It provides the structure in showing how a researcher defines his/her study

philosophically, epistemologically, methodology and analytically (Grant & Osanloo,
2014).
It assists researchers in situating and contextualizing formal theories into their studies
as a guide (Ravitch and Carl, 2016).
It serves as the focus for the research and it is linked to the research problem under
study.
It guides a researcher’s choice of research design and data analysis plan.
It guides the kind of data to be accrued for a particular study (Lester, 2005).
It aids the researcher in finding an appropriate research approach, analytical tools and
procedures for his/her research inquiry.
It makes research findings more meaningful and generalizable (Akintoye, 2015).
provides a
common worldview or lens from which to support one’s thinking about the problem and
analysis of data (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
In general, a research without the theoretical framework lacks accurate direction to the
search of appropriate literature and scholarly discussions of the findings from the research
(Imenda, 2014). The theoretical framework guides and should resonate with every aspect of
the research process from the definition of the problem, literature survey, methodology,
presentation and discussion of the findings as well as the conclusions that are drawn. Eisenhart
(1991) contends that the theoretical framework helps the researcher in considering alternative
theories that might challenge his or her perspective, thereby enriching the strengths of the
study. Simon and Goes (2011) as well as Maxwell (2004) aver that theoretical frameworks
deepen the essence of the study.
How to Select a Suitable Theoretical Framework
There is no one best theory for any thesis or dissertation. The use of theory in a certain
study must be understood well by the researcher, that it should be related to the topic being
studied. The problem, purpose, objectives, and significance of the study must be considered in
selecting the appropriate theoretical framework.
“When the selection of a theoretical framework is poorly done, it would be as if the

researcher is using a wrong bolt to forcibly fix a wrong nut”--- (Adom and Hussein, 2018).
The chosen theoretical framework must accentuate the purpose and importance of the
study dissertation (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). To make an appropriate selection of a theoretical
context, the researcher must consider the guiding principles of the study and situate the
problem in relation to it. The research questions of the study and the purpose of the study must
entail noticeable aspects of the theoretical framework and must agree with the assertions
promulgated by the theorists of the selected theory (Maxwell, 2004; LoBiondo-Wood, 2010).
After the entire study has been conducted, the research findings accrued from the study must
corroborate, extend, or modify the existing theory that was borrowed for the study (Lester,
2005). The researcher may critique, develop and/or expand the theory that served as a guide
for his/her study vis-à-vis the findings gleaned from the study (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). Munhall
and Chenail (2008) contend that this critique is often carried out in the data analysis stage of
the research before the final conclusions of the study are drawn.
Grant and Osanloo (2014) presented a checklist that can aid researchers to be able
to identify the suitable theoretical framework for their research inquiry.
These questions are:
What discipline will the theory be applied to?

Does the theory agree with the methodology plan for the study?
Is the theory to be selected well developed with many theoretical constructs?
Have specific concepts or theoretical principles been selected to meet the objectives of
the study?
Does the problem of the study, the purpose and importance of the study correlate with
the theoretical framework?
Can the theory be used hand in hand with the research questions for the study?
Does the theoretical framework inform the literature review?
Does the data analysis plan agree with the selected theoretical framework?
Does the theoretical framework undergird the conclusions and recommendations based
on the data analysis?
Simon and Goes (2011) also suggested some points that can help articulate the
theory for an informed research. The important keys the researcher have to satisfy
include:
Knowing the main concern for inquiry into the research

Ascertaining the key variables in the research
Reading and reviewing current related literature on the topic using key word search.
Listing the constructs and variables that might be relevant for the study.
Considering how the variables are related to the theory
Revising the search while adding the word ‘theory’ to the key words to find the theories
and theorists most in line with the thinking of the researcher.
Discussing the propositions of each theory and highlight its relevance to the research.
Considering alternative theories that challenge the perspectives of the researcher.
Considering the limitations associated with the selected theory which the problem to be
investigated can help address or provide logic explanations.
The Position of a Theoretical Framework in a Thesis/Dissertation Research
Many research instructors and postgraduate students usually wonder where a theoretical
framework is supposed to be placed in a dissertation or thesis research. Many scholars suggest
that the theoretical framework needs to be shown readers right at the onset of the
thesis writing. The student is supposed to select and clarify the theoretical
framework from the time the dissertation or thesis topic is initially conceptualized
(Dooyeweerd as cited in Sire, 2004). Staunch researchers profess that the researcher’s
choice of a theory must be stated explicitly early in the writing of a dissertation (Grant &
Osanloo, 2014). This popular view is not misplaced because Mertens (1998) argues that the
theoretical framework influence every decision made by the researcher in the carrying out of
the research. As such, it needs an early mention in a dissertation or thesis writing.
Example of Theoretical Framework
As it has already been highlighted, the selection of a theory depends on the discipline or
field of research (Adom and Hussein, 2018). Even within a particular discipline, a specific theory
or theories that resonate with the area of inquiry must be selected.
A. Adom and Hussein (2018) illustrated this with an example of a study in Cultural
Anthropology. A student is undertaking a research into how the cultures of a group of
people influence their attitudes towards the environment. In such a scenario, there are
various theories in the field of study that agrees with the problem for investigation. These
include the Human Environment Relations Theory, The Culture Theory, The Cultural Ecology
Theory, Historical Ecology Theory, Environmental Determinism Theory, Culture Determinism
Theory and so forth. Though these theories all postulate that people and their cultures have
a relation with the environment, their internal workings and approach to the subject differs.
Therefore, it is the student/researcher who has to read and deepen his/her understanding
of the theories, including the exponents, historical background information of the theory, its
exponents, its theoretical constructs, and assumptions of its proponents, the strengths and
weaknesses before s/he can make an appropriate selection in line with the problem and
research questions laid out for the study.
Other parts of culture
Environment
Cultural
core
Fig. 1 The Theoretical Framework Cultural Ecology Source: Adopted from Steward (1968)
B. In the study, entitled, “The Effect of Curfew on the Attitude of Students towards their
Studies and their Academic Performance,” the researchers aimed to determine whether
imposing curfew can significantly affects students attitude towards their studies and
academic performance. The theory below is deemed appropriate for the selected topic
about curfew:
“People value their sense of freedom and like to protect an image of efficacy. when social
pressure threatens their sense of freedom, they trend to rebel.” According to the theory of
psychological reactance, people act to defend their freedom. Experiments have shown that
attempts to restrict a person’s freedom often results in a reactive “ boomerang effects.”
Restricting someone’s movement is also reducing or taking away one’s freedom. Most
people use restrictions as a preventive measure. For some it may work. For others, if may
not. It may produce good result for others, for some it may be more harm than good……”
C. The researchers wanted to explore the “Sex Differentials in Decision-making Participation at

Home Among Tertiary Faculty Members.” There are two objectives for this topic under study
which are: to determine and compare the extent of participation in decision-making of male
and female faculty members; and to determine whether the extent of participation of the
male and female faculty members is associated with length of service and attendance in
gender sensitivity training. The theory below is suited to be the theoretical framework of the
study with further elaboration.
“ Role theorist, like Park, Moreno, and Mead ( Turner. 1982) view the social world as a network
of various interrelated position and statuses with which individuals enact roles. As members of
an educational institution, faculty members have prescribed roles which are specified in their
job descriptions. As father or mother, sons or daughter, they have also roles and
responsibilities to follow at home….”
What is a Conceptual Framework?
A conceptual framework is an elaboration of a theoretical framework in concrete terms.

Variables to be observe in the study and is anchored on the theoretical framework. It as well
assumes connection between the independent and the dependent variables.
It is a structure which the researcher believes can best explain the natural progression of the
phenomenon to be studied (Camp, 2001; Adom and Hussein, 2018). It is linked with the
concepts, empirical research and important theories used in promoting and systemizing the
knowledge espoused by the researcher (Peshkin, 1993). It is the researcher’s explanation of
how the research problem would be explored. The conceptual framework presents an
integrated way of looking at a problem under study (Liehr & Smith, 1999). In a statistical
perspective, the conceptual framework describes the relationship between the main concepts of
a study. It is arranged in a logical structure to aid provide a picture or visual display of how
ideas in a study relate to one another (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). It as well shows the series of
action the researcher intends carrying out in a research study (Dixon, Gulliver & Gibbon, 2001).
The framework makes it easier for the researcher to easily specify and define the concepts
within the problem of the study (Luse, Mennecke & Townsend, 2012). Miles and Huberman
(1994) emphasized that conceptual frameworks can be ‘graphical or in a narrative form showing
the key variables or constructs to be studied and the presumed relationships between them.
The Importance of Conceptual Framework in Research
The conceptual framework offers the following benefits in research:
It assists the researcher in identifying and constructing his/her worldview on the

phenomenon to be investigated (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
It serves as the researchers’ plan of remedies to the problem stated (Liehr & Smith,
1999; Akintoye, 2015).
It accentuates the reasons why a research topic is worth studying, the assumptions of a
researcher, the scholars s/he agrees with and disagrees with and how s/he conceptually
grounds his/her approach (Evans, 2007).
It is mostly used by researchers when existing theories are not applicable or sufficient in
creating a firm structure for the study (Akintoye, 2015).
How to Construct a Conceptual Framework
Conceptual frameworks are always constructed by researchers (Polit & Tatano, 2004).
Ravich and Carl (2016) aver that conceptual frameworks are generative frameworks that
reflects the thinking of the entire research process. Mostly, diagrams are created to clearly
define the constructs or variables of the research topic and their relationships are shown by the
use of arrows. Latham (2017) argues that the entire methodology must agree with the
variables, as well as their relationships and context. Researchers are at liberty to adopt existing
frameworks, but have to modify it to suit the nature of the context of their research as well as
the nature of their research questions (Fisher, 2007). Fisher adds that a good conceptual
framework must also be expressed in writing for it to be understood clearly. This means that
after a researcher has craftily produced a diagrammatic representation of the main
variables of the study, s/he has to explain the relations among them and how their
complementation helps in answering the major research problem defined.
Difference between a Conceptual Framework and a Theoretical Framework
Many students and researchers usually ask whether the theoretical framework is the same as
the conceptual framework. Sometimes, researchers develop their conceptual frameworks from
the theories that underpin their research. Though these frameworks work hand in hand, they
have characteristics that make them different from each other. Adom and Hussein (2018)
elaborated the fine lines between the Theoretical Framework and Conceptual Framework
Table 1: The Differences between Theoretical Framework and Conceptual

Framework
Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework
It provides a general or broader set of ideas It refers to specific or narrower ideas a

within which a study belongs. researcher utilizes in his/her study.
It is based on existing theory/theories in the It is based on the concepts which are the main
variables in a study.
literature which has been tested and
validated by other scholars.
It is in the form of a model that pivots a It is a researcher's own constructed model that
study, with its s/he uses to explain the
exponents and the results of their studies. relationship that exists between the main
variables in his/her study.
It can also be an adaptation of a model in an

existing theory which a researcher adapts to
suit his/her research purpose.
It is well developed, designed and accepted. Its design is not accepted, but it's a proposal of
the researcher's answer to the research
problem s/he has defined.
It offers a focal point for approaching the It is the framework that shows logically how
unknown research in a specific field of the research inquiry is to be undertaken.
inquiry.
It consists of theories that seem interrelated It consists of concepts interconnected to

with their propositions deduced. explain the relationships between
them and how the researcher asserts to answer

the research problem defined
It is used to test theories, to predict and It is aimed at encouraging the development of

control the a theory that would be useful to

practitioners in the field.
situations within the context of a research
inquiry.
The Position of a Conceptual Framework in a Research
The conceptual framework is mostly placed in the chapter where the literature survey was
discussed. It is in this chapter that the theoretical perspectives of the main variables or
constructs are rigorously reviewed. In the context of West Visayas State University
Thesis Format, The Theoretical and Conceptual Framework is placed in Chapter 1,
after the background of the study has been discussed.
Examples of Conceptual Framework
There are many designs of the conceptual framework that researchers have designed and
utilized in their studies.
A. Adom and Hussein (2018) presented two simple conceptual framework designs from two
studies, namely a research on child literacy (Figure 2) and a study on the research
procedural steps (Figure 3).
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework on Child Literacy Research Source: Adopted from http:// www.
monash. edu.au/lls /hdr/ design/2.2.1.html (Accessed 11/8/2017)
Figure 3: Conceptual Framework on the Research Procedural Steps Source: Adopted from
https://www.slideshare.net/jhim1022/reviewof-literature-hypothesis-and-conceptual-
framework-65848341 (Accessed 10/8/2017)
Conclusion
B. In the study, entitled, “The Effect of Curfew on the Attitude of Students towards their
Studies and their Academic Performance,” the researchers aimed to determine whether
imposing curfew can significantly affects students attitude towards their studies and
academic performance. The conceptual framework below is deemed appropriate for the
selected topic about curfew:
“Imposing curfew can be viewed as a form of freedom restriction. When students are
prevented from staying out late by their parents, and are expected to be home not later
than the specified curfew, the young students may view this as a curtailment of
freedom. While the parents intention are good, they may be perceive by their children
as unjust and unfair and they may harbor ill feeling against their parents and rebel.
Instead of coming home early, they may come home very late or drunk to spite their
parents the rebellion can be possibly result to irregular, indifference toward their studies
and consequently poor grades. The figure below further elaborates the statement”
Figure 4. Conceptual Framework of the Relationship between Variables

Choose one (1) topic from the list below and make a Theoretical Framework and
Conceptual Framework. You may as well choose your own research topic. You
will be scored according to the following criteria:
Relevance to the topic--------------- 30%
Content-------------------------------- 30%
Organization------------------------- 30%
Comprehensiveness--------------- 10%
Total------------------------------ 100%
1. Reconceptualizing fieldwork in a netnography of an online community of English
language teachers.
Source: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17457823.2013.792511
2. Using netnography to explore the culture of online language teaching communities.
Source: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/calicojournal.32.3.426.pdf
3. Language teaching during a pandemic: A case study of zoom use by a secondary ESL
teacher in Hong Kong.
Source: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0033688220981784
4. The new normal?: A pandemic of task engagement in language learning

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/flan.12452
5. Impact of Google Classroom as an Online Learning Delivery during COVID-19
Pandemic: The Case of a Secondary School in Nigeria
Source: https://journaljesbs.com/index.php/JESBS/article/view/30259
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29
Lesson 10: Data Collection
Introduction
Most student research projects in English language studies involve the collection and analysis of
data. Indeed, for students interested in topics related to applied linguistics, translation or
education, the data component will likely be central to the study. A library-based study
involving the analysis of a literary text might be more usual for students of literature, however.
Before launching into collecting data, you need to consider which data collection method would
be best suited to elicit the information required to answer the research question(s).
Subsequently, attention needs to be given to the data collection instrument, the location, the
informants (or respondents), the timing and obtaining permission to collect data from your
selected informants.
Objectives:
w. delineated the concept of data collection;
x. explained the importance of data collection;
y. identified the categories of data collection;
z. familiarized oneself with different methods of collecting quantitative and qualitative
data;
aa. identified method or methods of data collection that allows to obtain the information
needed to answer the research questions; and
bb. identified applicable data collection method to one’s study.

Try to recall at least six data collection methods that you have learned in your past
research subjects including those in your senior high school. Describe each briefly based on
what you can remember. Complete the
Data Collection
Concept of Data Collection

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of
interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions,
test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to
all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods
vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same. The
goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates to rich data analysis
and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that have been posed.
Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative), accurate
data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of appropriate
data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated
instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring. Data collection is one of
the most important stages in conducting a research. You can have the best research design in the
world but if you cannot collect the required data you will be not be able to complete your project.
Data collection is a very demanding job which needs thorough planning, hard work, patience,
perseverance and more to be able to complete the task successfully. Data collection starts with
determining what kind of data required followed by the selection of a sample from a certain
population. After that, you need to use a certain instrument to collect the data from the selected
sample.
Types of Data
Data are organized into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative Data:
Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or nominal in nature. This means
the data collected are in the form of words and sentences. Often (not always), such data captures
feelings, emotions, or subjective perceptions of something. Qualitative approaches aim to address
the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a program and tend to use unstructured methods of data collection to fully
explore the topic. Qualitative questions are open-ended. Qualitative methods include focus groups,
group discussions and interviews. Qualitative approaches are good for further exploring the effects
and unintended consequences of a program. They are, however, expensive and time consuming to
implement. Additionally, the findings cannot be generalized to participants outside of the program
and are only indicative of the group involved.
Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by

providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and assess
changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being. Furthermore, qualitative methods can be used to
improve the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation
hypothesis, strengthening the design of survey questionnaires, and expanding or clarifying
quantitative evaluation findings. These methods are characterized by the following attributes:
 they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers may
change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or
informants);
 they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be interviewed several
times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data;
 they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers rely on
multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results);
 generally, their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather each case
study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among
different studies of the same issue.
Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal of
time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thoroughly, accurately, and
systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and other suitable means. The
data collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research. The qualitative methods
most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad categories:
 In-depth interview
 Observation methods
 Document review.
Quantitative Data
Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed. Quantitative
data measure uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval
scale and ratio scale. Often (not always), such data includes measurements of something.
Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’ of the program. They use a systematic standardized
approach and employ methods such as surveys and ask questions. Quantitative approaches have
the advantage that they are cheaper to implement, are standardized so comparisons can be easily
made and the size of the effect can usually be measured. Quantitative approaches however are
limited in their capacity for the investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected
differences. It is important to note that for peer-based programs quantitative data collection
approaches often prove to be difficult to implement for agencies as lack of necessary resources to
ensure rigorous implementation of surveys and frequently experienced low participation and loss to
follow up rates are commonly experienced factors.
The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data
collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They
produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. If the intent is to generalize
from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling
to select participants. Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:
 Experiments/clinical trials.
 Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients
waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
 Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
 Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone
interviews, questionnaires etc).
 In quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than in
Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of
questions and nothing more. Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling
the researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their
cooperation.
 Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the
researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires
regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are
anonymous.
Mixed Methods
Mixed methods approach as design, combining both qualitative and quantitative research
data, techniques, and methods within a single research framework. Mixed methods approaches may
mean a number of things, i.e. a number of different types of methods in a study or at different
points within a study or using a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods. Mixed methods
encompass multifaceted approaches that combine to capitalize on strengths and reduce weaknesses
that stem from using a single research design. Using this approach to gather and evaluate data may
assist to increase the validity and reliability of the research. Some of the common areas in which
mixed-method approaches may be used include:
 Initiating, designing, developing and expanding interventions;
 Evaluation;
 Improving research design; and
 Corroborating findings, data triangulation or convergence.
Some of the challenges of using a mixed methods approach include:

 Delineating complementary qualitative and quantitative research questions;
 Time-intensive data collection and analysis; and
 Decisions regarding which research methods to combine.
Mixed methods are useful in highlighting complex research problems such as disparities in
health and can also be transformative in addressing issues for vulnerable or marginalized
populations or research which involves community participation. Using a mixed-methods approach is
one way to develop creative options to traditional or single design approaches to research and
evaluation. There are many ways of classifying data. A common classification is based upon who
collected the data.
PRIMARY DATA
Data that has been collected from first-hand-experience is known as primary data. Primary
data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and objective. Primary data has not
been changed or altered by human beings; therefore its validity is greater than secondary data.
Importance of Primary Data: In statistical surveys it is necessary to get information from primary
sources and work on primary data. For example, the statistical records of female population in a
country cannot be based on newspaper, magazine and other printed sources. A research can be
conducted without secondary data but a research based on only secondary data is least reliable and
may have biases because secondary data has already been manipulated by human beings. One of
such sources is old and secondly they contain limited information as well as they can be misleading
and biased.
Sources of Primary Data

Sources for primary data are limited and at times it becomes difficult to obtain data from
primary source because of either scarcity of population or lack of cooperation. Following are some of
the sources of primary data.
Experiments: Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to perform logical
study to collect data. Experiments are more suitable for medicine, psychological studies,
nutrition and for other scientific studies. In experiments the experimenter has to keep
control over the influence of any extraneous variable on the results.
Survey: Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences, management, marketing
and psychology to some extent. Surveys can be conducted in different methods.
Questionnaire: It is the most commonly used method in survey. Questionnaires are a list
of questions either open-ended or close-ended for which the respondents give answers.
Questionnaire can be conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute,
through electronic mail or through fax and other methods.
Interview: Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. In interview the
main problem arises when the respondent deliberately hides information otherwise it is an
in-depth source of information. The interviewer can not only record the statements the
interviewee speaksbut he can observe the body language, expressions and other reactions
to the questions too. This enables the interviewer to draw conclusions easily.
Observations: Observation can be done while letting the observing person know that s/he
is being observed or without letting him know. Observations can also be made in natural
settings as well as in artificially created environment.
Advantages of Using Primary Data
 The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.
 There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
 If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.
Disadvantages of Using Primary Data
1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection:
 deciding why, what, how, when to collect;
 getting the data collected (personally or through others);
 getting funding and dealing with funding agencies;
 ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.).
2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard:
 all desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in;
 there is no fake/ cooked up data;
 unnecessary/ useless data has not been included.

3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.
SECONDARY DATA
Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form is called as
secondary data. The review of literature in any research is based on secondary data. It is collected
by someone else for some other purpose (but being utilized by the investigator for another
purpose). For examples Census data being used to analyze the impact of education on career choice
and earning. Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, organizational
records and data collected through qualitative methodologies or qualitative research. Secondary data
is essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change
and/or developments.
Sources of Secondary Data

The following are some ways of collecting secondary data:
 Books
 Records
 Biographies
 Newspapers
 Published censuses or other statistical data
 Data archives
 Internet articles
 Research articles by other researchers (journals)
 Databases, etc.
Importance of Secondary Data

Secondary data can be less valid, but its importance is still there. Sometimes it is difficult to
obtain primary data; in these cases, getting information from secondary sources is easier and
possible. Sometimes primary data does not exist in such situation one has to confine the research
on secondary data. Sometimes primary data is present, but the respondents are not willing to reveal
it in such case too secondary data can suffice. For example, if the research is on the psychology of
transsexuals first it is difficult to find out transsexuals and second, they may not be willing to give
information you want for your research, so you can collect data from books or other published
sources. A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed has
already been carried out. For example, literature reviews, case studies might have been carried out,
published texts and statistics could have been already used elsewhere, media promotion and
personal contacts have also been utilized. This wealth of background work means that secondary
data generally have a pre-established degree of validity and reliability which need not be re-
examined by the researcher who is re-using such data. Furthermore, secondary data can also be
helpful in the research design of subsequent primary research and can provide a baseline with which
the collected primary data results can be compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to begin any
research activity with a review of the secondary data.
Advantages of Using Secondary Data

 No hassles of data collection.
 It is less expensive.
 The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t do
it’).
Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data
 The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party, so the reliability
and accuracy of data go down.
 Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor.
 With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.
 Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using
secondary data, a special care is required to amend or modify for use.
 Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.
Keeping in view the advantages and disadvantages of sources of data requirement of the
research study and time factor, both sources of data i.e., primary and secondary data have been
selected. These are used in combination to give proper coverage to the topic.
Major Data Collection Methods

The following list shows the six most common methods of data collection used by educa-
tional researchers:
1. Tests
2. Questionnaires
3. Interviews
4. Focus groups
5. Observation
6. Constructed, secondary, and existing data
With these methods of data collection, researchers can have their participants fill out an
instrument or perform a behavior designed to measure their ability or degree of skill (tests);
researchers can have research participants fill out self-report instruments (questionnaires);
researchers can talk to participants in person or over the telephone (interviews); researchers can
discuss issues with multiple research participants at the same time in a small-group setting (focus
groups); researchers can examine how research participants act in natural and structured
environments (observation); and researchers can have participants construct new data during a
study, such as drawings or recordings, or use data that came from an earlier time for a different
purpose than the current research problem at hand (constructed, secondary, and existing data).
Tests
Tests are commonly used in quantitative research to measure attitudes, personality, self-
perceptions, aptitude, and performance of research participants. Perhaps the most common type of
test is the standardized test, which is developed by psychometricians and usually includes
psychometric information on reliability, validity, and reference group norms. In fact, Chapter 7 was
about standardized tests, so you already know a lot about this form of test (e.g., its characteristics,
the different types, and where to find already developed tests). We emphasize again that if a
relevant test is already available that measures the variables of interest to you, then you should
seriously consider using that test.
Although many tests are available for use (e.g., standardized tests of intelligence and
personality, achievement, preschool, aptitude, and diagnostic tests), experimental researchers
sometimes need to construct their own tests to measure very specific constructs that are
operationalized in unique ways. An experimental researcher might design a test procedure to
measure a cognitive or memory process or to measure participants’ response time to a mental
activity. For example, a researcher studying particular types of mathematics story problems might
develop a test that deals specifically with those problem types. The point is that, when a researcher
is looking at the manipulation of instructional content or context, tests usually need to be tailored to
the content or task. Note that even though such “experimenter-constructed” tests are not normed
for specific populations, the researcher is obliged to do his or her best to find ways to affirm the
reliability and validity of the assessments.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are good for collecting specific information about large numbers of people. They are
usually used to elicit short answers about a number of different topics; these often include some biographical
information (age, gender, major, L1, length of time in a particular job etc.) and topics relating to a person’s
opinions or habits. They are less well suited to gathering information about people’s beliefs and experiences,
as answers to such questions are more difficult to anticipate in a selection of set responses to a closed question,
and difficult to capture in a one- or two-sentence answer to an open question. Nevertheless, questionnaires can
still be used for this purpose.
There are different ways of formulating questions for use in questionnaires and interviews. Any
question can be formulated in different ways and it is quite normal to change the wording of a question several
times at the preparation and trial stages of a questionnaire. How a question is formulated can affect the type of
answer elicited, both in terms of the length and the content of the response. You might change the formulation
of a question, for example, because you realize that it doesn’t elicit the type of information you need, or
because respondents don’t easily understand the question.
Anonymity in questionnaire design

In most cases, it is unlikely that you will need to identify each person who completes your
questionnaire; in fact, your respondents may be more open and truthful in their answers if the
questionnaire is anonymous. This means not requesting the person’s name, student ID number,
date of birth or any other information that may later help to identify them. The anonymity of the
questionnaire can also be compromised by juxtaposing certain biographical data in your description
of participants. For example, revealing a participant’s age, gender and place of origin increases the
likelihood that the person can later be identified. Some information, such as age, may be considered
private. Unless it is essential to have precise biographical information, age may be elicited in the
form of the person’s age group rather than exact age (e.g. ‘Circle the correct answer: You are 20–
30; 31–40; 41–50; above 50’).
Although the completed questionnaires may be anonymous, you still need to treat them
confidentially and not show completed questionnaires to others. This information has been shared
with you under certain conditions and these conditions need to be respected, even after the study
has finished.
Question types: closed and open questions

Closed questions limit the range of answers a respondent can give. Usually, the possible
answers are provided for the respondent to choose from. The purpose of closed questions is usually
to elicit information where the response is ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ or a category such as gender or nationality.
You can also elicit opinions by providing answers in the form of a scale. Closed questions allow you
to calculate your results relatively easily. The disadvantage of this question type is that the pre-set
responses may not actually reflect the views or experience of the respondent, who may feel forced
to give a particular answer. This can be avoided to some extent by providing an ‘opt-out’ option
(e.g. ‘Don’t know’) or by giving the respondents the chance to write their own answer by inserting
an ‘other’ option. Open questions do just that; they don’t limit the range of possible answers the
respondent can give and answers for such questions are not predictable either in length or content.
Open questions begin with ‘Why’, ‘How’, ‘What do you think’ etc., and they are often used to find
out about people’s beliefs or the reasons for their actions. It is usually advisable to place open
questions towards the end of the questionnaire. If they appear at the beginning, some respondents
might not complete the questionnaire because it looks like too much work. Also, if they appear at
the end, respondents will have had time to reflect on the general topic as they work through the
short-answer questions, and they might have thought of something extra to add by the time they
reach the end.
The data elicited from open questions are harder to describe in your results chapter and
difficult to quantify. The usual approach is to code for the content of the responses. This involves
reading through the responses several times to identify themes. Answers from open questions can
also be more difficult to work with for the simple reason that someone’s handwriting may be hard to
decipher, or responses don’t make sense or don’t actually answer the question.
Some researchers use open questions in an initial questionnaire to gather information about
the general area. This initial survey of ideas, opinions and experiences enables the researcher to
identity the topics or categories that should be used in the questionnaire for the real data collection
in the study. This information can also guide the researcher in providing possible answers to closed
questions that reflect how respondents are likely to respond to a given question.
Interviews
Collecting data through an interview rather than a questionnaire provides the opportunity to
explore a topic in conversation with the interviewee; it is likely you don’t know exactly how the
conversation will develop and what topics will be raised. This unknown quality is one of the exciting
things about interviews. Just how controlled the interview is, however, depends on the type of
questions posed and the opportunities given to the interviewee to expand on information or to
digress.
Before arranging your interviews, consider how you will capture the interviewee’s answers.
If a recording device is to be used, interviewees should be informed of your intention to record
them. When people know they are being recorded, they may be more careful about how they
express themselves. If the presence of a recording device appears to discourage the interviewee
from giving a candid answer to a particular question, consider offering to turn off the recording
device for that part of the interview and noting down the answer by hand. Note-taking during the
whole interview may be impractical, as it is not easy to transcribe fast enough to capture the
responses fully and accurately.
Confidentiality and respectful conduct

Before the interview, inform the interviewee that all information he/she shares with you
during the interview will be treated anonymously and in confidence. Some researchers put a
statement to this effect in writing and ask the interviewee to sign it. For your undergraduate
project, this may not be required, as your research is still at a very introductory level, but it will
likely be necessary for research at postgraduate level.
After the interview, it is good practice to send your transcript of the interview to the
interviewee. This post-interview contact also allows you to ask for clarification if you found
something unclear when transcribing or translating responses. While no answer may be
forthcoming, the interviewee will have had the opportunity to correct any information that does not
accurately reflect his/her viewpoint. The interviewee may even ask you to delete some information;
it is quite normal that in the course of the conversation the interviewee may mention something
that, in hindsight, he/she does not wish to share with other people. The interviewee should have
the opportunity to ‘take back’ anything that was said if it later seems inappropriate. This respectful
gesture demonstrates your serious approach to the person’s input.
When using interview data in the Results chapter of your project, you can omit certain
information that might identify the person or that could be too sensitive or unreliable (i.e. the
interviewee might criticize the school or colleagues in a very subjective manner). Alternatively, you
may also choose to get in touch with the interviewee again and check whether this response
accurately reflects the person’s views. Participants may be assigned a different name (or a
number) in the Results chapter. You might also choose not to name the institution explicitly; for
instance, could write ‘the Foundation Institute at a private university in [name of country]’ or ‘a
high school in [name of city]’. However, it may be necessary to name the institution where data
were collected so the committee evaluating your project knows exactly where the study was
undertaken.
Interview types
Interviews may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured. In a structured interview,

the interviewer asks the same set of questions in the same order for each participant. Typical
examples of structured interviews are marketing surveys or public-opinion polls. The interviewer
may call at people’s homes or telephone them and will run through a pre-established set of
questions. No follow-up questions are posed. The semi-structured interview enables the researcher
to elicit richer, more descriptive data. It is a more flexible approach, as the exact order of the
questions and the formulation of each question may vary depending on the circumstances. The
interviewer uses a set of questions or topics as a guide and may also ask additional follow-up
questions. The final option is an unstructured interview. Here the interviewer does not arrive with a
pre-established list of questions, but rather allows the questions to evolve naturally out of the
conversation. To conduct unstructured interviews successfully, the interviewer needs to be very
skilled to ensure that the conversation is still directed towards the topics or themes he/she wishes
to discuss. They also tend to be more time-consuming, and the data are less reliable as you may
not actually ask every participant the same questions. You will likely undertake a structured or a
semi-structured interview for your study; these are easier to do if you have less experience and
more appropriate for the type of topics that undergraduate students investigate.
Carefully consider the questions you want to include in your interview protocol or guide
(the list of questions). Choose your questions wisely; not only is your interviewee likely to have
limited time, but also if the conversation continues too long, fatigue, irritation or disinterest may
start to affect the quality of information elicited. The order of questions is also important. For an
interview to be successful, you need to gain the trust of the interviewee. Avoid asking questions
that require the respondent to reveal personal or potentially sensitive information early in the
interview. It often helps to allow the interviewee time to ‘warm up’ a little by asking general
questions before focusing on something specific. This allows the interviewee time to recollect
different experiences and knowledge related to the topic. In some cases, however, specific
questions at the beginning of an interview are necessary.
Open questions are very common in interviews. For each closed question posed, consider
whether following up with an open question would be appropriate. It is easier to respond nimbly
during the interview if you have considered this beforehand. For instance, if you ask ‘Have you ever
failed a course at university?’, it would make sense to pose an open question to follow up (e.g. ‘In
your opinion, why didn’t you get high enough grades to pass?’).
Some questions may require greater self-disclosure than one might normally feel
comfortable with. If this is the case, the interviewee may simply avoid giving a candid answer. To
encourage a truthful answer, interviewers sometimes present the topic as though it were
widespread, or they ask the interviewee to report about ‘other people’ before reporting about
themselves. For instance, rather than ask directly ‘Have you ever failed a course at university?’ (a
potentially embarrassing question), one could ask one of the following:
• ‘Do you know students in your year who failed a course?’
• ‘I’ve heard that some students failed a few courses in their final year. Do you know people
who failed?’
• ‘Many people fail a course at some point during their studies; have you ever
had this experience?’
Commonly Used Probes and Abbreviations
Standard Interviewer’s Probe Abbreviation Used on Interview

Protocol
Repeat question. (RQ)
Anything else? (AE or Else?)
Any other reason? (AO?)
Any others? (Other?)
How do you mean? (How mean?)
Could you tell me more about your thinking on (Tell more.)
that?
Would you tell me what you have in mind? (What in mind?)
What do you mean? (What mean?)
Why do you feel that way? (Why?)
Which would be closer to the way you feel? (Which closer?)
Observations
If your topic is related to the teaching–learning process or the use of language in the
workplace, it may be appropriate to collect data through observations of the classroom or the
workplace; this may be in addition to data you collect through interviews or questionnaires.
Observations can provide valuable insight into real- life practice; what people say they do and what
they actually do in practice may be quite different!
The researcher may take a non-participatory or participatory role during the observation.
As a non-participant, you don’t take part in any activities and the goal is to be as unobtrusive as
possible. You will probably have a checklist of things you are looking for and you will be taking
detailed notes during your observation. As a participant, you take an active part in the usual
activities undertaken at this location. For example, in a classroom context, you may contribute as
a student, or you may choose to team-teach the lesson with the class teacher. This gives you the
perspective of what is happening in the interaction as someone involved in the process. Most
students take a non-participatory role in their research, as this is easier for novice researchers.
There are two approaches to observations: unstructured or structured (or planned). The
former approach involves the researcher undertaking observations without a preconceived plan of
what to focus on; in this case, the researcher needs to take notes on everything that is happening.
Later, the researcher looks through the data to find patterns. Alternatively, during a structured or
planned observation, the researcher has a clear framework of what he/she is intending to observe,
usually in the form of a worksheet with a list of topics.
The focus may be on how often something happens, how certain statements or questions
are formulated, who is involved, where people stand in relation to one another, the sequence of
certain events or exchanges, or reactions to certain prompts. As your project is small-scale and
undertaken over a limited period of time, it is very likely you will take the latter approach. Before
entering the classroom, you need to think carefully about what you need to focus on, how you will
record your observations, and what additional things you might look out for.
Collecting data through observations requires careful planning, as well as time and energy
to carry them out effectively. They may be much more time-consuming than questionnaires, for
instance. As an observer, the researcher does not control the process, and has to be present for
quite a long time (or on many different occasions). How long observations should be or how many
observations are needed will depend on the context and the topic, but it is important that you do
not limit yourself to just a couple of observations. First, the phenomenon you are studying simply
may not occur during the period of time you are present. Second, your presence will inevitably
have an effect on the people you came to observe, which means that the data collected may not
reflect what normally happens in that particular setting. To mitigate this effect, the teacher and
students need to become accustomed to your presence. As a guideline, observations should
continue until reaching saturation point; that is, the point when the data seem repetitive and
nothing new is observed.
Use of Observational Method

There are a variety of reasons for collecting observational data. Some of these reasons include
 When the nature of the research question to be answered is focused on answering a how-
or what-type question.
 When the topic is relatively unexplored and little is known to explain the behavior of
people in a particular setting.
 When understanding the meaning of a setting in a detailed way is valuable.
 When it is important to study a phenomenon in its natural setting.
 When self-report data (asking people what they do) is likely to be different from actual
behavior (what people actually do). One example of this seen in the difference between self-
reported versus observed preventive service delivery in health care settings.
 When implementing an intervention in a natural setting, observation may be used in
conjunction with other quantitative data collection techniques. Observational data can help
researchers evaluate the fidelity of an intervention across settings and identify when 'stasis'
has been achieved.
Focus-group discussions
A focus group is a gathering of people brought together by the researcher for the specific
purpose of discussing topics related to an area of research. The researcher has the role of the
facilitator of the discussion, although if the discussion starts to move off track, the researcher’s role
may become more of a moderator. The point of a focus group is to elicit people’s views in relation
to a topic and to examine how people make sense of certain situations and experiences through
talk. For instance, the focus group might help you understand why people in your work
environment or community believe changes need to be made to their education system, or how the
need to use English in the work environment may affect people’s performance at work
Focus groups are not suitable for all types of studies. For example, if you want to
compare the views of different groups of people, if you need the same information from a
range of people or if you need to observe actual behavior, you should use one of the previous
data collection methods (questionnaires, interviews or observations). A focus-group discussion
is not a suitable method to compile data on whether people agree or disagree with a particular
idea or phenomenon. A focus group is a public setting and, just as in any other interaction,
people may not necessarily disclose their true opinion. Participants may choose not to voice an
opinion if it is not in harmony with those expressed by other group members. Alternatively,
participants may publicly agree with an idea, but disagree in private.
Focus groups may be used in addition to other data collection methods. For instance,
after compiling data about your topic through questionnaires, you could present the focus-
group participants with a selection of the results for them to discuss. This might help you
understand the reasons underlying the views and opinions expressed in your data.
Alternatively, this method may be used at the initial phase before you collect data through
questionnaires or interviews to provide you with an insight into the range of views and
experiences a group of people has in relation to your topic. This can help you select the topics
to include in your data collection instrument. The data generated through focus groups are not
quantifiable or generalizable; that is, you shouldn’t present your findings numerically and you
shouldn’t generalize the findings from your small focus-group discussion to a larger population.
The typical group size of a focus group is around six. Larger groups offer fewer
opportunities for individuals to participate; however, if you have too few participants, the range
of views and experiences within the group will likely be narrower. Participants may all know one
another, or may be strangers. It is advisable to avoid including people of very different social or
professional status, as these hierarchies may influence how openly participants speak during the
discussion. The discussion may last around 60–90 minutes depending on the group. If the
discussion continues too long, participants may start leaving, which will inevitably change the
discussion dynamics.
Survey Method
Survey research is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Survey research
can be specific and limited, or it can have more global, widespread goals. Today, survey
research is used by a variety of different groups. Psychologists and sociologists often use survey
research to analyze behavior, while it is also used to meet the more pragmatic needs of the
media, such as, in evaluating political candidates, public health officials, professional
organizations, and advertising and marketing directors. A survey consists of a predetermined set
of questions that is given to a sample. With a representative sample, that is, one that is
136 | W e s t V i s a y a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y 2 0 2 1
representative of the larger population of interest, one can describe the attitudes of the
population from which the sample was drawn. Further, one can compare the attitudes of
different populations as well as look for changes in attitudes over time. A good sample selection
is key as it allows one to generalize the findings from the sample to the population, which is the
whole purpose of survey research.
Surveys provide a means of measuring a population’s characteristics, self-reported and
observed behavior, awareness of programs, attitudes or opinions, and needs. Repeating surveys
at regular intervals can assist in the measurement of changes over time. These types of
information are invaluable in planning and evaluating government policies and programs. Unlike
a census, where all members of a population are studied, sample surveys gather information
from only a portion of a population of interest. The size of the sample depends on the purpose
of the study. In a statistically valid survey, the sample is objectively chosen so that each member
of the population will have a known non-zero chance of selection. Only then can the results be
reliably projected from the sample to the population. The sample should not be selected
haphazardly or only from those who volunteer to participate.
Surveys are a good way of gathering a large amount of data, providing a broad
perspective. Surveys can be administered electronically, by telephone, by mail or face to face.
Mail and electronically administered surveys have a wide reach, are relatively cheap to
administer, information is standardized and privacy can be maintained. They do, however, have
a low response rate, are unable to investigate issues to any great depth, require that the target
group is literate and do not allow for any observation. As surveys are self-reported by
participants, there is a possibility that responses may be biased particularly if the issues involved
are sensitive or require some measure of disclosure on trust by the participant. It is therefore
vital that surveys used are designed and tested for validity and reliability with the target groups
who will be completing the surveys.
Data Collection Method in Survey
Commonly used methods for collecting quantitative data include telephone and face-to-
face interviews, self-completion questionnaires (such as mail, email, web-based or SMS) or
combinations of these. Each has advantages and disadvantages in terms of the cost, time,
response/consent rate and the type of information that can be collected.

1. As an action researcher (e.g., attempting to make something work better in your
school or workplace), what kinds of data would you like to collect about something that
interests you? Be very specific.
2. Select three methods of data collection. What might each of these helps you to
see and understand or learn about your targeted research participants?
Identify the method/methods of data collection applicable to your selected topic of

research. Define and discuss briefly how will each of these answer your research problem and
research questions. You may use other references.
References:
Buckingham, L. (2017). Doing a research project in English studies: A guide for

students. Routledge:
New York
Johnson, B., & Turner, L. A. (2003). Data collection strategies in mixed methods research. In A.
Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social & behavioral
research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kabir, S.M.S. (2016). Methods of data collection.

file:///C:/Users/ASUS/Downloads/MethodsofData
Collection.pdf
Lesson 11: Data Analysis

Introduction
What is the first thing that comes to mind when we see data? The first instinct is to
find patterns, connections, and relationships. We look at the data to find meaning in it.
Similarly, in research, once data is collected, the next step is to get insights from it.
For example, if a clothing brand is trying to identify the latest trends among young women,
the brand will first reach out to young women and ask them questions relevant to the
research objective. After collecting this information, the brand will analyze that data to
identify patterns — for example, it may discover that most young women would like to see
more variety of jeans.
Data analysis is how researchers go from a mass of data to meaningful insights.
There are many different data analysis methods, depending on the type of research. Here
are a few methods you can use to analyze quantitative and qualitative data.
Objectives:
cc. Discussed the importance of data analysis;
dd. Differentiated quantitative and qualitative data analysis;
ee. Identified different methods of analyzing data;
ff. Selected appropriated method of data analysis in one’s research topic.

Based on what you already know, try to define briefly these following terms:
a. mean
b. frequency
c. median
d. mode
e. standard deviation
f. coding
After reading this module, try coming back to this part and review your answers to
see if they are correct or not.
QUANTITATIVE DATA
Quantitative data are obtained when the variable being studied is measured along a
scale that indicates how much of the variable is present. Quantitative data are reported in
terms of scores. Higher scores indicate that more of the variable (such as weight, academic
ability, self-esteem, or interest in mathematics) is present than do lower scores. Some
examples of quantitative data follow.
• The amount of money spent on sports equipment by various schools in a particular
district in a semester (the variable is amount of money spent on sports equipment)
• SAT scores (the variable is scholastic aptitude)
• The temperatures recorded each day during the months of September through
December in Omaha, Nebraska, in a given year (the variable is temperature)
• The anxiety scores of all fi rst-year students enrolled at San Francisco State
University in 2002 (the variable is anxiety)
CATEGORICAL DATA
Categorical data simply indicate the total number of objects, individuals, or events a
researcher finds in a particular category. Thus, a researcher who reports the number of
people for or against a particular government policy, or the number of students completing
a program in successive years, is reporting categorical data. Notice that what the researcher
is looking for is the frequency of certain characteristics, objects, individuals, or events. Many
times it is useful, however, to convert these frequencies into percentages. Some examples
of categorical data follow.
• The representation of each ethnic group in a school (the variable is ethnicity); for
example, Caucasian, 1,462 (41 percent); black, 853 (24 percent); Hispanic,
760 (21 percent); Asian, 530 (15 percent)
• The number of male and female students in a chemistry class (the variable is
gender)
• The number of teachers in a large school district who use (1) the lecture and (2)
the discussion method (the variable is teaching method)
• The number of each type of tool found in a workroom (the variable is type of tool)
Analyzing Quantitative Data
Data Preparation
The first stage of analyzing data is data preparation, where the aim is to convert raw
data into something meaningful and readable. It includes four steps:
Step 1: Data Validation

The purpose of data validation is to find out, as far as possible, whether the data
collection was done as per the pre-set standards and without any bias. It is a four-step
process, which includes…
Fraud, to infer whether each respondent was actually interviewed or not.
Screening, to make sure that respondents were chosen as per the research criteria.
Procedure, to check whether the data collection procedure was duly followed.
Completeness, to ensure that the interviewer asked the respondent all the
questions, rather than just a few required ones.
To do this, researchers would need to pick a random sample of completed surveys

and validate the collected data. (Note that this can be time-consuming for surveys with lots
of responses.) For example, imagine a survey with 200 respondents split into 2 cities. The
researcher can pick a sample of 20 random respondents from each city. After this, the
researcher can reach out to them through email or phone and check their responses to a
certain set of questions (See lesson on Data Sampling).
Step 2: Data Editing

Typically, large data sets include errors. For example, respondents may fill fields
incorrectly or skip them accidentally. To make sure that there are no such errors, the
researcher should conduct basic data checks, check for outliers, and edit the raw research
data to identify and clear out any data points that may hamper the accuracy of the results.
For example, an error could be fields that were left empty by respondents. While
editing the data, it is important to make sure to remove or fill all the empty fields. (Here are
4 methods to deal with missing data.)
Step 3: Data Coding

This is one of the most important steps in data preparation. It refers to grouping and
assigning values to responses from the survey.
For example, if a researcher has interviewed 1,000 people and now wants to find the
average age of the respondents, the researcher will create age buckets and categorize the
age of each of the respondent as per these codes. (For example, respondents between 13-
15 years old would have their age coded as 0, 16-18 as 1, 18-20 as 2, etc.)
Then during analysis, the researcher can deal with simplified age brackets, rather
than a massive range of individual ages.
Quantitative Data Analysis Methods

After these steps, the data is ready for analysis. The two most commonly used
quantitative data analysis methods are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics
Typically, descriptive statistics (also known as descriptive analysis) is the first level of
analysis. It helps researchers summarize the data and find patterns. A few commonly used
descriptive statistics are:
Mean: It is numerical average of a set of values. The mean is another average of all
the
scores in a distribution. * It is determined by adding up all of the scores and then dividing
this sum by the total number of scores. The mean of a distribution containing scores of 52,
68, 74, 86, 95, and 105, therefore, is 80. How did we determine this? We simply added up
all the scores, which came to 480, and then divided this sum by 6, the total number of
scores. In symbolic form,
the formula for computing the mean looks like this:
where  represents “sum of,” X represents any raw score value, n represents the
total number of scores, and x̄ represents the mean.
The table above presents a frequency distribution of scores on a test and each of the
above measures of central tendency. As you can see, each of these indices tells us
something a little different. The most frequent score was 62, but would we want to say that
this was the most typical score? Probably not. The median of the scores was 64.5. The
mean was 66.7. Perhaps the mean is the best description of the distribution of scores, but it,
too, is not totally satisfactory because the distribution is skewed. The table shows that these
indices are only summaries of all the scores in a distribution and often do not have the same
value.
Which of the three averages (measures of central tendency), then, is best? It
depends. The mean is the only one of the three that uses all the information in a
distribution, since every score is used in calculating it, and it is generally preferred over the
other two measures. However, it tends to be unduly influenced by extreme scores. (Can you
see why?) On occasion, therefore, the median gives a more accurate indication of the typical
score in a distribution. Suppose, for example, that the yearly salaries earned by various
workers in a small business were as shown in table below.
The mean of these salaries is $75,000. Would it be correct to say that this is the
average yearly salary paid in this company? Obviously it would not. The extremely high
salary paid to the owner of the company “inflates” the mean, so to speak. Using it as a
summary figure to indicate the average yearly salary would give an erroneous impression. In
this instance, the median would be the more appropriate average to calculate, since it would
not be as affected by the owner’s salary. The median is $27,000, a far more accurate
indication of the typical salary for the year.
Median: The midpoint of a set of numerical values. The median is the point below
and
above which 50 percent of the scores in a distribution fall—in short, the midpoint. In a
distribution that contains an uneven number of scores, the median is the middlemost score
(provided that the scores are listed in order). Thus, in the distribution 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, the
median is 3. In a distribution that contains an even number of scores, the median is the
point halfway between the two middlemost scores. Thus, in the distribution 70, 74, 82, 86,
88, 90, the median is 84. Hence, the median is not necessarily one of the actual scores in
the distribution being summarized.
Note that two very different distributions might have the same median, as shown
below:
Distribution A: 98, 90, 84, 82, 76

Distribution B: 90, 87, 84, 65, 41
In both distributions, the median is 84.

It may look like the median is fairly easy to determine. This is usually the case with
ungrouped data. For grouped data, calculating the median requires somewhat more work. It
can, however, be estimated by locating the score that has half of the area under the
frequency polygon above it and half below it.
The median is the most appropriate average to calculate when the data result in
skewed distributions
Mode: The mode is the most frequent score ina distribution—that is, the score
attained by more students than any other score. In the following distribution, what is the
mode?
25, 20, 19, 17, 16, 16, 16, 14, 14, 11, 10, 9, 9
The mode is 16. What about this distribution?
25, 24, 24, 23, 22, 20, 19, 19, 18, 11, 10
This distribution (called a bimodal distribution) has two modes, 24 and 19.
Because the mode really doesn’t tell us very much about a distribution, however, it is not
used very often in educational research.
Percentage: It is used to express how a value or group of respondents within the
data relates to a larger group of respondents. It refers to a special kind of rates, percentage
are used in making comparison between two or more series of data. A percentage is used to
determine relationship between the series.
No. of Respondents
Percentage = ------------------------------ x 100
Total No. of Respondents
Frequency: It is the number of times a value is found. Listed below are the scores
of a group of 50 students on a midsemester biology test.
64, 27, 61, 56, 52, 51, 3, 15, 6, 34, 6, 17, 27, 17, 24,
64, 31, 29, 31, 29, 31, 29, 29, 31, 31, 29, 61, 59, 56,
34, 59, 51, 38, 38, 38, 38, 34, 36, 36, 34, 34, 36, 21,
21, 24, 25, 27, 27, 27, 63
How many students received a score of 34? Did most of the students receive a score
above 50? How many received a score below 30? As you can see, when the data are simply
listed in no apparent order, as they are here, it is difficult to tell.
To make any sense out of these data, we must put the information into some sort of
order. One of the most common ways to do this is to prepare a frequency distribution. This
is done by listing the scores in rank order from high to low, with tallies to indicate the
number of subjects receiving each score as seen in the table below.
Often, the scores in a distribution are grouped into intervals. This results in a
grouped frequency distribution, as shown in the following table.
Although frequency distributions like the ones in the previous tables can be quite
informative, often the information they contain is hard to visualize. To further the
understanding and interpretation of quantitative data, it is helpful to present it in a graph.
Range: The overall range represents the distance between the highest and lowest
scores in a distribution. Thus, if the highest score in a distribution is 89 and the lowest is 11,
the range would be 89–11, or 78. Because it involves only the two most extreme scores in a
distribution, the range is but a crude indication of variability. Its main advantage is that it
gives a quick (although rough) estimate of variability.
Standard Deviation. The standard deviation (SD) is the most useful index of
variability.
It is a single number that represents the spread of a distribution. As with the mean, every
score in the distribution is used to calculate it. The steps involved in calculating the standard
deviation are straightforward.
Descriptive statistics provide absolute numbers. However, they do not explain the
rationale or reasoning behind those numbers. Before applying descriptive statistics, it’s
important to think about which one is best suited for your research question and what you
want to show. For example, a percentage is a good way to show the gender distribution of
respondents.
Descriptive statistics are most helpful when the research is limited to the sample and
does not need to be generalized to a larger population. For example, if you are comparing
the percentage of children vaccinated in two different villages, then descriptive statistics is
enough.
Since descriptive analysis is mostly used for analyzing single variable, it is often
called univariate analysis.
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Qualitative data analysis works a little differently from quantitative data, primarily
because qualitative data is made up of words, observations, images, and even symbols.
Deriving absolute meaning from such data is nearly impossible; hence, it is mostly used for
exploratory research. While in quantitative research there is a clear distinction between the
data preparation and data analysis stage, analysis for qualitative research often begins as
soon as the data is available.
Data analysis in qualitative research is an iterative and continuously comparative
process that involves reducing and retrieving large amounts of written (and sometimes
pictorial) information. Qualitative data are usually obtained from interviews, observations,
and focus groups. The technique that qualitative researchers most often use to analyze their
data is called coding. Strauss and Corbin (1998) define coding in qualitative studies “ as the
analytic process through which data are fractured, conceptualized and integrated to form
theory.”
In general, codes are tags or labels for assigning meaning to chunks of data. When
coding a sentence or paragraph, the coder tries to capture succinctly the major idea brought
out by the sentence or paragraph. Qualitative codes can be descriptive or interpretive and
are usually generated a priori (selective coding) or emerge inductively (open coding) from
data. Codes and subcodes are often refined iteratively by qualitative researchers as they
strive to make sense of their data through categorization, thematic analysis, and in some
cases advanced theory building.
Data Preparation and Basic Data Analysis

Analysis and preparation happen in parallel and include the following steps:
Getting familiar with the data: Since most qualitative data is just words, the researcher
should start by reading the data several times to get familiar with it and start looking for
basic observations or patterns. This also includes transcribing the data.
Revisiting research objectives: Here, the researcher revisits the research objective and
identifies the questions that can be answered through the collected data.
Developing a framework: Also known as coding or indexing, here the researcher
identifies broad ideas, concepts, behaviors, or phrases and assigns codes to them. For
example, coding age, gender, socio-economic status, and even concepts such as the
positive or negative response to a question. Coding is helpful in structuring and labeling the
data.
Identifying patterns and connections: Once the data is coded, the research can start
identifying themes, looking for the most common responses to questions, identifying data or
patterns that can answer research questions, and finding areas that can be explored further.
Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

Several methods are available to analyze qualitative data. The most commonly used
data analysis methods are:
Content analysis: This is one of the most common methods to analyze qualitative data. It
is used to analyze documented information in the form of texts, media, or even physical
items. When to use this method depends on the research questions. Content analysis is
usually used to analyze responses from interviewees.
Narrative analysis: This method is used to analyze content from various sources, such as
interviews of respondents, observations from the field, or surveys. It focuses on using the
stories and experiences shared by people to answer the research questions.
Discourse analysis: Like narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze
interactions with people. However, it focuses on analyzing the social context in which the
communication between the researcher and the respondent occurred. Discourse analysis
also looks at the respondent’s day-to-day environment and uses that information during
analysis.
Grounded theory: This refers to using qualitative data to explain why a certain
phenomenon happened. It does this by studying a variety of similar cases in different
settings and using the data to derive causal explanations. Researchers may alter the
explanations or create new ones as they study more cases until they arrive at an
explanation that fits all cases.
These methods are the ones used most commonly. However, other data analysis
methods, such as conversational analysis, are also available.
Data analysis is perhaps the most important component of research. Weak analysis
produces inaccurate results that not only hamper the authenticity of the research but also
make the findings unusable. It’s imperative to choose your data analysis methods carefully
to ensure that your findings are insightful and actionable.
1. Use the line plot below to answer the questions that follow.
What is the mean? ______ What is the median? _____

What is the mode? ______ What is the range? ______
2. Use the graph below to find the average number of books read by the kids surveyed
at the library last week.
What is the mean? ______ What is the median? _____

What is the mode? ______ What is the range? ______
3. Find the mean of the following numbers: 4, 5, 6, 4, 8, 10, 12, 15 ___________

4. Find the mode of the following numbers: 4, 5, 6, 4, 8, 10, 12, 15 ___________
5. Find the median of the following numbers: 4, 5, 6, 4, 8, 10, 12, 15 ___________
6. Descriptive statistics are mathematical techniques which are used make inferences
about the population of interest based on data collected from a representative
sample.
True False
For items 7 to 10, choose your answer from the box.
mean median mode range
frequency coding standard deviation
7. It is the sum of values divided by the number of items.

8. It is the 50th percentile or midpoint of the sorted sample data set.
9. It is the most frequently occurring data value.
10. It the analytic process through which data are fractured, conceptualized, and
integrated to form theory.
What method or methods of data analysis will you use in your action research?
Explain each briefly.
Answer Key
1. mean: 6, median: 6, mode: 0 (because there is no repeating number), range: 4
2. mean: 4.6, median: 4 mode: 0, range: 6
3. 8 4. 4 5. 7 6. True 7. mean 8. median 9. mode 10. coding
References:
Bathia, M. (2018). Your guide to qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods .
https://humansofdata.atlan.com/2018/09/qualitative-quantitative-data-analysis-
methods/
Fraenkel, J.R., Hyun, H.H., Wallen, N.E.. (2019). How to design and evaluate research in
education. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lesson 12: Sampling

Introduction
The way in which we select a sample of individuals to be research participants is
critical. How we select participants (random sampling) will determine the population to
which we may generalize our research findings. The procedure that we use for assigning
participants to different treatment conditions (random assignment) will determine whether
bias exists in our treatment groups (Are the groups equal on all known and unknown
factors?).
If we do a poor job at the sampling stage of the research process, the integrity of
the entire project is at risk. If we are interested in the effect of TV violence on children,
which children are we going to observe? Where do they come from? How many? How will
they be selected? These are important questions.
Objectives:
gg. Discussed what is sampling;
hh. Enumerated the different types of sampling and the different methods under each;
ii. Described each type and methods;
jj. Identify the appropriate sampling method of a specific research sample; and
kk. Select the applicable sampling method to one’s own research.

How do you differ a population from a sample? How important is it to know these
concepts when conducting a research?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________
Before describing sampling procedures, we need to define a few key terms. The term
population means all members that meet a set of specifications or a specified criterion. For
example, the population of the United States is defined as all people residing in the United
States. A single member of any given population is referred to as an element. When only
some elements are selected from a population, we refer to that as a sample.
What is sampling?
 Sampling is the process of selecting observations (a sample) to provide an
adequate description and inferences of the population.
 It is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way
that the individuals represent the larger group from which they were selected.
 It is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a
representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or
characteristics of the whole population.
A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that population” (Field, 2015).
All universities in the Philippines
All universities in Iloilo
List of Cebu universities
Three universities in Iloilo

Definition of Terms
Population is a complete set of elements (persons or objects) that possess some common
characteristic defined by the sampling criteria established by the researcher.
1. Target population (universe) is the entire group of people or objects to which
the researcher wishes to generalize the study findings.
2. Accessible population is the portion of the population to which the researcher
has reasonable access OR a subset of the target population.
Sampling Frame is a list of all the elements in the population from which the sample is
drawn.
Sampling design: A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the
sampling frame. Sampling design is determined before any data are collected.
Statistic(s) and parameter(s):
A statistic is a characteristic of a sample, whereas a parameter is a characteristic of
a population. The population mean (µ) is a parameter, whereas the sample mean ( X ) is a
statistic.
For example, say you want to know the mean income of the subscribers to a
particular magazine—a parameter of a population. You draw a random sample of 100
subscribers and determine that their mean income is $27,500 (a statistic). You conclude that
the population mean income μ is likely to be close to $27,500 (a parameter) as well. This
example is one of statistical inference.
Sample Errors
Sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection process as a result of
taking a sample from a population rather than using the whole population.
 Statistical errors are sample error.
 We have no control over it.
 It is affected by a number of factors including:
 sample size.
 the variability within the population.
 sample design.
Non-sampling error
Non-sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection process as a result of
factors other than taking a sample. It is not controlled by sample size.
Element - a single indivisible entity of a population.

Exhaustive list - a list which contains each and every element in a way that not a single
element is left.
Generalizability - the extent to which inferences drawn from a sample are true for the
population.
Heterogeneous population - a population the elements of which are not similar to each
other.
Homogenous population - a population whose every element is similar regarding the
variables required for the research.
Lottery method - method of selecting elements by taking out the slips from a bowl, box
etc.
Mutually exclusive category - a category of sampling technique which is totally different
and is not a sub or super category of other types.
Participant - a person taking part in a research.
Sampling bias - a situation where the selected sample does not truly reflect the
characteristics of population.
Subgroups - groups within a population that differ from one another on some variables.
Systematic errors - the errors that are caused by over or under representation of some
characteristics of population in the sample.
Why just a sample and not the whole population?
A major reason studying samples rather than the whole group is that the whole
group is so large that studying it is not feasible. Example, all the college students in WVSU
system. If we can study the whole population, we do not need to go through the sampling
procedures. Much research is based on samples of people.
These are the other reasons:
 When it is impossible to study the whole population.
 Cost efficient
 More accuracy of results
 High speed of data collection
 Availability of population elements.
 Less field time.
Stages in the Selection of a Sample
Types of Quantitative Sampling
probability
sampling
simple stratified multi-

cluster systematic
random random stage
non-probability
sampling
convenience purposive quota snowball
Probability Sampling Methods

Probability sampling is also called as random sampling or representative sampling. In
probability sampling every member of the population has a known (non zero) probability of
being included in the sample. The probabilities can be assigned to each unit of the
population objectively. These techniques need population to be very precisely defined.
These techniques cannot be used for the population that is too general a category found
almost everywhere in the world. For instance, if our target population is defined as college
students. It means person studying at any college of the world is an element of our
population. In this case, probability sampling can be done as the population is precisely
defined and limited to an infinite number of elements.
Advantages
 This sampling technique reduces the chance of systematic errors.
 The methods minimize the chance of sampling biases.
 A better representative sample is produced using probability sampling techniques.
 Inferences drawn from sample are generalizable to the population.
Disadvantages
 The techniques need a lot of efforts.
 A lot of time is consumed.
 They are expensive.
Types of probability sampling methods

The following methods are used for probability sampling:
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Random Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multistage Sampling
Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling is applicable when population is small, homogeneous &
readily available. It undergoes selecting subjects so that all members of a population have
an equal and independent chance of being selected.
In this type of sampling each and every element of the population has an equal
chance of being selected in the sample. The population must contain a finite number of
elements that can be listed or mapped. Every element must be mutually exclusive i.e., able
to distinguish from one another and does not have any overlapping characteristics.
The population must also be homogenous i.e., every element contains same kind of
characteristics that meets the described criteria of target population.
Advantages
 Easy method to use.
 No need of prior information of population.
 Equal and independent chance of selection to every element.
 High probability of achieving a representative sample.
 Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures.
Disadvantages
 If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.
 Does not represent proportionate representation.
 Identification of all members of the population can be difficult.
 Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult.
Randomly Systematically
select the select random
Develop Assign each
Define required numbers until
sampling unit a
population amount of it meets the
frame number
random sample size
numbers requirements
Selecting random samples
Stratified random sampling

The population is divided into two or more groups, called strata, according to some
criterion, such as geographic location, grade level, age, or income, and subsamples are
randomly selected from each stratum.
This type of sampling method is used when population is heterogeneous. i.e. every
element of population does not matches all the characteristics of the predefined criteria.
Instead, the elements differ from one another on a characteristic. So, the subgroups that
are formed that are homogenous i.e. all the elements within a group contain same kind of
characteristics (keep in mind, those characteristics are to be taken into account that defines
the target population). The subgroups are called as strata (single stratum).
The topic and nature of the investigation tells on what criterion the strata are to be
made. Common criterions used for stratification are gender, age, ethnicity, socioeconomic
status. However, the criterion vary greatly investigation to investigation.
This formation of strata can also be called a mini reproduction of population as each
stratum consists of elements that are different from other strata’s element in some
characteristics. For instance, if an investigation is taking young adults into account, so this
population may need to be divided (of course, on the basis of what the investigation is
about) into subgroups like male young adults and female young adults, educated young
adults and uneducated young adults, high income young adults and low-income young
adults etc. in this way each stratum is a different population. The sample is selected from
each stratum randomly.
There are two techniques that are used to allocate sample from strata:
proportional allocation technique and equal allocation technique. Using proportional
allocation technique, the sample size of a stratum is made proportional to the number of
elements present in the stratum. Using equal allocation technique same number of
participants is drawn from each stratum regardless of the number of elements in each
stratum.
Identify the
variable and Classify all
subgroups (i.e., members of the
Identify and Determine the
strata) for which population as
define the desired sample
you want to members of one
population size
guarantee of the identified
appropriate subgroups
representation
Selecting stratified random samples
Advantages
• More accurate sample
• Can be used for both proportional and non-proportional samples
• Representation of subgroups in the sample
• Enhancement of representativeness to each sample
• Higher statistical efficiency
• Easy to carry out
Disadvantages
• Identification of all members of the population can be difficult
• Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult
• Classification error
• Time consuming and expensive
• Prior knowledge of composition and of distribution of population
Cluster Sampling
The group of elements residing in one geographical region is called as cluster.
Clusters are locations within which an intact group of members of the population can be
found e.g. neighborhoods, school districts, schools, classrooms.
This sampling technique is used when the elements of population are spread over a
wide geographical area. The population is divided into sub-groups called as clusters on the
basis of their geographical allocation. Usually, this division of population is similar to what
the standard of division has been used yet. For instance, population spread over a country is
clustered up into cities, population spread over a city is clustered up into towns etc. The
clusters ought to be homogenous among them on the characteristic variable of the research.
However, for being truly representative sample, the selected clusters must capture the
heterogeneity of population. For instance, if in the selection of towns only small towns are
selected leaving behind the bigger towns, the sample is not going to be a true
representative of the population.
Develop Determine the Systematic

sampling frame proportion of sampling methods
Define each
according to can then be
population population
characteristics followed to select
required variable of sample unit
interest
Selecting clustered samples
Advantages
• Very useful when populations are large and spread over a large geographic region
• Convenient and expedient
• Do not need the names of everyone in the population
Disadvantages
• Representation is likely to become an issue
What is the Difference Between Stratified Sampling and Cluster Sampling?
The main difference between stratified sampling and cluster sampling is that

with cluster sampling, you have natural groups separating your population. For example,
you might be able to divide your data into natural groupings like city blocks, voting districts
or school districts. With stratified random sampling, these breaks may not exist*, so you
divide your target population into groups (more formally called "strata").
In stratified sampling, a sample is drawn from each strata (using a random
sampling method like simple random sampling or systematic sampling). In the image below,
let's say you need a sample size of 6. Two members from each group (yellow, red, and
blue) are selected randomly. Make sure to sample proportionally: In this simple example,
1/3 of each group (2/6 yellow, 2/6 red and 2/6 blue) has been sampled. If you have one
group that's a different size, make sure to adjust your proportions. For example, if you had
9 yellow, 3 red and 3 blue, a 5-item sample would consist of 3/9 yellow (i.e. one third), 1/3
red and 1/3 blue.
In cluster sampling, the sampling unit is the whole cluster; Instead of sampling
individuals from within each group, a researcher will study whole clusters. In the image
below, the strata are natural groupings by head color (yellow, red, blue). A sample size of 6
is needed, so two of the complete strata are selected randomly (in this example, groups 2
and 4 are chosen).
Systematic Random Sampling
This type of sampling is also used for homogenous population. It is a bit different
from simple random sampling. Unlike simple random sampling, there is not an equal
probability of every element been included. In this type of sampling, the elements are
selected at a regular interval. The interval may be in terms of time, space, or order. For
instance, an element appearing after every 30 minutes, or present at a distance of two
meters, or every 5th element present on a list. Thus, this regularity and uniformity in
selection makes the sampling systematic.
The list of elements may or may not be required before the conduction of research.
Sometimes, it is not even possible to create a list because of the nature of population. Say,
if it is possible to tell who is going to visit the coffee shop today.
Work out Select First unit

what according to select by
Decide fraction of fraction (100 random
Develop
Define the the frame sample from numbers
samplin
population sample the 1,000 frame then every
g frame
size sample then 10% so nth unit
size every 10th selected (e.g.
represents unit) every 10th)
Example:
To select a sample of 25 dorm rooms in your college dorm, makes a list of all the
room numbers in the dorm. For example, there are 100 rooms. Divide the total number of
rooms (100) by the number of rooms you want in the sample (25). The answer is 4. This
means that you are going to select every fourth dorm room from the list.
Then, we have to determine the random starting point. This step can be done by
picking any point on the table of random numbers and read across or down until you come
to a number between 1 and 4. This is your random starting point. For instance, your
random starting point is "3". This means you select dorm room 3 as your first room, and
then every fourth room down the list (3, 7, 11, 15, 19, etc.) until you have 25 rooms
selected.
Advantage
 Very easily done
Disadvantages
 Subgroups
 Some members of the population do not have an equal chance of being included.
Multistage Sampling
It is a sampling technique where two or more probability techniques are combined.
Multistage sampling is used when the elements of population are spread over a wide
geographical region and it is not possible to obtain a representative sample with only one
aforementioned technique. It can be described as sampling within the sample. The final unit
or element of population which is used in investigation is obtained after sampling at several
stages.
 Applied to a multistage design where the population is too vast and researching
every individual is impossible.
 To gather student perceptions from students belonging to various colleges, studying
different courses and located throughout the country.
 To survey employees of a multinational company belonging to multiple locations in
multiple countries.
 Government bureaus use this method all the time to draw inferences from the
population.
Steps to conduct multistage sampling
There are four multistage steps to conduct multistage sampling:
1. Choose a sampling frame, considering the population of interest. The researcher
allocates a number to every group and selects a small sample of relevant separate
groups.
2. Select a sampling frame of relevant separate sub-groups. Do this from related,
different discrete groups selected in the previous stage.
3. Repeat the second step if necessary.
4. Using some variation of probability sampling, choose the members of the sample
group from the sub-groups.
Here’s an example of a multistage design. Setting it up is easy.

Let’s consider the sample location as the USA. The research goal is to assess the
online spending trends of people in the US through an online questionnaire. Researchers can
form their sample group comprising 200 households in the following manner:
Firstly, choose the number of states using simple random sampling (or any other
probability sampling). For example, select ten states.
Secondly, choose five districts within each state using the systematic sampling
method (or any other probability sampling).
Thirdly, choose four households from each district using the systematic sampling or
simple random sampling method. You will end up with 200 houses that you can include in
the sample group for research.
Advantages
 It allows researchers to apply cluster or random sampling after determining the
groups.
 Researchers can apply multistage sampling to make clusters and sub-clusters until
the researcher reaches the desired size or type of group.
 Researchers can divide the population into groups without restrictions. It allows
flexibility to the researchers to choose the sample carefully.
 It is useful while collecting primary data from a geographically dispersed population.
 Cost-effective and time-effective because this method helps cut down the population
into smaller groups.
 Finding the right survey sample becomes very convenient for researchers.
 The researcher mindfully chooses the audience. It decreases the issues faced during
random sampling.
 It does not need a complete list of all the members of the target population,
dramatically reducing sample preparation cost.
Disadvantages
 Some members of the population don’t have an equal chance of being included
Roscoe (in Sekaran, 2010) proposed the rules of thumb for determining
sample size where sample size larger than 30 and less than 500 are
appropriate for most research, and the minimum size of sample should be
30% of the population. The size of the sample depends on a number of
factors and the researchers have to give the statistically information
before they can get an answer. For example, these information like
(confidence level, standard deviation, margin of error and population size)
to determine the sample size.
Non-probability Sampling Methods

Non-probability sampling/non-parametric sampling is a sampling technique where
the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population
equal chances of being selected. In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected
deliberately by the researcher. The sample may or may not be representative of the
population, and this can influence the external validity of the study.
Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is also called “grab”, “opportunity”, “accidental” or
“haphazard” sampling. It the process of including whoever happens to be available at the
time. For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a shopping center early in
the morning on a given day, the people that he/she could interview would be limited to
those given there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other members
of society in such an area, if the survey was to be conducted at different times of day and
several times per week.
It is most useful for pilot testing.
Advantage
 A sample selected for ease of access, immediately known population group and good
response rate.
Disadvantage
 Cannot generalize findings (do not know what population group the sample is
representative of) so cannot move beyond describing the sample.
 Difficulty in determining how much of the effect (dependent variable) results from
the cause (independent variable).
Purposive sampling
Purposive sampling, also referred to as judgment, selective or subjective sampling is
a non-probability sampling method that is characterized by a deliberate effort to gain
representative samples by including groups or typical areas in a sample. Here, researcher
has sufficient knowledge of topic to select sample and subjects are chosen in this sampling
method according to the type of the topic. The researcher chooses the sample based on
who they think would be appropriate for the study.
Advantage
Based on the experienced person’s judgment.
Disadvantage
Cannot measure the representativeness of the sample.
Quota sampling
Quota sampling is the process whereby a researcher gathers data from individuals
possessing identified characteristics and quotas.
PROCESS
 The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as
in stratified sampling.
 Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment based on
a specified proportion.
 For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300
males between the age of 45 and 60.
Advantages
 Contains specific subgroups in the proportions desired
 May reduce bias
 Easy to manage, quick
Disadvantages
 Dependent on subjective decisions
 Not possible to generalize
 Only reflects population in terms of the quota, possibility of bias in selection, no
standard error
Sampling in Qualitative Research

Researchers in qualitative research select their participants according to their:
 characteristics
 knowledge
Purposeful sampling is when the researcher chooses persons or sites which provide
specific knowledge about the topic of the study.
Types of Purposeful Sampling

1) Maximal Variation Sampling
2) Typical Sampling
3) Theory or Concept Sampling
4) Homogeneous Sampling
5) Critical Sampling
6) Opportunistic Sampling
7) Snowball Sampling
Maximal Variation Sampling
It is when you select individuals that differ on a certain characteristic. In this strategy you
should first identify the characteristic and then find individuals or sites which display that
characteristic.
Typical Sampling
It is when you study a person or a site that is “typical” to those unfamiliar with the situation.
You can select a typical sample by collecting demographic data or survey data about all
cases.
Theory or Concept Sampling
It is when you select individuals or sites because they can help you to generate a theory or
specific concepts within the theory. In this strategy you need a full understanding of the
concept, or the theory expected to discover during the study.
Homogeneous Sampling
It is when you select certain sites or people because they possess similar characteristics. In
this strategy, you need to identify the characteristics and find individuals or sites that
possess it.
Critical Sampling
It is when you study an exceptional case represents the central phenomenon in dramatic
terms.
Opportunistic Sampling
It is used after data collection begins, when you may find that you need to collect new
information to answer your research questions.
Snowball Sampling
It is when you don't know the best people to study because of the unfamiliarity of the topic
or the complexity of events. So, you ask participants during interviews to suggest other
individuals to be sampled.

Determine whether the following statements are true or false. To do this, print or copy this
page on a blank paper and underline or circle the answer.
1. A population is a complete set of elements (persons or objects) that possess some
common characteristic defined by the sampling criteria.
True | False
2. There are three ways to collect a sample from a sampling frame: randomly, non-
randomly, and categorically.
True | False
3. The number of newborn babies in Asia is an example of a population.
True | False
4. Specifying a sampling frame goes before identifying the population of interest.
True | False
5. The last part of the sampling process is determining the sample size of a population.
True | False
6. Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals within a population to
estimate characteristics of the whole population.
True | False
7. Non-random sampling refers to a variety of selection techniques in which sample
members are selected by chance.
True | False
8. The sample size measures the number of individual samples measured or observations
used in a survey or experiment.
True | False
9. The names of people in your town, that you plan to survey on family size, belong in a
sample frame.
True | False
10. A sample pertains to a set of individuals or objects collected or selected from a
population.
True | False
Since you are doing an action research, how will you select your participants? What
sampling method or methods will you use? Discuss briefly.
Answer Key
1. True 2. False, because the correct statement is, There are two ways to collect a sample from a sampling frame: randomly
and non-randomly. 3. True 4. False, because the correct statement is, Specifying a sampling frame comes after identifying the
population of interest. 5. False, because the correct statement is, The last part of the sampling process is implementing the
sampling plan. 6. True 7. False, because the correct statement is, Random sampling refers to a variety of selection techniques
in which sample members are selected by chance. 8. True 9. True 10. True
References:
Cochran, WG (2016). Sampling techniques. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Dr Nic. (2014) Sampling error and non-sampling error. Statistics Learning center. Available from
https://learnandteachstatistics.wordpress.com/2014/09/04/sampling-and-non-sampling-
error/
Explorable.com (2009). Non-probability sampling. https://explorable.com/non- probability-

sampling
Jackson, C. (2014) Systematic Random Samples: Definition, Formula & Advantages.

http://study.com/. Available from: http://study.com/academy/lesson/systematic-random-
samples-definition-formula-advantages.html
Latham B. (2007). Sampling: What is it? Quantitative research methods.

http://webpages.acs.ttu.edu/rlatham/Coursework/5377(Quant))/Sampling_Methodology_
Paper.pdf.
Kothari CR. Research methodology, methods and techniques . 2nd Edition. 2004, New Age
International (P) Ltd. New Delhi,Chapter 8, Sampling Fundamentals. 153-183
Sharada. Sampling: A scientific method of data collection . Powerpoint presentation. Available

from http://www.slideshare.net/rambhu21/sampling-and-sampling-errors-19870549
Singh YK. Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics. New Age International (P).
2006. Chapter 5, Research Planning and Sampling: 77-98
Unit IV. Language and Education Research Writing and Presentation
Introduction
Writing a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and
writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, it can also be
a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research
process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps
you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.
Regardless of the nature of your research, if you are writing a paper an outline will
help you to not only organize your thoughts, but also serve as the template for your entire
paper. An outline for a research paper is a visual reminder to include all of the pertinent
details of your research into your essay or paper. It is essentially a skeletal version of the
true paper, and will guide you through the entire process.
Dividing your research paper into various components will help you to stay better organized
and reduce the risk of important information being forgotten or unintentionally omitted.
Furthermore, breaking the essay down into these parts will allow you to address specific
parts individually and lessen the chances of feeling overwhelmed. Each respective part
serves a specific purpose and how you arrange information in your outline will drive how
your paper reads upon completion. Thereby, formatting a research paper shouldn’t take
more time than the research itself. Knowing its most important parts helps you organize
your paper quickly. It can also help to guide and frame your research.
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students must have:
1. Identified the different parts and sections of a research proposal;

2. Demonstrated an ability to write the parts of a research proposal using the
prescribed institutional format;
3. Prepared a draft of a research proposal.
Lesson 13 – The Parts of a Research Paper (The Institutional Format)
A research proposal is usually divided into three sections corresponding to the three
chapters of the study, namely: Chapter 1 – Introduction to the Study; Chapter 2 – Review of
Related Literature and Studies; Chapter 3 – Research Design and Methodology.
In writing the different parts of the research paper, it is suggested also that the
preliminary parts be included.
Writing the Preliminaries.
 Title Page
The title page should include the title of the study, requirement heading,
name of the school, city location, the school, the subject in which the paper is
a requirement, the name/s of the researcher/s and the month and year of
submission.
The title is written as much as possible, in one line; when more than one line,
it follows the inverted pyramid form.
Whenever there are two or more researchers, the order of their family name
follows the alphabetical arrangement.
(Note: All pages of the manuscript should have a header.)
Example of a Cover Page:
WEST VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY
Lambunao Campus
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Lambunao, Iloilo
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING ECHNIQUES TILIZED BY LANGUAGE TEACHERS
A Research Proposal
Presented to
The Committee on Research
College of Education
West Visayas State University – Lambunao Campus

Top Margin- 1 inch Font Size
Lambunao, Iloilo 14, Tahoma, Bold, ALL CAPS
12, Tahoma, Bold
14, Tahoma, Bold ALL CAPS
12, Tahoma, Bold
In Partial Fulfilment
of the Requirements for the Course – ELT 207
(Language Research in Education)
Bachelor of Secondary Education
(English)
by
The distance from
header to the text The title Must be ALL
should be 3 single CAPS and in inverted
spaces pyramid format
174 | W ore s2 tdouble
Visayas State University 2021
spaces.
Name of Researcher/s
Month/Year
 Approval Sheet
In the undergraduate level, here is a model, of the approval sheet which
follows the title page.
APPROVAL SHEET
A Research Proposal for the Course, ELT 207
(Language and Education Research)
Bachelor of Secondary Education
(English)
by
(Name of Researcher/s)
Approved by the Research Committee:
__________________________________
(Print Name, All Caps), Chairperson
_________________________________
( Print Name, All Caps), Member
_________________________________
( Print Name, All Caps), Adviser
_____________________________
(Print Name, All Caps), Chairperson/
Dean
Month/Year
 The Acknowledgment
It reflects the researcher/s expression of appreciation for the assistance and
encouragement extended to him/ her/them in making the research paper.
Pronouns used must be in the 3rd person.
Example:
The researcher/s would like to thank the following for the accomplishment of the paper:
Prof. __________, adviser, for the consideration and understanding;
Prof. __________,editor, reading and correcting the entire manustcript;
Their parents, for the unconditional love, moral, emotional and especially financial
support; and
The Space between

Above all, to the great God Almighty, for the precious priceless gifts of love so that the
main texts and the
researcher/s may enjoy and value his/her/their work, and for being the great source of
researchers’ names
wisdom, hope and strength. should have 2
double spaces.
Acknowledgements
should
To allinclude onlythis
of them, those
effort is humbly dedicated. Adjust spaces if
who have direct names and date
involvement in the could still fit the
completion of the study 2 Double page
Spaces
(Name/s of Researcher/s)
(Month and Year)
 The Abstract
Abstract of the proposal gives an overview of the study, the specific research
problems and the corresponding hypothesis the researcher intends to pursue,
the respondents or the participants, the source of data, the data gathering
instrument, the planned procedure, and the statistical tools to be used in the
future analysis of data.
The page starts with the title line written single spaced. This includes the
name/s of the researcher/s followed by the title of the study with quotation
marks, the nature of the research paper, i.e. unpublished research paper,
undergraduate thesis, the name of the school and address, and the year of
completion of research.
It is written doubled space and no indention is required. The first paragraph
usually summarizes salient aspects of Chapters 1 and 3; Chapter 2 is no
longer reflected in the abstract.
Example:
Aguilar, Mary Rose A. and Gallego, Marie Therese G. Career Path of AB English
Graduates: A Tracer Study. A Research Proposal, Bachelor of Secondary
Education, West Visayas State University – Lambunao Campus, Lambunao, Iloilo.
Abstract
This study aims to determine the career path of the Bachelor of Arts in English graduates
from batches 2015 to 2020 using a validated questioner-checklist. Seventy four (74)
graduates will respond to the set questioner-checklist to be used in the study. The data
gathered will be analysed using frequency, percentages and ranks.
(Note: Hanging indentions must have 5 single spaces from the left margin)
 The Table of Contents

(Including the list of figure/s, table/s, and appendices when applicable)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Double Space
Page
Title Page i
Approval Sheet ii
Acknowledgment iii
Abstract iv
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
1 should be placed under letter p of chapter

List of Appendices vii
The title of the chapter should appear after 1 tab (5 spaces)

Chapter
Chapter Titles must be ALL CAPS

1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 1
Background and Conceptual Framework of the Study 2
3 Spaces indention
Statement of the Problem 4
Significance of the Study 5
Definition of Terms 7
Subheading should be
indented three spaces under
Delimitation of the Study 8
the chapter title.
2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 10
The English Language 10
Importance of English Language
3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Research Design
 Writing Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Introduction to the Study
It is divided into subtopics, namely: (1) Background and Theoritical/Conceptual

Framework of the Study, (2) Statement of the Problem and Hypothesis, (3) Definition
of Terms, (4) Delimitation of the Study, and (Significance of the Study).
Background and Theoritical Framework of the Study

This part presents the overview of the study, justifies the rationale for the current
study, and states the origin of the problem by telling how the current study is born.
More often than not, it includes literature citation that gives the readers background
information about the problem.
It also presents the theoretical framework for the study and related views to which
the study is anchored.
Example:
Title: Correlation of the Use of Taglish and the Proficiency among College students
(Morrondoz, R. in Posecion, Go, & Albano, 2011)
Filipinos are bilingual. They speak with their mother tongue and take pride
in being one of the best English speaking races in the globe. Because of
globalization trend, different new cultures and practices have been adopted by the
Filipinos, and one of this is Taglish.
When the bilingual policy was implemented in Philippine schools by the
government in 1987, the Filipino language or the regional dialect, together with
the English language, became the medium of instructions in school—the former, in
basic education and the latter, in secondary and tertiary education. Consequently,
more and more Filipinos have been speaking in their native tongue and English
simultaneously, and as time passes by, speak in their first language with stretches
of some English words or vice versa during a conversation.
In Tagalog-speaking regions, these combinations called taglish became the
common medium for most everyday from “Good morning ‘po sa yo’ to ‘Aalis nap o
ako, Goodbye!” Nowadays, people rarely communicate directly in straight English
or Tagalog. As a result, there are now claims that Taglish is slowly corrupting the
English abilities of Filipinos thus making the country lose its pride as one of the
good English speaking nations of the world.
The researcher decided to make a study regarding this issue to determine
whether Taglish indeed plays a significant role on the steady decline of English
abilities of Filipino students.
Conceptual Framework
It illustrates the visual representation of an expected relationship between

variables of the study. While the theoretical framework makes use of abstract
concepts, the conceptual framework utilizes specific or well defined ones which are
called constructs.
It is illustrated in a form of schematic diagram sometimes called a paradigm
which shows the interrelatedness of theoretical and conceptual frameworks.
Example:
Title: Vocabulary Building Techniques in Developing Reading Comprehension Skills
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Techniques Reading
Vocabulary Comprehension
Skills
Figure 1. Reading comprehension skills and vocabulary techniques
Statement of the Problem and Hypothesis
It is usually stated in one broad statement followed by specific questions that relate
to the problem.
It also enumerates the specific questions or problems the study hopes to answer or
solve.
The statement of the problem is followed by the formulation of the research
hypothesis.
Example:
Generally, this study is geared to determine the vocabulary building techniques
used by teachers in enhancing reading comprehension of college students.
Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions:
1. What is the most common vocabulary building technique utilized by English
teachers to develop reading comprehension of their students?
2. What is the level of students’ reading comprehension?
3. Is there a significant difference on the use of vocabulary building technique
used by the teacher and the level of students’ reading comprehension?
Research Hypothesis (The Null Hypothesis)
There is no significant difference on the use of vocabulary building technique used
by the teacher and the level of students’ reading comprehension.
Definition of Terms
This part establishes clarity and single mindedness in the meaning of the key terms,
such as the variables, and other important terms used in the study. These terms are defined
conceptually and operationally. The key terms are taken from the research title, the
problems, the variables, as well as treatment set up as the case may be.
Conceptual Definitions are extracted from literature of authorities, and are followed
by the author citation and year of publication.
Operational Definitions are established by the researcher as how the terms are
actually used in the study, thus, they are not followed by author citation.
Note: Terms are arranged in alphabetical order; stated in a complete sentence.
Example:
Reading comprehension--is a process of constructing meaning with the use of

some clues in the text of a schemata or background knowledge of the reader about the
text. It creates an interaction between the author and the reader (Baracenos, 2005).
As used in the study, reading comprehension refers to the result of the reading
comprehension test given to the respondents.
Delimitation of the Study
Delimitations are the characteristics that limit the scope and describe the boundaries
of the study, such as the sample size, geographical location or setting in which
the study takes place, population traits, etc. Additionally, the researcher might also
choose to use some research tools and methodologies to collect data but not others .
Example:
This descriptive correlational study, will determine the use of vocabulary building
technique used by English teachers to enhance the reading comprehension skills of B.S.
Education students in state colleges in the 4rth District of Iloilo for the year ______.
The respondents will be the 50 English teachers and 150 B.S. Education students who
will be both chosen randomly. In ascertaining the vocabulary techniques used by the
teachers for enhancing reading comprehension skills among students, a checklist of
vocabulary techniques will be used, while in determining the reading comprehension skills
of the students, a standardized reading comprehension test will be utilized.
Descriptive statistical tools to be used in the analysis of the data will be the mean
and standard deviation. Mann-Whitney U test and Spearman rho will be used for
inferential statistical analysis. The level of significance is set at 0.05 alpha.
Significance of the Study
It states why the problem investigated is important in a general sense.

It also considers the significance of the result of your study later on, and not the
conduct of the study itself.
The researcher must justify his/her choice of the problem by showing the practical
importance of the outcome of the study especially to the intended readers.
Example:
English Teachers. The outcome of the study will provide them valuable insights in
their choice of employing effective technique to use in enhancing reading comprehension
of their students.
Students. Future result of the study may expand their knowledge on the use of
appropriate vocabulary techniques to aid them comprehending the text. A well aided
vocabulary technique they apply when reading will eventually enable them to become
proficient readers.
Chapter 2
Review of Related Literature
Chapter 2 is divided into parts based on the topics reviewed by the researchers. In
the end, a summary recaps the review.
This part broadens the researchers’ perspective of the research problem. It also
helps them focus the problem into a workable research question.
The reviewed studies strengthened the findings of the current investigation in terms
of implications to theory and practice.
It is important that author citations support the ideas, concepts or findings that the
researcher/s present in this chapter. It is therefore wise to study the rules or
bibliographical entries and citation before the review is written
The review of related literature and studies often follow certain stages.
1. Identifying keywords to guide the search.

Including the topics and subtopics that have identified in chapter 2.
2. Identifying sources
In doing a review, you will encounter both primary and secondary sources.
Primary sources include historical documents, literary work, eyewitness accounts,
field reports, diaries, letters, and laboratory studies, as well as any original search
you do through interviews, observation, experiments, or surveys. Secondary
sources on the other hand include scholarly books and articles, reviews,
biographies, textbooks, and other works that interpret or discuss primary sources.
Primary sources are useful because they offer subjects for first hand study,
whereas secondary sources can help you understand and evaluate primary source
material.
3. Abstracting the information found in the references.
Take note the suggested steps in summarizing references: read the article abstract,
skim the entire article, record complete bibliographical information, classify and code
the article, summarize the article, identify thoughts about the article you believe
important, and indicate direct quotes properly.
4. Analyzing and Organizing
This is the time to make important decisions regarding the following: the outline of
the review, and the technical nature of organizing the content of Chapter 2 with
adherence to the prescribed APA format.
Example:
(Research Topic: Evolution of Philipine Fashion and Advertising)
Chapter 2
Review of Related Literature
Chapter 2 includes five parts: (1) Evolution of Philipine Fashion, (2) Bayo’s
Fashion World, (3) The Power of Advertising, (4) Advertisements and Semiotics; and (5)
Summary.
Part One, Evolution of Philippine Fashion, explains the development of Philippine
trends and styles through the influence of different colonizations and presents the history
of Filipino fashion from the traditional to westernized clothing.
Part Two, Bayo’s Fashion World, contains its brief history, story and philosophy.
Part Three, The Power of Advertising, discusses the great influence of media in
presenting certain products to entice attention or to change the perception of society.
Part Four, Advertisements and Semiotics, discusses how advertisements use
theories of semiotics.
Part Five, Summary, recapitulates the topics presented in Chapter 2.

First level of heading should be
Evolution of Philippine Fashion Bold
Fashion is usually associated with the newest trendy and modern style of clothing
and accessories. The latest trends in fashion evolve in a fast paced motion; in other
words, the famous fashion trend today will no longer be known next year. Fashion
designers and creators do not stop in creating and developing new clothing styles.
However, most of these creations can only be followed by those people with high status,
yet there are also local fashion designers who make it easy for the average class to obtain
such trends.
According to an article entitled Fashionista (2010), in the Philippines today, one can
obviously see the evident change of the original pre-colonial fashion. Before the Filipinos
were
ruled by Rajahs and chieftain and had a peaceful existence until the time they became a
colony of Spain. It was an upheaval time for the natives, and only a fortunate few were
Second level of heading should
able to enjoy the fashion trend at its peak. be Intended and Bold.
The history of Filipino fashion. According to dela Cruz, Santos and Mendiola
(2012), although Filipino fashion became recognizable in the 15 th century, Filipino fashion
was no popular in the U.S. and Europe until the 1800s. Delicate native fabrics and designs
made only in the Philippines were brought to other countries by Spaniards, who had
colonized the islands. Filipino imports lost popularity overtime, but the materials have
recently made a comeback with the popularity of organic fabrics. The history of Filipino is
made up of the mixing of cultures and the intentional separation of social classes.
Third level of heading should be
indented, bold, and italicized.
Native fashion. Moreover, de la Cruz et al. (2010) continue to say that because of
the tropical climate of the Philippines, most natives prior to the Spanish invasion wore
very light, comfortable clothing woven from local resources. Boys often wore lain cloths
and vests, and girls wrapped their bodies in soft cloth. During this time, fashion varied
from tribe to tribe. Some tribes had particular uniforms in order to be identifiable to other
natives. They wore different colors depending on their social status.
Baro’t saya and barong tagalog. In the 15th and 16th centuries, identifiable Philippine
fashion really begin to emerge. The traditional women’s dress was called the “baro’t
saya”. This outfit consists of the “saya,” a long wrap around, or a “tapis,” a knee length
Fourth level of heading should be indented and
wrap around, paired with the “baro,” which is a short-sleeved.
italicized. All letters should be in lower cases
except the first letter of the first word and
proper nouns.
Note: As a sample, only first topic of chapter 2 is presented here to show how the
different levels of the topics are organized.
 Writing Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Research Design and Methodology
Chapter 3 is divided into two subtopics, namely: 1) Research Design; and 2) Method
and Statistical Data Analysis Procedures.
Research Design
This part described the appropriate research design employed by the researchers
whether descriptive survey, correlational, evaluative, comparative, or experimental
(quantitative); or any of the qualitative designs.
Discussion of the research design guides the collection, measurement, and analysis
of data.
Example:
(Research Topic: Teaching Styles and Students’ English Learning Motivation.)
This research proposal will use a quantitative approach and survey will be used to
collect the data. The quantitative approach to gathering information focuses on describing
a trend or phenomenon across a target number of participants thereby providing the
possibility of summarizing characteristics across groups or relationships. This approach
surveys a large number of individuals and applies statistical techniques to recognize
overall patterns in the relations of processes. According to Creswell (2004), to study the
relationships of two or more variables correlational research design is often used. This
research design is most common in quantitative approach as it involves gathering data
from larger groups or sample.
This research will be designed to identify the teaching style of the teachers in three
selected secondary schools in ______ to investigate the English learning motivation of
students and to figure out ways to improve students’ learning motivation.
The teachers are the people who directly deal with students in the classroom so
their teaching styles are the most significant motivation and demotivation. The three
secondary schools that will be selected will be ______, _______, and ______. They will
be selected because of the location and the researcher’s connection with the schools.
Method
This part discusses primarily, the general procedures of the conduct of the study.
The following subtopics are included, namely:
The Respondents/Participants
Presents how the participants of the study will be sampled, and their categories. Here the
description should be in numerical and descriptive form, the percentages, and the description
of the figures will be part of the tabular presentation.
Example:
(Research Topic: Teaching Styles and Students’ English Learning Motivation.)
The population for this research will be English teachers in ______. For this
quantitative research, the researcher sample from list of teachers available. A target
population or sampling frame defined as a group of individuals or a group of organization
with common characteristics that a researcher can identify and study (Creswell, 2004). In
educational research that involves schools, the population is commonly the students or
teachers. This research applies convenience sampling where researcher selects samples
that are available and willing to participate in the study. The researcher knows that the
target population which is English teachers and secondary students are available in every
secondary school in _______. The researcher can obtain permission from the chosen
schools to conduct the study with any available sample.
The sample to be used in this research will be 40 or 30% of the entire population
of teachers from three selected secondary schools. The respondents will be from the
morning and afternoon session teachers and who will be selected inorder to gather
information regarding the teachers’ teaching styles and students’ English learning
motivation.
Presents the inclusion and exclusion criteria for study participants. Inclusion criteria
refer to the characteristics of potential participants in the study. Establishing specific
inclusion criteria is especially important in qualitative research to ensure that individuals who
participate can provide you the information necessary to address your research questions.
For example if you are conducting a study on the experiences and perceptions of high
school principals, one of your inclusion criterion might be that participants must have served
as a principal at a high school for at least three years. Another common inclusion is age
group; unless you are specifically studying minors or some other age group, you should
require that participants are old enough to provide legal consent.
Exclusion criteria are any characteristics that potential participants might have that would
disqualify them from participating in the study.
For example, you might exclude participants if they are considered part of a vulnerable
population (e.g., incarcerated individuals or pregnant women) or if they have an illness or
disability that might affect their ability to give consent or would otherwise make it
dangerous for them to participate in the study. Note that your exclusion criteria are not
simply the opposite of your inclusion criteria. Exclusion criteria are put in place to protect
potential participants and to maintain proper ethical standards, in addition to ensuring that
your sample is appropriate for addressing your research questions. When considering
exclusion criteria, you need to be aware of your role as the researcher and your relationship
to potential participants. For example, you might exclude participants if they are
considered part of a vulnerable population (e.g., incarcerated individuals or pregnant
women) or if they have an illness or disability that might affect their ability to give
consent or would otherwise make it dangerous for them to participate in the study.)
Presents an informed consent from potential research participants about their key
involvement in the study. The informed consent process is one of the central
components of the ethical conduct of research with human subjects. The consent
process typically includes providing a written consent document containing the required
information (i.e., elements of informed consent) and the presentation of that
information to prospective participants.
In most cases, researchers are expected to obtain a signature from the participant on a
written informed consent document.
The Research Instrument
It describes the data gathering instrument, whether standardized, an adaptation from a

previous study, or researcher-constructed.
If the instrument is researcher-constructed, the validity and reliability should first be
established.
Example:
The proposed study will use a researcher-made survey questionnaire subject to

validation and reliability testing. It will consist two parts. Part 1, will gather information
about the respondents’ profile. Part 2, will consist of 20 items of which the respondents
will be asked to indicate their responses based on the given corresponding weight
reflecting their degree of agreement or disagreement to the statements.
Researchers engaged in qualitative research are participant observers themselves. They

participate and record their observations and experiences while participating in the very
act they are describing.
The researcher records the observations of the linguistic events without the use of
questionnaire or other research tools to reconstruct accurately what the
participants/respondents experience to understand the language issues from the
perspectives of the subjects themselves.
Data Collection Procedure
It enumerates how you are going to administer your instrument.

It discusses about the details of the administration of the research instrument, who will
be involved, when will the administration of the instrument be, how you are going to
administer the instrument and how it will take for the respondents to accomplish the
instrument.
Example:
The respondents of this study will be the English teachers and students in ________. A
briefing will be given before the questionnaires are distributed. The content of the
questionnaire consists of the objectives of the study ant type of the questions. Data
collection will be conducted during normal class hours for the students and working hours
for the teachers or any suitable time. The administration of the questionnaire will last
between ten and twenty minutes. Questionnaires will be collected upon completion. All
the data collected from the respondents will be encoded, tabulated, and analysed by
using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 7.0. This one of the most
compatible software that can be used to key in and analyse the data.
Statistical Data Analysis
This part discussed the appropriateness of the statistical tools employed in treating the
data gathered for analysis. Each statistical test, whether descriptive or inferential, is
described as to how it is used in the study. The level of significance for inferential statistics
is also established. Standard and scales of values are also considered.
This part also enumerates the formulas used for interpreting the data and explains why
they are necessary. Furthermore, it includes the scale and verbal interpretation of scores.
References
At the end of your manuscript, indicate the list of your references, organized in APA
format.
**** Suggested Format of A Research Proposal for Quantitative and Qualitative

Research
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Title Page Title Page
Approval Sheet Approval Sheet
Acknowledgement Acknowledgement
Abstract (150 words) Abstract (250 – 300 words)
Table of Contents (with preliminary pages) Table of Contents (with preliminary pages)
List of Table (when applicable) List of Table (when applicable)
List of Figure (when applicable) List of Figure (when applicable)
List of appendices (when applicable) List of Appendices (when applicable)
Chapter 1. Introduction to the Study Chapter 1. Introduction to the Study
Background of the Study Background of the Study
Theoritical Framework of the Study Epistemological and theoretical Research

Perspective (specific theories of the study)
(Paradigm included)
Statement of the Problem Statement of the Problem
Hypothesis (when appropriate) Assumptions of the Study
Definition of Terms Definition of Terms
Significance of the Study Significance of the Study
Delimitation of the Study
Chapter 2. Review of Related Literature Chapter 2. Review of Related Literature
Review of related literature and studies to Review of related literature and studies to
reveal related concepts; theories or reveal related concepts; theories or
underlying assumptions about the problem. underlying assumptions about the problem.
Chapter 3. Research Design and Chapter 3. Methodology

Methodology
Methodological Perspective
(specific methodology used in the study)
Research design Context of the study (as appropriate)
Setting/Venue/Research locale
Data Sources
Methodology Procedures
The Respondents/Participants Data analysis (description)
The Instrument
The Intervention Ethical Considerations
Data collection Procedure
Data analysis Procedure
Your Tasks:
1. Using your group research proposal, be it quantitative or qualitative, write the

content of your draft using the prescribed format.
2. Organize your references using the APA format at the end of your manuscript.
Lesson 14. The Technicalities of Research Paper Writing

Introduction
Academic writings requires a planned blending of rules of language and writing, time
of action, type of discourse (subjective or objective) and mastery of the specific field
terminology, by following the academic stylistic standards. Regardless of the subject, the
writer's written communication skills are very important as it is crucial that the reader
understands what the writer is talking about, so developing robust writing skills as well as
research skills is an important part of improving academic writing success.
To be an effective writer, the background knowledge of thesis students should
adequately include their familiarity of technical writing. This is the ‘language’ researcher’s
use in writing technical papers such as those related to research work. The language
technical writers use is utilitarian in nature (utilization of information) putting more emphasis
on accuracy rather than on style. The presentation of each subject matter is objective, brief
but concise; obviously the content is the focal point of the paper. Generally, the intent of
technical paper is to disseminate information and not to entertain or advertise which are
aims of nontechnical materials.
Objectives:
1. Familiarized and applied the technicalities in research paper writing;
2. Revised their paper to improve organization and cohesion.
3. Determined an appropriate style and tone of the paper.
4. Edited the research paper to ensure that language, citations, and formatting
are correct.
General Rules to Observe or Adopt Governing Thesis Writing (Gregorio, 2015)
1. Use the third person all throughout the manuscript.
2. Write the paragraphs in complete sentences.
3. Minimize the use of complex sentences.
4. Avoid using contractions; example: use “cannot” instead of “can’t”.
5. Use simple words; never use jargons.
6. Construct sentences in the active rather than in a passive voice.
7. Always observe brevity and conciseness.
8. Aspire to come up with qualities that describe a good technical paper.
9. Strictly use the rules on various aspects.
Rules on the Use of Tenses
In your research proposal, the objectives/statements of the problem, scope and

delimitations and methodology must be stated in future tense.
Rules on the Use of paper structure and general guidelines:

Try to state the main objective of the paper in the first paragraph. Many authors
place
the specific objectives of their work in the last paragraph of the introduction, which is
fine in some cases. However, the reader shouldn’t have wade through several
paragraphs before he/she knows the general goal of the paper. Putting the main goal of
the paper very early on helps the reader to understand why you are presenting
particular types of information in the introduction.
It is often useful to start each paragraph with a topic sentence that encapsulates
the
main point of the paragraph. This is then followed by sentences that modify and
expand upon the point made in the topic sentence. This approach tells the reader what
is coming in the paragraph and aids interpretation. This won’t work in all situations but
it is a useful tool when possible. This comment and the previous one are a recognition
of the way that most people read scientific papers (except when assigned them as a
reading): they skim the text reading the first sentence of a paragraph first to see if it
looks like it will be relevant. They also start reading at the start of an introduction and if
it doesn’t hold their attention, they just skim to the next section, or worse yet, the next
paper in the massive pile they are trying to read.
Make sure the paper follows a clear logical flow and does not jump around between
ideas. For example, if you lay out three predictions in the introduction, then organize
your discussion around those three predictions.
Use subheadings liberally but not excessively (each subheading should usually have
more than one paragraph under it). Some people write a discussion that is 10 pages
long and covers several distinct subjects without providing any subheadings as
guideposts. This makes it very hard for the casual reader to find the part of the
discussion that is of interest to them.
Make sure your paragraphs are neither too long (e.g., more than a single double
spaced page) nor too short (perhaps less than three sentences). The latter guideline
can sometimes be ignored.
Use frequent citations to relevant work but only cite papers in the appropriate
context.
That is, make sure the paper actually said what you are citing it as having said. It
really annoys the reader when people cite a study for something that it actually did not
address, except very peripherally.
Rarely include more than five citations to a single point. The number of possible
citations to any particular point is usually very large, and you could never cite all of
the relevant studies anyway. Instead, cite a selection of ones you feel work best:
(e.g., Hendry 1999; Hendry 2000; Hendry 2001) or a single review identified as such
(review: Hendry 2002).
Beware of excessive citations. Some people will have 60+ citations for a 20 page
paper, which is too much (unless it is a review paper). Excessive citations are often
conspicuous as long lists of papers after a statement that is peripheral to the main
point of the paper. You can often detect this excess as a long (max. 5, by the above
criteria) list of papers after a particular point that contains several papers that are not
cited elsewhere.
Grammar:
Avoid long, complicated compound sentences. These are often very difficult to
follow.
Use “which” and “that” properly. “That” should be used for restrictive clauses (“This
is
the manuscript THAT Jack wrote.) whereas, “which” should be used for non-restrictive
clauses (“This manuscript, WHICH Jack wrote, is lengthy.”) Most people use “which” in
many cases where “that” is more appropriate.
Avoid the use of “while”, except when the intended meaning is “during the time
that.” In other contexts, “whereas” or “although” are usually better.
Write out all numbers less than 10 (i.e., one, two), unless the number is followed by
a unit, such as m, mg, min, h, etc.“
“Between” is used in reference to two things. “Among” is used in reference to more
than two things.
Never use “etc.”
Strive for parallelism between related sentences that appear close to each other. As
a simple example, use “The researcher was asked to write his report quickly,
accurately, and thoroughly” instead of, “The researcher was asked to write his report
quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner”.
Use the active voice (Researchers earlier showed that high stress can cause heart
attacks), rather than the passive voice (It was earlier demonstrated that heart
attacks can be caused by high stress.), whenever reasonable and when not explicitly
disallowed by a journal. Be careful to not use it too much though. Six sentences in a
row, all starting with “we”, are very awkward.
Use punctuations correctly. As one small example, the second last phrase in a list of
phrases should have a comma before the “and.” For example, “Speciation can occur
by genetic drift, mutation, and natural selection.” rather than “Speciation can occur
by genetic drift, mutation and natural selection.” Using the latter often introduces
confusion when the phrases themselves are longer and contain “and” within them.
Maintain correct spelling of words. There is no excuse for presenting a draft that
hasn't gone through a spell checker.
Rules on the Use of Abbreviations.
Use abbreviations as least as possible to avoid confusion; avoid using those that are
so familiar.
Place period at the end of an abbreviated word/term, but not in standard units and
acronyms. Example: Univ. for University, WVSU for West Visayas State University,
DA for Department of Agriculture.
Rules on the Use of Numbers
Use figures for exact numbers which values are 10 and above; for those that are
lower, should be spelled out. For example: 10 students, twenty items. However,
when several numbers below or above 10 appear in series, they should be written in
figures. Example: Thirty teachers, 8 students, 20 school heads, and 5 utility men.
This example also illustrates that when the number starts a sentence, it should
always be spelled out.
Use figures for numbers which precedes standard or technical units, particularly units
of measure or even those that are below ten. Examples: 6 tons, 7 meters, 2
kilograms.
In writing compound numbers, spell out either the first or shorter number.
Examples: ten 5- milimeter buds, 20 four - liter glass tank, ten 5 – sample groups.
Spell out a number when used to start a sentence. Example: Four kilometres were
travelled by the interviewers.
To avoid confusion, one of the two numbers appearing in succession has to be
spelled out. Example: In group 15, five of the respondents failed to answer the
questions correctly.
Use Arabic numbers to indicate number of figures, tables, diagrams, and pages.
Rules on the Use of Graphics (Figures, Tables, Photographs)
As supporting materials, figures should be presented only when it is appropriate and
logical.
The caption of the figure should be clear enough, although brief, to enhance the
understanding without necessarily referring back to the text.
The caption of the figure should be placed at the bottom portion, and always ending
with a period.
When presenting photographs, it should have clear backgrounds to enhance the
appearance of the object in picture.
Figures should be numbered consecutively throughout the manuscript using Arabic
numbers.
Only the first letter of the first word should be capitalized in the caption except,
when there are proper nouns present.
Define in footnotes or legends any abbreviations or symbols used in figures.
If it could be avoided, tables should not be cut in the text, resulting to its
appearance in two or more pages. If only a small part of the table cannot be
accommodated in this regard, the font size may be reduced to 10.
Table number should be in Arabic and used consecutively throughout the entire
manuscript.
Only the first letter of the first word should be capitalized in the caption, except
when there are proper nouns present.
Large tables which should appear in two or more pages, the next pages will need the
table number only with the word, “continued” (Example: Table 6. Continued).
Entries in the table should be entered in double space, except when the use of single
space is unavoidable as in the case of long tables which cannot be accommodated in
a page.
Table caption should be as clear as possible which can be understood without
referring back to the text, placed two single spaces above the table and always
ending with a period.
The main body of the table must be in double space with vertical line generally
omitted, except when separating box-heads, and with units of quantity placed
beneath the box – heads, and the entries are aligned especially with decimal
numbers.
Tone in Research Writing

Tone refers to the writer's voice in a written work. It is what the reader or hearer
might perceive as the writer's attitude, bias, or personality. Academic writing, however, does
not need to be complicated nor lacking in style instead, it can be both engaging and clear.
Therefore, researchers are apt to write objectively, unbiased, scholarly, and claims are
supported by evidence. According to APA (2020), differences in research should be
presented in a professional, non-combative manner. A formal tone helps establish the
writers respect for the audience and suggests that the writer is serious about the topic. Most
academic writing uses a formal tone.
Most often, formality of language can be achieved by avoiding slang, text-message
or SMS spellings, clichés, and contractions. Phrases like "digging sports," "wicked cool,"
"maxed out," "clear the air," "heading south," "the cat's out of the bag," "thru the roof,"
"hear their spin on it," "so to speak," and "in the hands of" have no place in academic
writing. These casual expressions may be appropriate in personal emails, but they are
inappropriate in research papers.
Take a look at this example. The first paragraph is written in an informal way. The
second is revised to keep a formal tone:
Informal:
When I got my students to think English was wicked cool, their test scores went
through the roof! When I asked for their spin on their improvement, they just said the test
felt like a piece of cake to them after I had implemented the new curriculum changes.
Revised to be more formal:

When I was able to engage my students and get them interested in English, their
test scores improved significantly. I asked a few students why they thought the scores had
improved, and they admitted that the test seemed much easier because of the new
curriculum.
Your Tasks.
1. Check the content of your research manuscript from Chapters 1 to 3. Make sure
it strictly follows the rules on various aspects enumerated on the technicalities of
research writing.
2. Revise the part/s with inconsistencies and errors.
Lesson 15. Research Presentation
Introduction:
An oral presentation is a formal, research-based presentation of students’ work.

Presenting a research proposal is a better way to get feedback how far they have gone from
their research tasks. Interactions between the presenters and the audience provide both
sets of participants with numerous opportunities to practice their English abilities with other
students in an authentic manner. Oral presentations also provide students with a process-
driven activity that requires them to use English, not just while they are giving the
presentation itself, but also while they are preparing to present. Moreover, oral research
presentation is an opportune for students to demonstrate how they can communicate their
research in an engaging and interesting way.
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students must have:
1. Planned a research-based oral presentation.
2. Designed a slide show for the research oral presentation.
3. Identified and discussed tips on how to conduct a research presentation
4. Delivered research presentation combining visual aids.
5. Developed confidence in oral presentation.
Planning the presentation
Once you have done your research, you will know all about your audience and its
needs, and the actions you need to stimulate, and how long you are expected to speak for.
The best way to do when planning a research presentation is to get answers to the following
questions:
1. What do you present? Think about the goal of your presentation. You should always
begin with the end in mind when it comes to planning a presentation. Think about what
you're trying to convey, and the best means to do so in the time you have.
2. Why do you present? Defining the objective of the presentation paves the presenter
to achieve the purpose and if what outcomes do they expect. These outcomes will
shape your presentation, because it must be designed to achieve the objective and
deliver the desired outcomes.
3. Who is your audience? Know your audience's background to help you structure your
presentation. If your topic isn't common knowledge, then you'll need to include that
information in your presentation and ensure that you have enough time for it. You
should also consider what your audience expects from the presentation.
4. Where do you present? It is important to have as much advance information as
possible about the place where you are going to speak. It can be helpful to check the venue
before the event. Even if you cannot visit, you will probably find it helpful to know:
Facilities /availability of the equipment (room, seating arrangements, laptop,
projector, and other visual aids to use)
5. How long do you present? Always find out how long you have to talk and check if this
includes or excludes time for questions. This is a good reason for making a presentation
succinct, well- structured and interesting.
6. How do you present? Always aim to give a clear, well-structured delivery. That
is, knowing exactly what you want to say and the order in which you want to say
it. Clarity of ideas and good organisation should help result in a lively, logical and
compelling message, delivered in a confident and professional way
Designing A Slide Show
In designing a slide show for your research proposal presentation, you may consider
Guy Kawasaki’s 10-20-30 rule: 10 slides for 20 minutes in 30 –point font. Optimum number
of 10 slides in a power point presentation is suggested in as much as a normal human being
cannot comprehend more than ten concepts in one sitting. The twenty minutes allows
maximum attention span, and thirty point font provides ease as well as limits to how much
text is placed in each slide (Kawasaki, 2016, in Diaz & Palma, 2019).
Thesis Proposal Presentation Outline
1. Title Slide (1 slide)
Research Title
Names of researchers, degree
2. Background of the Study (1-5 slides)
Provide background of topic with supporting literature
Establish the need for your research (point out the gap)
Theoritical/Conceptual Framework
Purpose of the Study
Statement of the Problems
Assumptions/Hypothesis
Definition of Terms
Significance of the Study
Delimitations
3. Outline of Topics in Related Literatures (1 slide)
4. Methodology (4 slides)
State study design
The Respondents
Inclusion & Exclusion criteria
Data Collection Procedure
Data Analysis Procedure
Guide for Effective Presentations
An oral presentation is more than just reading a paper or set of slides to an
audience. How you deliver your presentation is at least as important in effectively
communicating your message as what you say. Here are specific suggestions for oral
research presentations suggested by Michigan State University Undergraduate
Research Office (2019).
1. Engage your audience . Make good impressions by introducing the topic with a
startling comment, anecdote, statistics, and personal observations which the
audience can relate.
2. Tell and show . Share information by not only telling people about your work
but also by showing it through charts, graphs, photos, short videos, or other
media.
3. Show mastery . Good presenters have some mastery over their material for
smooth delivery of the presentation.
4. Enjoy presenting . Good presenters look like they are having a good time, and
look like they are comfortable presenting. They maintain eye contact with their
audience, and they often use facial and hand gestures as they speak to convey
their ideas.
How can you avoid presentation pitfalls?
There are a few things you’ll definitely want to consider when presenting your research:
1. Familiarize yourself with the techniques of good presenters. No one is born a
masterful
presenter, and really good presenters practice a lot.
2. Know what to expect where you’re presenting. You won’t want to show up with a
flash
drive with your snazzy slideshow presentation if there’s only an old-school
overhead/transparency projector in your presentation room. Likewise, you won’t want to
show up with a link to an online presentation (e.g., a Prezi or a presentation stored on
Google Drive) if there isn’t an Internet connection in your presentation room. Ask the
conference organizers what technology your room will have available; often, presenters
need to arrange or request technology in advance of the conference.
3. Practice your timing! At professional conferences, 15 minutes means 15 minutes. If
you
go over your time limit, you cut off the presentation time of others in your session. Practice
your presentation out loud not only to get comfortable with your material, but to make sure
you have planned an appropriate amount of information for the time you’ll have.
4. Be prepared--email yourself an extra copy of your PowerPoint presentation in case
your
flash drive isn't working.
Your Tasks:
1. Answer the following questions relevant to your own oral research presentation in
your research proposal.
What do you
present?
Why do you
present?
Who is your
audience?
Where do you
present?
How long do
you present?
How do you
present?
2. Make 10 slides of your full research paper using the presentation outline suggested to
you.
References:
Day, J. (1995). How to perform under pressure by control of voice and nerves. Daybreak
Publishing: Melbourne.
Diaz, V.P. & Palma, B. S. (2019). Purposive communication. La Paz, Iloilo City: West Visayas
State University Printing Press.
Drott, C. (1995). Re-examining the role of conference papers in scholarly communication.
Journal of the American Society for Information Science , 46(4), pp. 299-305.
Dwyer, J. (2005). Communication in business: strategies and skills. 3rd edition Prentice
Hall, Frenchs Forest.
Gregorio, G.L. (2015). Writing quality thesis and dissertations. La Paz, Iloilo City: Seguiban
Printing and Publishing Enterprises.
Kearns, H. (2003). Giving a great conference presentation. Staff Development and Training
Unit, Flinders University.
Learning and Teaching Unit Learning Guides: Making the most of oral presentations
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/present/prepare-presentation.html
Scholarly voice: https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/scholarlyvoice/tone
UNDERGRADUARE ORAL PRESENTATIONS. https://urca.msu.edu/orals
Research Presentation Guidelines Presentation in brief:
The presentation is a group project. Think of this as a visual
version of your paper. The presentation should include: a short intro,
your hypotheses, a brief description of the methods, tables and/or
graphs related to your findings, and an interpretation of your data. The
presentations should be no more than 10 minutes long. That’s not much
time. Plan on needing about 1 minute per slide. The trick to giving good
presentations is distilling your information down into a few bulleted lists,
diagrams, tables and graphs. You don’t want to be rushed while
presenting.
Title slide (1 slide). Title of the talk (probably the same as your
paper), the names of all group members, the class and university
names, and the date the talk is given.
Introduction (typically 3-4 slides). Explain why your work is
interesting. Place the study in context – how does it relate to / follow
from the scientific literature on this subject. If it relates to any applied
issues (e.g., environmental problems), mention this here. Use some
pretty visuals (photographs, drawings, etc.) to get the audience excited
about the issue and questions you are addressing. Clearly state your
hypotheses. (4 points)
Materials and Methods (typically 2-3 slides). Clearly summarize
the design. Show a picture of your organisms and justify why they
are appropriate for addressing the questions mentioned above.
Show a picture of your lab setup and/or of a person doing some of
the lab work. Show a diorama of your experimental design (with
sample sizes, number of replicates, sampling frequency, etc.).
Mention what parameters you measured but do not go into detail
on exact procedures used. Do state what statistical tests you used
to analyze your data. (2 points)
Results (typically 2-4 slides). First show a photograph (or
sketch) that shows an interesting qualitative results (e.g., trays of
plants in which one set is noticeably bigger than the other, a
drawing of a happy Daphnia) and state that result. Then display
the results in graphical form, reminding the audience of your
hypothesis and stating whether it was supported as you do so. Use
simple, clean, clearly labeled graphs with proper axis labels (no
extraneous 3-D effects please). Do not use light colors (yellow,
light green, or pink) in your figures, they do not show up well
when projected. Indicate the results of the statistical tests on the
slides by including pvalues (or asterisks/letters that indicate the
significance level) on the same slides with the graphs. If you have
multiple results, state them in a logical order. (5 points – good
graphs are a big part of this!) Implications and Conclusions
(typically 2-3 slides). Correctly interpret your results.
Constructively address sources of error and methodological
difficulties. Place your results in context and draw implications
from them. (4 points) Acknowledgments (1 slide). Thank anyone
who provided advice or assistance. Verbally thank your audience
for their attention and tell them you would be happy to answer
any questions. For more advice on preparing a research
presentation, see
http://www.swarthmore.edu/NatSci/cpurrin1/powerpointadvice.ht
What is an oral presentation?
An oral presentation is a formal, research-based presentation of your work. Presentations
happen in a range of different places. For instance, if you work at a company that assigns
people to teams to collaborate on projects, your project team might give an oral presentation
of your progress on a particular project. If you work with a nonprofit organization that hosts
an annual meeting at which the organization shares its activities, budget, and goals with
funders and community members, you might give an oral presentation delivering that
information. Learning how to construct and deliver an effective oral presentation is a useful
skill. In this context, we’re referring to oral presentations given to report on a research project
and your research findings.
What’s expected of you and your presentation?

For a class presentation, your professor might give you a list of requirements and
expectations for your presentation. For a conference presentation, it might be assumed that
you already know the requirements and expectations for a presentation or you might be
provided some guidelines and expectations. The best thing to do when planning a conference
presentation is to get answers to the following questions:
 Who will attend this conference and potentially my presentation? What can I assume they
know? What can I assume they’ll need explained? (More on this below.)
 What is the typical method of presenting at this conference? For instance, do people “read” a
paper out loud? Do they show a slideshow? Do people typically engage the audience (e.g., by
asking questions, or asking for feedback)?
 How much time will I have to present? Will I be able to show a slideshow?
Who is your audience?
One of the key questions above is “Who will attend this conference and potentially my
presentation?” Different audiences have different information needs and different
expectations.
The audience for your presentation depends on where you are presenting your research. If
you are giving a presentation in a class, your audience is your professor and the other
students in the class. If you are giving a presentation at a research forum, like UURAF or
another campus, state, regional, or national conference, your audience is much more broad.
In a class context, you and your audience have spent weeks together studying the same topic
and reading roughly the same materials. You might assume that they know what you know,
and you might not need to spend a lot of time in your presentation covering background
information. At a conference presentation, however, you might be presenting to a really
general audience who doesn’t share your background or you might even be presenting to a
very narrow audience who researches topics similar to you, but might do so from a different
perspective.
How can I get started on my presentation?

Whittling an entire research project down to a 10-, 20-or even 40-minute presentation can be
a challenge and designing a slideshow to supplement your presentation takes time and care.
Outlining your presentation first is a great way to get started. You might begin by asking
around or doing some research to see what is conventional among practitioners in your field.
For instance, in science fields presenters often construct their slideshows following this
format:
 title
 problem or issue studied
 research method
 data collected
 research findings
 implications
 conclusions
Another typical format may follow the structure below:
 title
 abstract
 introduction or background
 literature review
 methodology
 results
 discussion
 conclusion
In the humanities, depending on your focus, you might often construct your slideshow
following this format:
 title
 problem or issue studied
 history and background
 analytical approach or guiding theory
 findings
 implications
 conclusions
Once you’ve familiarized yourself with the general outline for presentations in your field or
research area, you can begin filling in your outline. One helpful way to begin filling in the
details of your presentation is to focus on what, who, how, and why:
 What was the problem or issue?

 Who is involved, affected, etc.?
 Why is this problem or issue important?
 How does your research fit into already existing research?
 How did you research or analyze the problem or issue?
 What are your findings?
 What do these findings tell us?
 What are the implications of these findings?
 What are your conclusions?
What do good presenters do?

Delivering good, engaging, memorable presentations is an art form. Think about the best
presentations or best presenters or speakers you’ve seen, such as a teacher who captivated
you with their lectures, or the CEO of a company who gave a great TED talk you watched
online. How did they capture your attention? How did they deliver a good presentation?
A few techniques of good presenters include telling and showing. Good presenters are often
able to share information by telling people about their research or work, but also by showing
their research or work through charts, graphs, photos, short videos, or other media.
Good presenters also have some mastery over their material. They’re comfortable talking
about what they do, what their research is about, and what they accomplish in their work.
And good presenters practice talking about their work and sharing their stories—practice is
part of what makes their presentations so smooth.
Another technique of a good presenter is being comfortable while presenting. Good
presenters look like they’re having a good time and look like they’re comfortable presenting.
They don’t stand with their shoulders hunched or their hands in their pockets. They make eye
contact with their audience, and they often use facial and hand gestures as they speak—
smiling to convey a funny point or holding their palms up quizzically to convey a problem
they faced.
How can you avoid presentation pitfalls?

There are a few things you’ll definitely want to consider when presenting your research:
1. Familiarize yourself with the techniques of good presenters. No one is born a masterful
presenter, and really good presenters practice a lot.
2. Know what to expect where you’re presenting. You won’t want to show up with a flash drive
with your snazzy slideshow presentation if there’s only an old-school overhead/transparency
projector in your presentation room. Likewise, you won’t want to show up with a link to an
online presentation (e.g., a Prezi or a presentation stored on Google Drive) if there isn’t an
Internet connection in your presentation room. Ask the conference organizers what
technology your room will have available; often, presenters need to arrange or request
technology in advance of the conference.
3. Practice your timing! At professional conferences, 15 minutes means 15 minutes. If you go
over your time limit, you cut off the presentation time of others in your session. Practice your
presentation out loud not only to get comfortable with your material, but to make sure you
have planned an appropriate amount of information for the time you’ll have.
4. Be prepared--email yourself an extra copy of your PowerPoint presentation in case your flash
drive isn't working.
What are some other resources to consult?
 Every spring semester, the Office of Undergraduate Research hosts a workshop on Preparing
for Oral Presentations. The workshop is led by MSU professor, Dr. Danielle DeVoss. A copy
of the presentation may be found here and make sure to visit our Events page to stay up to
date on our workshops.
 Your research mentor -- ask how they prepare for an oral presentation. Ask if you can see
them present on campus or at a meeting.
 Search online for example oral presentations created by people in your research area; many
researchers will post their slideshows and notes online after they've presented.
 Consult other web pages that offer advice on creating research presentations, such as How to
Create an Oral Research Presentation, Tips for Preparing a Research Presentation, Research
Presentation Checklist.
 Consider networking with scholars in your field beyond MSU; connect to them on LinkedIn,
and perhaps ask if they'd be willing to review your presentation.
 Learn tips about communicating your undergraduate research and creative activity from
MSU's Knight Center for Environmental Journalism.
West Sound Academic Library. https://blog.taaonline.net/2020/03/distinguishing-features-of-

academic-writing-5-accuracy/
Halliday, M.A.K, & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman
Arthur Bakker, A. (2013). How to write a coherent research paper. Utrecht

University.a.bakker4@uu.nl
“Conciseness,” from Lynn Quitman Troyka’s Handbook for Writers. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Simon & Schuster, 2002. 304-313. You might also consult The Brief English Handbook, The Little
Brown Handbook, Rules for Writers, and the Simon and Schuster Handbook for Writers.
ORAL PRESENTATIONS. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVESITY.

HTTPS://URCA.MSU.EDU/ORALS

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West Visayas State University | 1

UNIT 1: Introducing Language and Education Research

At the end of this unit, you must have:

A. Discussed the different philosophical worldviews in research

D. Recognized different designs under the three common approaches (quantitative,

Lesson 1: Philosophical Worldviews in Research

Tell us what you already know

A. The Postpositivist Worldview

What is Quantitative Approach?

Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective theories by examining the

 It is also called positivist/postpositivist research, empirical science, and postpositivism.

Additional Features of Postpositivist Worldview

B. The Constructivist Worldview

What is Qualitative Approach?

Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning

Social constructivists believe that:

Furthermore, constructivist researchers often address the processes of interaction

C. The Transformative Worldview

rewards of the research. Transformative research provides a voice for these

D. The Pragmatic Worldview

What is Mixed Methods Approach?

Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving collecting both

Let’s process your understanding

Post – positivism Constructivism

 Theory Verification  Theory Generation

 Power and justice oriented  Pluralistic

Express your understanding

Lesson 2: Paradigm of Language Research

At the end of the lesson, you must have:

Tell us what you already know

Elaborate your concept of language research or applied linguistics research.

Nature of Language Research

Language research, just like researches in other disciplines, is a complex process.

o Language use – It determiners primarily whether the language is first, second, or

The Growth of Applied Linguistic Research (Language Research)

Doing Applied Linguistics Research: Clarity and Interconnectedness of Terms

1. Research paradigm, epistemology, and ontology (Mackinley and Rose,

Next, epistemology and ontology are strongly linked to paradigm, as they

Overview of Different Research Designs (Cresswell and Cresswell, 2018)

 Experimental Designs  Narrative Convergent

3, 4, and 5 and have a glimpse of their features and characteristics.

Always remember that…

Categories of Research Methods (Creswell and Cresswell, 2018)

Pre – determined Both pre-determined and Emerging methods

Instrument – based Both open and closed – Open – ended questions

Performance data, attitude Multiple forms of data Attitude data, observation

Statistical interpretation Across data bases Themes, patterns

Researchers collect data on an instrument or test (e.g., a set of questions about

In this scenario, the researcher tests a theory by specifying narrow hypotheses

In this situation, the researcher seeks to establish the meaning of a phenomenon

Use these Post – positivists Constructivism/Transformative Pragmatic

Employ these Surveys and Phenomenology, grounded Convergent,

ended questions) and qualitative

Use these Tests or verifies Positions himself or herself Collects both

Collects participant meanings

Employs Collaborates with participants

Employs text analysis procedures

Let’s process your understanding

A Framework for Research—The Interconnection of Worldviews, Design, and

Answer the following questions:

Lesson 3 - A: Quantitative Approach in Language Research

Tell us what you already know

Historical Overview of Quantitative Research