Electrical & Electronic Measurements

Module-I : Introduction and Error analysis

Dr. Ch V V S Bhaskara Reddy

Professor,
Department of Electrical Engineering
A U College of Engineering (A)
Visakhapatnam.

June 11, 2020

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Presentaion Outline

1 Introduction

2 Errors and Its analysis

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Introduction

Introduction

Methods
Direct Methods
Measured quantity compared against a standard.
Indirect Methods

Classification of Instruments
Absolute Instruments
Magnitude of the measured quantity in terms of physical constants.
Ex: Tangent Galvanometer, Rayleigh’s Current Balance.
Secondary Instruments
Magnitude of the measured quantity by observing output indicated by
the instruments.
Instruments are calibrated with Absolute or other secondary
instruments.
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Introduction

Classification of Instruments contd...

Deflection type Instruments

Deflection of the instrument provides a basis for determining the
quantity under measurement.
Accuracy depends on calibration.
More suitable to measurements under dynamic conditions.

Null type Instruments

A zero indication in the instrument leads to the determination of the
magnitude of the measured quantity.
Accuracy of these instruments is high.
Highly Sensitive

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Introduction

Classes of instruments
Indicating Instruments.

Recording Instruments.

Integrating Instruments.
Principle of Operation
Magnetic effect
Heating effect
Electrostatic effect
Electromagnetic effect
Hall effect

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Introduction

Operating forces in the electromechanical instruments:

Deflecting Force
Controlling Force
Damping Force
Torque/Weight Ratio

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Introduction

Components of Electromechanical Instruments:

Moving System

Control System
Gravity Control
Tc = Wl sin θ
Spring Control
Ebt 3
Tc = 12l
= Kθ

Damping System
Air Friction Damping
Eddy Current Damping
Fluid Friction Damping
Electromagnetic Damping

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Introduction

Example: A spring produces a controlling torque of 16x10−6 Nm.

for a deflection of 120◦ . Suppose its width and length are make
two times their original value and the thickness is halved, the
value of controlling torque for the same deflection will be

Ebt 3
Tc = 12l = 16x10−6
Length and width are doubled and thickness is halved i.e.
3
Tcnew = E2b(t/2)
12lx2
Ebt 3 2
Tcnew = 12l x 2x23 = Tc x 81 = Tc /8 = 2x10−6

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Introduction

Characteristics of Instruments
Static Characteristics
Accuracy
Sensitivity
Reproducibility
Drift
Static error
Dead zone

Dynamic Characteristics

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Errors and its Analysis

Errors in Measurements
True Value

Static Error
The difference between measured value and true value

Example - 1: If a meter reads 120.04V and the true value is 120V, How
much is the static error in the measurement?

Static error = Measure value - True value

Static error = 120.04 - 120 = 0.04 V

How much is the static correction?

Static correction = True value - Measure value

Static correction = 120 - 120.04 = -0.04 V

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Errors and its Analysis

Example-2: A thermometer reads 98.99◦ C and the static

correction was given as -0.09◦ C. What is the true value of the
temperature?

Static correction = True value - Measure value

True value = Measured value + Static correction = 98.99◦ C -

0.09◦ = 98.90◦ C.

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Errors and its Analysis

Example-3: A voltage has a true value of 1.50 V. An instrument

indicates 1.46 V which has a full scale deflection of 0 - 2.50 V.
What is the value of absolute error?
Absoluter error = 1.46 V - 1.50 V = -0.04 V
What is the value of absolute correction?
It is +0.04 V
What is the value of relative error?
Absoluteerror −0.04
Truevalue = 1.50 x100 = 2.67%.
What is the value of relative error (expressed as a percentage of
full scale deflection)?
Absoluteerror −0.04
FSDvalue = 2.50 x100 = 1.60%.

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Errors and its Analysis

Range and Span

Range is between Kmin and Kmax . many a times range is taken as
Kmax

Span is given by Kmax − Kmin

Example: If a meter is calibrated between 200 V and 500 V, then

what are the values of range and span of the instrument?

Range is 200 V to 500 V. or simply 500 V

Span is 500 V - 200 V = 300 V

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Errors and its Analysis

Example: A meter is calibrated between 150 V and 200 V. The

accuracy is specified within ±0.25% of instrument span. What is
the maximum static error?
Span of the meter is 200 V - 150 V = 50 V.
±0.25
Maximum Static Error = 100 x50 = ±0.125V

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Errors and its Analysis

Example: A 0-10 A ammeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1% of

full scale deflection. The limiting error while reading 2.5A is

1% means 0.1A.

0.1
Limiting error = 2.5 x100 = 4%

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Errors and its Analysis

Example: A 0-300V voltmeter has an error of ±2% of full scale

deflection. What would be the range of readings if the true voltage
is 30V?

2% of full scale is 300 x 0.02 = 6

Range is equal to 30 ± 6 = 24 - 36V.

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Errors and its Analysis

A Wattmeter has a full scale range of 2500W. It has an error of

±1% of true value. What would be the range of reading if true
power is 1250W?

1% of true value = 1250 x 0.01 = 12.5W

Range of readings is equal to 1250 ± 12.5 = 1237.5W - 1262.5W

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Errors and its Analysis

Reproducibility
Degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured.

Drift
Zero drift

Span drift

Zonal drift

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Errors and its Analysis
Noise
Generated Noise
Johonson Noise
White Noise
Shot Noise

Conducted Noise

Radiated Noise
Signal to Noise Ratio
Signal of interest expressed in Volts2
Unwanted noise expressed in volts2

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Errors and its Analysis

Accuracy

Precision

Linearity

Hysterisis

Dead Time

Dead Zone

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Errors and its Analysis

Types of Errors
Gross Errors
Mainly due to human mistakes
care should be taken in taking the measurements
Multiple samples/multiple humans can take reading
Systematic Errors
Instrumental errors.
Environmental errors.
Observational errors.
Random Errors

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Errors and its Analysis

Dynamic Characteristics
Speed of Response
Rapidity with which teh measurement device responds to changes in
the measuring quantity.
Measuring Lag
Fidelity
Degree to which the measuring device indicates the measured
quantity without any dynamic error.
Dynamic error

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