Electrical & Electronic Measurements

Module-II : Measurement of Voltage, Current, Power & Energy

Dr. Ch V V S Bhaskara Reddy

Professor,
Department of Electrical Engineering
A U College of Engineering (A)
Visakhapatnam.

June 13, 2020

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Presentaion Outline

1 Measurement of Voltage and Current

2 Measurement of Power

3 Measurement of Energy

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

Galvanometers:
Basic element used to detect the presence of voltage or current in
a closed circuit.
In some circuits it is also used to indicate zero current condition.
It is very sensitive.
It has short periodic time.
It has nearly critical damping.

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Measurement of Voltage and Current
D’Arsonval Galvanometer:

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

D’Arsonval Galvanometer:
Air gap is around 1.5 mm
It makes use of flat ribbon suspension.
The suspension wire is of gold or copper of 0.0125 or 0.25 mm
diameter
The deflection torque developed will be given by,
Td = NBAi. where A = ld, area of the coil
Td = Gi where G is called displacement constant and given by
NBA = NBld
Deflection of the instrument is given by θF = Gi
K . where K is the
spring constant.

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

Dynamic behaviour of Galvanometers:

Displacement constant (G = NBA); Td = Gi
2
Inertial constant (J); Tj = J ddt 2θ
Damping Constant (D); TD = D dθ
dt
Control Constant (K); TC = K θ
The deflection is given by Tj + TD + TC = Td and resulting to a
second order differential equation,
2
J ddt 2θ + D dθ
dt + K θ = Gi

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Measurement of Voltage and Current
Dynamic behaviour of Galvanometers:
Case-I: If D 2 < 4KJ
The roots of the equation are imaginary.
It is under damped.
The meter oscillates with decreased magnitude before reaching the
final equilibrium position.
Case-II: If D 2 = 4KJ
The roots of the equation are real and equal.
It is critically damped.
The meter will not oscillate and reachs the final equilibrium position
in short time.
Case-III: If D 2 > 4KJ
The roots of the equation are real.
It is over damped.
The meter will not oscillate and reaches final position in a sluggish
manner.

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

Dynamic behaviour of Galvanometers:

Damping
Mechanical Damping
Electromagnetic Damping
G2
Critical Resistance = R = √
2 KJ
Current Sensitivity is defined by deflection per unit current and is
given by Si = θiF .
Voltage Sensitivity is defined as deflection in scale divisions per
unit voltage applied (Sv ).
Megaohm Sensitivity is the resistance of the circuit so that the
deflection will be 1 scale division with 1 V applied to the circuit.

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

Analog Ammeters and Voltmeters:

Types of Instruments
PMMC
Moving Iron
Electro-dynamometer
Hot Wire
Thermocouple
Induction
Electrostatic
Rectifier

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Measurement of Voltage and Current
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments:

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments:

K
Current is given by G θ.
Low rating current is allowed to pass through the instrument.
High ratings shunts are used for ammeters and multipliers are
used for voltmeters.

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Measurement of Voltage and Current
Shunts to Ammeters:

Fundamental Relation is,

Rsh
Im = I
Rsh + Rm
The value of shunt resistor is given by,

Rm
Rsh =
((I/Im ) − 1)
Swamping Resistance made with Manganin is used to minimize the
effect of temperature changes on the instrument performance.
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Measurement of Voltage and Current
Multipliers to Voltmeter:

Fundamental Relation is,

V = Im (Rm + Rs )
The value of Multiplier is given by,

V
Rs = Rm ( − 1)
v

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

Shunts to Ammeters:
Temperature co-efficient of the shunt and the instrument should
be low.
Resistance of the shunt should not vary with time.
In the range of its operation, it should not generate heat.
Multipliers to Voltmeter:
Resistance should not change with time.
Change of resistance with temperature should be small.
Should be non-inductive for ac applications.

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

Advantages and disadvantages of PMMC instruments:

Scale is uniform.
Power consumption is low.
Torque -weight ratio is high resulting to high accuracy.
Useful only for dc applications.
Cost of the instrument is high.

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

Moving Iron Instruments:

Two types (Attraction type and Repulsion type)
Errors in MI instruments.
Hysteresis error.
Temperature error.
Stray magnetic fields.
Frequency errors.

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

Advantages and disadvantages of MI Instruments:

Suitable for ac and dc use.
Less friction errors.
Cheap and Robust
Scale is not uniform and cramped at the lower end.
Errors due to hysteresis, frequency and magnetic fields.

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

Dynamometer type instruments:

Contains fixed coil and moving coil.
Errors due to
Torque to weight ratio.
Frequency
Eddy current
External magnetic fields.
Temperature changes

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Measurement of Voltage and Current

Electrostatic instruments:
One principle is two electrodes with one fixed.
One principle is forces of attraction or repulsion between
electrodes which cause rotary motion.
Extension of range by using Resistance potential divider or
Capacitor multiplier.
Adv and disadv. :
Power consumption is less.
No frequency and wave form errors.
Suited for high voltages.
Expensive and large in size..

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Measurement of Power

Measurement of Power in DC circuits.

Measurement of power in AC circuits.
Dynamometer type instruments
Deflecion, θ = k1 dM
dθ P. where k1 =
1
Rp K

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Measurement of Power
Errors in Dynamometer type instruments:
Pressure coil Inductance
cos φ
Correction factor for lagging power factor is cos β cos(φ−β where
β= tan−1 ωL
Rp
Correction factor for leading power factor is cos βcos φ
cos(φ+β
Compensation is a capacitor connected in parallel with a portion of
multiplier.
Pressure coil capacitance
Mutual Inductance effects.
Connections.
Eddy current
Stray magnetic fields.
Vibrations in the moving systems.
Temperature.
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Low Power Factor Wattmeters:
Increase the pressure coil current.
Pressure coil current compensation.
Compensation of inductance of the pressure coil.
Small control torque.

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Measurement of Poly Phase Power:
Three wattmeters method.
Two wattmeters method.
Power factor of the load is given by
√ W1 − W2
 
cos φ = cos tan−1 3 (1)
W1 + W2

Effect of the Power factor on wattmeter readings.

If the pf is unit, readings of the two wattmeters is equal and half of the
total power.
if the pf is 0.5, one of the wattmeter reads zero and the other reads
total power.
If the pf is 0, two watt meters reads equal, but opposite in sign.

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Measurement of Energy

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Measurement of Energy

Lag Adjustment
Adjustable resistance
Shading bands
Light load or Friction compensation
Small shading loop between central pole and shunt magnet.
Creep
Drilling a hole on the disc.
Over load compensation
using a magnetic shunt across series magnet.

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