The Status of Cacao

(Theobroma cacao, Sterculiaceae) in the

Western Hemisphere I
J. ROBERT HUNTER 2

There are, at the present time, effectively no long-range, ongoing programs in

any tropical country of the western hemisphere dedicated to the improvement of
cacao (Theobroma cacao, Sterculiaceae). While some effort is currently made to
obtain new acquisitions of cacao cultivars exhibiting desirable characteristics and
to maintain genepools of these trees, there are few data from field trials to prove
and substantiate these qualities. In addition, there is a growing concern regarding
the disparities between predicted yields of cacao trees through the use of "hybrid'"
seed and from actual production under field conditions. This has stimulated an
awareness of the current inadequate understanding of the genetics of cacao and the
lack of comprehension as to which cultivars, under distinct ecological conditions,
are precocious, resistant to disease, or heavy bearing, or indeed demonstrate those
traits vital to the success of farming programs adapted to today's market conditions.
This paper examines the events that have led to the current status of selection,
development, and breeding of cacao. Alternative approaches are suggested.

E1 estado del mejoramiento de cacao (Theobroma cacao, Sterculiaceae) en el

hemisferio occidental. En la actualidad no existe en el nuevo mundo ningfm pro-
yecto de largo plazo dedicado al mejoramiento del cacao (Theobroma cacao, Ster-
culiaceae). Mientras se han realizado algunos esfuerzos dirigidos al mantenamiento
de colecciones y adquisiciones de variedades de cacao que muestran caracterfsticas
deseables, hay pocos datos reales para confirmar dichas cualidades. Mas arm, la
preocupaci6n esta aumentando acerca de la discrepancia entre producci6n real y
lo pronosticado para arboles procedentes de semillas "'hfbridas'" de cacao. Lo an-
terior ha estimulado incertidumbre sobre el conocimiento de la gen~tica del cacao
y lafalta de entendimiento sobre qu~ clones, bajo de regimenes ecol6gicos distintos,
son precoces, tienen resistencia contra enfermedades, y alta producci6n, o muestran
aquellas caracterfsticas vitales para el ~xito de programas agrfcolas adaptados para
el mercado corriente.
Este trabajo examina la manera en que estas deficiencias en selecci6n, desarrollo,
y mejoramiento de cacao han ocurrido. Se sugieren alternativas a la situaci6n
actual.

The significant increase in the yields o f wheat, maize, and rice over the past 30
yr have been attributed, in part, to the " G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n " (Dalrymple 1985).
This novel international approach for increasing agricultural production has been
due largely to plant breeding and plant i m p r o v e m e n t programs in combination
with advanced cultivation techniques including the use o f fertilizers.
Attempts have recently been m a d e to include other food plants within this same
framework. However, the results to date have not been so dramatic in the case

J Received 10 May 1989; accepted 3 February 1990.

2 Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706.

Economic Botany, 44(4), 1990, pp. 425-439

9 1990, by the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458
426 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 44

of certain humid-tropical crops, such as Theobroma cacao L. (Sterculiaceae). This

paper examines the reasons for this shortcoming and suggests possible directions
for future improvement of cacao.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

For at least 100 yr the center (or centers) of origin of T. cacao in the western
hemisphere tropics has been a matter of contention (Holdridge 1950; Mora 1958;
Soria 1959). In his revision of the genus Theobroma, Cuatrecasas (1964) listed a
wide range of localities in the New World where T. cacao sensu lato was found
outside of cultivation.
Wessel and Toxopeus (1986) suggested that the cacao grown by the Maya in
Central America before the 16th century came from wild plants of the Amazonian
forest, these providing the indigenous cultures of that region with sufficient raw
material to meet existing demand. With the disintegration of the Mayan civili-
zation (following its subjugation by the Conquistadores in the 16th century) there
was a decline in the production of cacao in Mesoamerica. By this time, however,
a new and increasing demand for cocoa beans had already been generated in
Europe (Hunter 1981), in response to which plantations of this crop were estab-
lished in other parts of the western hemisphere, particularly around Bahia (Sal-
vador), Brazil, and in the humid west coast of Ecuador. There is some speculation
as to whether present populations of cacao in this latter area were all derived
from 16th and 17th century introductions from Mesoamerica or whether some
of these may have been transported directly from the Amazonian lowlands over
the Andes, surely a formidable barrier in view of the inability of cacao seed to
withstand low temperatures even for short periods of time (Boroughs and Hunter
1963).
Wessel and Toxopeus (1986) also reported on the successful transfer of cacao
seedlings from Acapulco, Mexico, to the Philippines during the 17th century,
which eventually developed into the race known today as Java Criollo. During
the 19th and 20th centuries, cacao eventually expanded into being a pantropical
crop with at least some production in almost every region that is warm and humid.
As has been the case with most cultivated plants, once demand has increased,
the selection and identification of different varieties soon takes place (Harlan and
de Wet 1971). With regard to cacao, one of the earliest publications to identify
cultivars was that of Sir Daniel Morris (1882); based on names used in the West
Indies, principally Trinidad, he identified two main classes of cacao, Cacao Criollo,
with red pods, and Cacao Forastero, including its eight varieties based on pod
color, shape, and surface configuration.
Soon thereafter, Hart 0 8 9 2 ) separated the distinct variety Calabacillo from
Forastero, which, because of its intensely bitter beans from small pods, was con-
sidered inferior to both the Criollo (thin-skinned) and Forastero (thick-skinned)
cacaos. Ten years later, Hart (191 l) had refined and expanded his classification
to recognize two species of cacao (T. cacao and T. pentagona Bert.), including in
the former the three varieties Forastero, Calabacillo, and Criollo, the last being
further subdivided into Trinidad Criollo, Venezuelan Criollo, and Nicaraguan
Criollo. In his new classification, Criollos were identified by light-colored seeds
and high quality beans, Forasteros by light to purple seeds, and the robust Calaba-
1990] HUNTER: CACAO 427

cillos by more disease resistant trees, smaller pods, and inferior purple-colored
seeds.
Based on his observations of cultivated Venezuelan and Nicaraguan varieties,
van Hall (1914; republished 1932) expanded the basically phenotypic classification
developed by Morris and Hart. In his volume, which, for many years, served as
one of the principal guides for the management of cacao, van Hall recognized
only Cfiollos and Forasteros.
Pittier (1935) later used the same terms and general groupings as van Hall for
varieties of T. cacao. He stated that with the exception of T. leiocarpum Bernoulli
(which he relates to Calabacillo) and T. pentagonum [sic] (which he indicated was
generally only to be found under plantation conditions in "Nicaragua and perhaps
part of Costa Rica, extending north to the southern border of Guatemala"), stable
forms of cultivated cacao (T. cacao = Criollo) simply do not exist due to degen-
eration through natural hybridization.
Concurrently in the 1930s, researchers, particularly from Trinidad, conducted
studies on the origin (Cheesman 1932), growth (Cheesman 1935), and pollination
(Cope 1962) of different varieties of Theobroma. Expeditions to Upper Amazonia
were also made to acquire new varieties, in an attempt to better understand the
enigmatic ofigin(s) of cacao, and to obtain disease resistant types (Pound 1938).
With new materials in hand, Cheesman (1944) produced an updated classifi-
cation of cacao varieties, which included Criollos as well as Forasteros, the latter
further subdivided into (a) Angoleta (Liso), (b) Cundeamor (Cundeamor veru-
gosa), (c) Amelonado, (d) Calabacillo, and his new variety, Trinitafio. This latter
cultivar, apparently a natural hybrid complex (as first suggested by Pittier 1930)
came from various sources. His classification is simple:

I. Criollo.
(a) Central American Criollos.
(b) South American Criollos.
II. Forastero.
(a) Amazoniana Forasteros.
(b) Trinitarios.

To Cheesman, however, T. pentagona and T. leiocarpa were not distinct and

separate species, but rather varieties of T. cacao.
Although Chevalier (1946) published a monographic revision of Theobroma,
recognizing 13 species, it was not until 20 yr later that Cuatrecasas first subjected
the genus to detailed taxonomic scrutiny and, in his authoritative monograph on
Theobroma (1964), recognized 22 separate species. Herein, Cuatrecasas reaffirmed
Cheesman's ideas by reducing T. pentagona and T. leiocarpa to synonyms of T.
cacao, leaving thus but a single commonly cultivated species with two sub-species:
(1) T. cacao L. subsp, cacao, including the typical "Criollo', 'Amelonado', "Pen-
tagona', and 'Trinitario' forms as well as most of the other cultivated varieties;
and (2) T. cacao subsp, sphaerocarpum (Chevalier) Cuatr., which includes only
'Calabacillo'.
Sofia (1970b) further described the principal varieties of cacao to be found on
the American continent, including a map which shows the approximate localities
of each. Fifteen years later, Wood and Lass (1985) stated that, to adequately
428 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 44

classify populations, the following varieties in three informal groupings cover the
entire range of cultivated cacaos:
(1) Criollo, including Mexican Criollo; Pentagona (T. pentagona) (Lagarto);
Nicaraguan Criollo (Cacao Real); Colombian Criollo.
(2) Forasteros including Amelonado; Comun; West African Amelonado; Cacao
Nacional; Matina (Ceylan); Guiana wild Amelonado; Amazonians (Pound's col-
lections); Trinitarios.
(3) Exceptional cases such as Trinitarios in South-East Asia and Oceania; Ca-
tongo from Brazil; Indonesian Trinitario.

SELECTION OF CLONES: A BRIEF SYNOPSIS

One of the early attempts to systematically establish easily identifiable cacao

cultivars from highly segregated populations was carried out by the United Fruit
Company in Costa Rica. in 1916, Lim6n, Costa Rica, was perhaps the most
important banana port in the world with a yearly export of ca. 11 million stems.
By the early 1920s, however, owing to the ravages of mal de Panamh (Panama
Disease) caused by a Fusarium wilt, banana exports from Lim6n dropped to under
a million stems. When it was determined that little could be done to control this
pathogen, the decision was made to grow substitute crops on the lands once under
banana cultivation. Of the many crops recommended and eventually tried, cacao
was the principal choice. Farm managers and foremen were directed to send
vegetatively propagated trees of the best cacao selections in their region to the
company experimental farm at Zent, near Lim6n. According to both Norman
Sanderson and John Kelley (pers. comm.) of the United Fruit Company, major
emphasis was placed on selecting varieties that were not only highly productive
but that also had large pods containing large seeds. As these selections were
planted, each was given a consecutive number preceded by the designation U.F.
for United Fruit. This was the origin of the famous U.F. clones.
At this time and even earlier, the United Fruit Company had imported cacao
seeds of superior selections from Trinidad and Ecuador for plantings in Costa
Rica. Thus, while most of the original U.F. selections were derived from Central
American Criollo types, it is believed that a number of them were also made from
Trinitario as well as South American Criollos, leading to some confusion between
Costa Rican, Trinitarian, and Ecuadorian clones. Unfortunately, it appears that
no records were ever kept concerning geographic origins (e.g., providing exact
locality data) or of the ecological conditions where these selections were made.
Furthermore, there is no indication that voucher (herbarium) specimens were
prepared and subsequently deposited in an herbarium for any of these accessions.
Similar selection work was later carried out in Ecuador (Miintzing 1956, 1959).
It should be pointed out that these efforts, too, were stimulated by disease, in this
case one of cacao itself: moniliasis caused by Moniliophthora roreri (Cif. & Par.)
Evans (Monilia roreri Cif. & Par.), a species not described until 1916. Here,
however, local Ecuadorian selections, ICS (Imperial College Selections) clones
from Trinidad, and collections made by Pound from the Upper Amazon (P-12
and the Scavina clones) were all listed under a distinct and separate designation,
i.e., E.T.T. (Estaci6n Experimental Tropical, at Pichilingue, Ecuador) (Chalmers
1970). This designation only added to the confusion surrounding cacao variety
1990] HUNTER: CACAO 429

TABLE 1. m PARTIAL SAMPLING OF CACAO CLONES FROM CERTAIN WESTERN HEMISPHERE

GENEPOOLS.

Name or number Region of o r i g i n Classification Pod' color P o d b ratio Compatibility~

ICS-6 Trinidad Angelota Gr-Y 2.04 SoCo

ICS-55 Trinidad Angelota R-YR 1.90 S.C.
ICS-75 Trinidad Angelota GR-YR 1.82 S.1.
ICS-95 Trinidad Angelota R-RY 2.42 S.1.
IMC-67 Iquitos Cundeamor Gr-Y 2.00 S,1.
P-7 Amazonia Amelonado Gr-Y 1.90 S.L
P- 12 Amazonia Amelonado Gr-Y 1.92 S.l.
SCA-6 Ecuador Cundeamor Gr-Y 2.52 S.I.
SCA- 12 Ecuador Amelonado Gr-Y 2.16 S.1.
TSH-565 Trinidad Angelota R-YR 2.47 S.I.
UF-29 Costa Rica Amelonado Gr-Y 1.94 S.C.
UF-221 Costa Rica Angelota R-RY 2.15 S.C.
UF-613 Costa Rica Amelonado R-YR 2.01 s.i.
UF-667 Costa Rica Angelota R-YR 2.01 s.i.
10-R Mexico Cundeamor Gr-Y 2.48 S.C.
48-R Mexico Cundeamor R-YR 2.46 n.d.
EET-95 Ecuador Cundeamor Gr-Y n.d. n.d.
EET- 103 Ecuador Amelonado Gr-Y n.d. n.d.
EET-400 Ecuador Amelonado Gr-Y 2.05 s.c.
SIC-814 Brazil Amelonado Gr-Y n.d. s.c.
SIAL-325 Brazil Amelonado Gr-u 1.81 s.c
GS-29 Grenada Cundeamor PRY 2.28 s.i.
GS-36 Grenada Cundeamor P-YR 2.20 s.i.
APA-4 Colombia Amelonado Gr-Y n.d. n.d.
9Immature-maturecolor. Gr = green, R = red, Y = yellow,P = purple.
bRatio of pod width to pod length.
c s.c. = selfcompatible; s.i. = selfincompatible; n.d. = no data.

origins since, in this case as well, there are no records of the exact collection sites,
or any extant voucher specimens.
In similar fashion, another cacao disease, witches' broom (Crinipellisperniciosus
Stahel), was the main incentive in Trinidad to genetically improve this crop.
Just prior to World War II, witches' broom threatened to eliminate cacao
plantations from this island where cacao had been one of the mainstays of the
local economy. There, the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture (now the
University of the West Indies), using both indigenous material and collections
made in South America (Baker et al. 1954; Bartley 1967; Pound 1938), established
a series of clones that subsequently became, on a world wide basis, probably the
best known of all. These clones--bearing such designations as ICS, P (Pound) and
IMC (Iquitos selections)--continue to be widely cultivated (Table 1).
By the 1950s, emphasis shifted to clonal selection and almost every major
cacao-producing country had developed its own clones or was in the process of
doing so. In addition, efforts were made to augment existing stocks by importing
the most highly recommended varieties from other areas. Mexico established its
R clones; Guatemala its GA selections; and Colombia its CA and APA clones.
These new varietal designations, added to those already mentioned, produced
such a legion of names, initials, and numbers for cacao cultivars and clones as to
confound the nomenclature further. Just one example will suffice: the well-known
430 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 44

clone ICS-95 from Trinidad is assigned accession number PI-234539 by the

U.S.D.A. (United States Department of Agriculture) at the Subtropical Horti-
cultural Research Station in Miami; it is listed as M-031352 at the Subtropical
Research Station in Mayagiiez, Puerto Rico; and it is known as EET-111 in
Ecuador.
Cacao clones are all reproduced vegetatively by means of rooted cuttings or
bud-grafts, and necessitate the establishment of standard propagators and bud-
wood nurseries, usually under the aegis of some governmental or international
program. A major drawback to the successful promotion of this type of planting
material was poor grower acceptance, even though a very high percentage of the
stocks was distributed free of cost to stimulate cacao production. Many cacao
farmers, accustomed to the chupon (erect, single stem) form of growth resulting
from planting seed, rejected the vegetatively propagated clonal trees due to the
difficulties in managing them (chiefly a problem of pruning). In addition, rooted
cuttings seldom developed tap-roots, making them subject to wind-throw, with
the result that farmers were often obliged to spend extra time and money propping
up their cacao plants by artificial means. Furthermore, little attention had been
paid to stock-scion relationships in cacao, with the result that many promising
trees were lost to root diseases.
Indeed, the abandoned "skeletons" of the cement cacao propagators, used in
the production of rooted cuttings, are to be found today in almost all the major
cacao producing areas of the western hemisphere, attesting to the emphasis once
placed on propagating this type of planting material and to the reluctance of
growers to use it.

ATTEMPTS AT INTRASPECIFIC HYBRIDIZATION

T h e o b r o m a cacao is an outcrossing species with pollination carried out in nature

by several species of ceratopogonid midges (Young 1985). According to Cope
(1962), outcrossing is insured in many populations by incompatibility determined
by a group of alleles that demonstrate an intricate relationship between dominance
and independence by including one allele for self-compatibility. However, it was
early determined that successful crosses between different cacao varieties could
be made by means of hand pollination. This initiative began in Trinidad in the
1930s when Pound (1932, 1933) successfully crossbred different selections and
clones. Subsequently, other investigators (Bartley 1953; Glendinning 1963; Ken-
nedy et al. 1987; Lass and Wood 1985; Lockwood 1974, 1976; Opeke 1972;
Posnette 1943; Sofia 1964, 1970a) extended their efforts in this regard and made
suggestions for future work. In general, hand pollinations are made by careful
controlled application of positively identified pollen to the stigmas of flowers that
have been isolated and protected from contamination. Possibly due to yield in-
creases from the progeny of such crosses, enthusiasm overcame accurate defini-
tions (or documentation) and seeds from random crosses between cacao trees
quickly became known as "hybrid" seeds. Quotation marks have deliberately
been used here since all cacao plants that are not vegetatively propagated or
produced from seeds resulting from self pollination may be loosely termed as
"hybrids." However, the accepted definition used by commercial plant breeders
implies that only those plants that are the result of crossing two inbred lines may
1990] HUNTER: CACAO 431

be said to produce "hybrid seeds." Thus, the misuse of this designation implies
the employment of a certain scientific mystique to induce growers to use untested
"hybrid seed" that may actually lack the implied heterosis.
Indeed, preliminary yield results from such random crosses made in many
different countries elicited such high expectations that this method of sexual
propagation was soon eagerly promoted as the most universally satisfactory means
of increasing cacao production. This also provided growers with seeds that pro-
duced trees with the chupon growth habit to which they were more accustomed.
The serious defect of treating open-pollinated material as if these were true inbred
lines was noted by Dublin (1974) in connection with work in the Ivory Coast for
the production of homozygous lines after chromosome duplication by colchicine.
However, this quite valid caveat was often overlooked and progeny from crosses
between apparently outstanding parents were soon recommended by many insti-
tutions throughout the cacao-growing world, especially when there were indica-
tions that these were blessed with horticultural characteristics often superior to
those of the parents. It should be noted in this connection that, based on early
production figures, some investigators (Murray 1960) added to the euphoria by
predicting that yields of a ton of cacao beans to the acre would soon be possible.
The single most important long-range cacao breeding program in the western
hemisphere was that carried out by the Trinidad Ministry of Agriculture under
the direction of W. E. Freeman (Montserrin et al. 1959). This unique program,
initiated in the 1930s and continued without interruption for almost 50 yr, began
by crossing only a few promising clones, i.e., starting with a very narrow base of
genetic material. In fact, only four clones were actually used: IMC-67, SCA-6,
P- 18, and ICS- 1.
Initially there was a high degree of segregation resulting from the highly het-
erozygous seed produced from such crosses. The key to the success of Freeman's
work was a series of carefully conducted field trials in which only the most prom-
ising of the progeny from these and successive selections were kept for future
crosses. Furthermore, at least in the early stages, seeds from this program were
not recommended for distribution to farmers but only retained for breeding pur-
poses.
Kennedy et al. (1987) stated that during the early years of this work in Trinidad
the major criterion that was applied was the Pod Index (number of pods per kg
of dry cacao), a measure of yield. Disease resistance became increasingly important
with later generations. Although this program of the Ministry of Agriculture in
Trinidad has come to a halt, the TSH clones it developed have a potential yield
(at least under conditions prevalent in Trinidad) of over 2 tons/ha/year and a pod
index of 8-9 pods/kg of dry cacao.

TESTING AND EVALUATION OF CLONES

Following World War II, the average price for cocoa beans rose dramatically
from approximately $1000 per metric ton (2240 lbs) or about $0.45 per pound
in 1944 to over $2600 per metric ton ($1.20 a pound) by the mid-1950s. Had
this been simply a supply/demand situation, the obvious solution for lower prices
would have been greater production, which, in fact, soon became the goal of the
major chocolate producers. Initial efforts promoted research in disease and insect
432 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 44

control in existing cacao plantations. A review of priorities of some of the world's

cocoa organizations (Imle 1967) and an examination of the composition of ex-
periment station staffs clearly demonstrates the great emphasis placed on ento-
mology and pathology at this time. At the same time, growers were induced to
plant as much acreage as possible with the best available cacao plants.
In retrospect, it is now quite clear that superior trees from segregating F 1 pop-
ulations were too often used to characterize entire populations. Unfortunately the
necessary extended field-trials to substantiate the optimistic yield estimates were
not established. The absence of properly conducted long-term research may have
resulted from constant pressure brought to bear on plant-improvement workers
to produce and distribute almost any kind of seed or tree. The evidence shows
that open-pollinated or carelessly produced seeds were often used when demand
was high and where labor for carefully monitored hand pollinations was not
available. Kennedy et al. (1987) suggested that the majority of recently pub-
lished work on the yields of cacao varieties or clones is highly suspect and therefore
of doubtful value. For example, such yield categories as "low," "high," or "good"
were used without quantifying these expressions (Enriquez and Soria 1967; Soria
1970a, 1971).
Part of the difficulty is inherent in the fact that while in the experimental breeding
of agronomic crops (e.g., maize, wheat, rice) at least two generations may be
produced in one year, even minimally accepted breeding programs for cacao
require for a single generation of 3-5 yr. Thus, the strategy too often adopted in
cacao improvement programs was the "quick and dirty" approach, where "het-
erosis" found in some F~ generation plants was used as the sole basis for hopeful
recommendations.
As prices declined during the late 50s and early 60s to $1500 per metric ton,
there was again a change in research emphasis. A hemisphere-wide program for
testing clones and the F~ generations of recommended crosses was established in
Guatemala, Costa Rica, Haiti, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia (Hunter
1961). This involved a series of field trials in which one standard clone (ICS-95)
was included as the benchmark against which local clones or selections were
compared. Other countries such as Trinidad had similar programs. Work was also
begun on the first Cacao Cultivars Register (Enriquez and Soria 1967).
As prices continued to rise from the low point during the early 60s, however,
the field trials were abandoned. Furthermore, there has been almost no follow-
through on the continuation and expansion of the Cacao Cultivars Register. There
is no statistical evidence to demonstrate that such crop improvement projects
declined as prices increased. It may be simply coincidental that as the value of
cocoa beans rose to a high of over $4000 per metric ton (about $1.80/lb) in the
late 1970s, the empirical scientific approach reverted again to the "quick and
dirty" type of programs with an emphasis on the promotion of expansion of
plantings of whatever material was available, tested or not. And, with significant
increases in prices, cacao farmers were again willing, even anxious, to plant what-
ever varieties were recommended.
When prices peaked in 1978 and began once more to follow the cyclical pattern
of decline, many of these same growers took to converting their cacao plantations
to other crops. This was especially true of the less experienced farmers, those on
marginal land, and those in areas where disease was either a continuing problem
1990] HUNTER: CACAO 433

or a new and insidious one as, for example, witches' broom in Trinidad or monili-
asis in Costa Rica. During this time, production of cocoa beans in Costa Rica
decreased from a high of 35 million pounds in 1978 to the current level of about
4.5 million. Trinidad produced as much as 75 million pounds of high quality
cocoa beans 60 yr ago, but the present production from the island is in the 2 to
3 million pound range and yields from farms have dropped to a level of about
100 to 200 pounds per acre. The reasons for these declines are multiple and relate
to the difficulties of obtaining high yields with cacao plants not resistant to disease
and to the social, economic, and political changes that have recently taken place
in the New World tropics.

CURRENT STATUS OF CACAO IMPROVEMENT IN THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE

Entering the final decade of this century, we now find cacao prices at another
low point owing to current overproduction with relation to demand. Producers
in the western hemisphere now face the added problem of increasing cacao pro-
duction in the Far East. For example, although Malaysia produced only 26,000
metric tons of cocoa beans in 1978-1979, production had increased to 255,000
metric tons in 1988. However, Aderman (1989) predicted that cacao prices will
rise this year and stabilize above $3500 per metric ton, and Crotty (1986) pre-
dicted, based upon a comparison of actual and simulated cocoa prices, that within
the next decade, a metric ton of beans could be worth in excess of $4500. If
projections are to be believed, this is the ideal moment to extend or initiate
plantings of new trees in anticipation of rising prices.
The tragedy of cacao growing in the western hemisphere today is that, outside
of a few varieties, most of which have not been subjected to rigorous testing, little
is currently available for farmers in the way of superior planting material. There
are, of course, data from field trials in such countries as Puerto Rico (Schnell,
pers. comm.), Guatemala (Campollo 1985), and Trinidad (CRU 1984, 1986) of
a number of different clones that show promise, but in the overall scheme of
things this is presently of minimal value.
Furthermore, Dr. A. J. Kennedy, the principal cacao breeder at the University
of the West Indies, resigned in fall 1988; the position, to date, has not been filled.
As if to confound error with disaster, Dr. G. Enriquez, the plant breeder and
cacao geneticist of long standing at the Cacao Center at CATIE (Centro Agronr-
mico Tropical de Investigacirn y Ensefianza) in Turrialba, Costa Rica, was let go
in late 1988, leaving that institution effectively not only without a cacao breeder
but with only a minimal cacao program. Brazil continues to utilize synthetic
crosses, according to Dr. Paulo Alvim (pers. comm.), but has little in the way of
long-term varietal testing programs. Maintenance of the new cacao accessions
added to the genepool at Belrm, Brazil, requires an increasing percentage of Dr.
B. G. D. Bartley's time there that might otherwise be spent on basic genetic
research. There are no cacao improvement projects to be reported on from Nic-
aragua, Bolivia, Honduras, Peru, Mexico, or Ecuador (Hunter 1988).
The two areas in which some work is being done are in the expansion and
maintenance ofgenepools and in the basic investigation of cacao genetics including
the identification of different varieties by means of starch gel electrophoresis
(isozymes) as well as the use of character descriptors. The first of these efforts is
434 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 44

typified by the interest of the London Cocoa Trade Amazon Project in obtaining
new material from the Upper Amazon (Allen 1981; Allen and Lass 1983); by the
U.S.D.A. Plant Introduction Station in Miami, Florida, and its sub-station in
Puerto Rico (Imle and Shrum 1958; Soderholm and Vasquez 1985); and by the
International Cocoa Genebank in Trinidad (ICGT) (Kennedy 1984; Mabbett 1988),
the Cacao Collection at CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica (Engles 1981), and the
CEPEC (Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau) Collection of cacao accessions at Belrm,
Brazil). In addition to the cost of maintaining each of these genepools, which
threatens the very continuance of even the most important centers, there is es-
sentially no program anywhere for a systematic evaluation/screening of this germ-
plasm to make it useful to breeders.
Furthermore, these collections are of value only when the material they contain
is used. According to Dr. A. J. Kennedy (pers. comm.) so little is known about
the basic genetics of cacao that continuing to make random crosses would be a
waste of time. In addition, it is his belief that it would be desirable to eliminate
or destroy those varieties that have been used as witches'-broom-resistant types
and for breeders to begin with new material. Professor N. W. Simmonds of the
University of Edinburgh, chairman of the breeding and genetics group sponsored
by the Cocoa, Chocolate, and Confectionery Alliance, reaffirmed this approach
as it relates to long-term genetics work on cacao (Kennedy et al. 1987). It is
unfortunate to have to report that the future of this program in Trinidad appears
to be very tenuous; efforts are presently concentrated simply on genepool main-
tenance.
Investigations of the genetic make-up of cacao by use ofisozymes were recently
begun at the University of Nottingham School of Agriculture in England (Atkinson
et al. 1986), the University of the West Indies in Trinidad (CRU 1986), the
U.S.D.A. Plant Introduction Station in Miami, the Pennsylvania State University,
and the University of Wisconsin.
By the late 1970s a program, supported by the German Agency for Technical
Cooperation (GTZ), was established at Turrialba to expand on the work begun
by Enrlquez and Soria (1967). Engles et al. (1980) published a list of descriptors,
relating chiefly to morphological characteristics (additional to those used by En-
rlquez and Soria) and instructions on their use and sample size. O f the few
descriptors relating to geographical origin, however, no references were made to
the ecology of the region in which the cultivar was originally native. Furthermore,
there are only 16 categories used for agronomic evaluation, even though these are
probably the most important for any producer. In each case, the model established
for identifying clones provided no information as to field performance and eco-
logical requirements. Thus, there is no basis for recommendations for planting
any specific clone at any particular locality. This descriptors list was followed by
a Catalog of the CATIE Cacao Collection (Engles 1981). Later, he published three
additional and more inclusive papers (Engles 1983a, 1983b, 1983c) devoted to
the systematic description of cacao clones. None of this body of work includes
detailed information on the ecology of the collection site of any clone or reference
to possible voucher specimens. In the catalog of 294 clones, eight related species,
and one hybrid (Engles 1981) there is but a single descriptor specifically relating
to productivity.
1990] HUNTER: CACAO 435

That both isozyme research and work on descriptors is at such a preliminary

stage is due to the fact that there is little in the way of basic information from
the original collections or accessions and that there is nowhere available any such
fundamental and positively identifiable material as herbarium vouchers with com-
plete and accurate labels.
Adequate financing for careful and scientifically valid breeding programs to be
conducted over extended periods had always been a problem. In contrast, the
"Green Revolution," mentioned previously, always had considerable sums of
money available for its plant improvement programs. For example, funding for
the operation of the IRGC (International Rice Germplasm Center) was increased
from about $150,000 in the early 1970s to about $500,000 in 1983 (Chang 1984).
While it may be argued that rice is a more important crop than cacao, the total
amount budgeted to cacao improvement work in the western hemisphere does
not amount to a fraction of this sum.
In a developed country such as the U.S., crop research, once practically the
sole domain of the U.S.D.A. and Land Grant Colleges, is now almost 90% sup-
ported by private companies (Brown et al. 1987). While this is also the case with
such tropical crops as bananas, no major companies are fully engaged in cacao
research. Efforts are channeled instead through such organizations as the American
Cacao Research Institute (ACRI), the Cocoa, Chocolate and Confectionery Al-
liance, the International Plant Breeders Research Group (IPBRG), and the U.S.
Agency for International Development (USAID).
Since, in the past, so few attempts were made by breeders to develop pure
inbred lines at New World cacao centers, a high degree of segregation in field
populations has been the inevitable result from distributing seed to growers.
Helfenberger (1987a) presented data on the extremely variable performance of
cacao trees from highly recommended "hybrid" seeds under commercial field
conditions with approximately 20% of the trees producing 80% of the crop. One
result of this distinct lack of proper breeding methods has been that growers,
taking matters into their own hands, have reverted to selecting material from
their own plantations by vegetatively propagating this rather than continuing to
use "hybrid" seeds (Helfenberger 1987b; Hunter 1975), meanwhile waiting with
everyone else for high-yielding material from some breeding program in which
all can have confidence.

RECOMMENDATIONS

After so much criticism, even if based on 30 yr of personal cacao experience,

it is only proper to present some constructive recommendations. To begin to
improve the performance of cacao in the Western Hemisphere, it is therefore
recommended that the following be put into effect.
1. With the prospect of increasingly limited resources for the task, priorities for
future work in cacao improvement must be established. The first question to be
asked is whether there is not presently sufficient material in the assorted genepool
banks to limit the need for future accessions. Of all the 70,000 seeds of Hevea
brasiliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.) Muell, Arg., the Brazilian rubber tree, sent from
the Amazon to Kew Gardens in London for germination and subsequently shipped
to the Far East over 100 yr ago, less than a dozen trees were eventually established
436 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 44

in Malaysia. From this minimal, though quite homogeneous, population were

developed the famous high-yielding, far-eastern robber clones. This is not to
suggest that cacao genepools should not be established and maintained (Fisher
1982), but rather that it is time to investigate, document, and catalogue what is,
in fact, now extant. The prime purpose of this exercise should be to produce not
only improved cacao clones but to provide thoroughly tested planting material
for cacao farmers. The ambitious acquisition of new material could at present be
detrimental to this aspect of cacao improvement by absorbing such a high per-
centage of the limited funds available as to render this indispensable basic research
untenable.
2. Carefully annotated vouchers of all of the presently used cultivars should be
prepared; they (and duplicates) should be deposited with important herbaria. This
exercise would provide an excellent opportunity to rectify previous mistakes in
nomenclature and to prepare a standardized listing of all material in use including
not only T. cacao varieties but material from other T h e o b r o m a species as well.
3. Utilizing approved methods, work must eventually be initiated on the breed-
ing of purebred lines of cacao. While this will take time it is essential to the success
of any cacao improvement program. Help in this matter can be provided by
amplifying isozyme studies or any other modern techniques of genetics investi-
gations.
4. While these aspects of basic genetics research are being undertaken, another
approach would be to initiate a thorough and comprehensive testing program.
There are a sufficient number of cultivars to begin long-term field trials in many
different localities in the western hemisphere to determine the best planting ma-
terial. Only supervision and guidance are needed, for ample land is available for
this task. Cooperative tests should be designed and conducted to compare the
relative performance of the most promising clones or synthetics including yield,
resistance, etc. under different ecological and agronomic conditions. Until such
tests are actually under way in the hemisphere, there will be little to recommend
to farmers to assist them in increasing cacao yields. In addition, data obtained
from such trials would be highly beneficial to plant breeders. Information from
all types of field testing should be widely disseminated.
5. If budded or grafted plants are to be recommended for growers, studies on
stock/scion relationships, including disease resistance, should be undertaken.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research was partially funded by a grant from The American Cocoa Research Institute. Field
work was greatly facilitated by the use of information provided by Raymond Schnell and Francisco
Vasquez in Miami and Puerto Rico, Arthur Kennedy and Cheryl Gonzalvez of Trinidad, Paulo Alvim
from Brazil, Gustavo Enriquez and Andr6 Helfenberger of Costa Rica. Norman Sanderson and John
Kelley were respectively the Director of Agriculture for United Fruit and the Manager of the Fruit
Company cacao plantations near Lim6n at the time of the establishment of the U.F. clones. I thank
Hugh Iltis, Stephen Solheim, and Raymond Guries for many helpful suggestions and criticisms for
improving the manuscript, and Rafael Guzm~in for assistance with the Spanish summary.

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Natural Products in Caribbean Folk Medicine. Compton E. Seaforth. The University of

the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad. 1988. 140 pp. illus, paper. $3.00.
The author of this handy booklet is a long-experienced phytochemist, Faculty of Sciences,
Department of Chemistry, University of the West Indies. He has produced a conscientious
report funded by the E B U T R O P PROJECT, Organization of the American States, Wash-
ington, D.C., and the asking price is therefore no more than the cost of mailing from St.
Augustine.
Following an explanatory Introduction and a one-page "Bibliography Selected for the
Introduction," Section 1 presents concise data on 78 plants--first a statement as to type
of plant, then alleged uses, constituents, biodynamic notes, other comments, and a short
list of references under each species. There are 73 line drawings.
Section 2 (12 pp) deals briefly with 28 species of poisonous plants wild and cultivated
in the Caribbean region. The author has helpfully added an Index of Chemical Compounds
and an Index of C o m m o n Plant Names. He is to be complimented on his sincerity and
restraint in compiling this compact, trustworthy manual.
JULIA F. MORTON, UNIVERSITYOF MIAMI, CORAL GABLES, ~ 33124