Renewable Energy Supply of Refugee Camps to
Decrease Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions
Pablo F. Frack, Pedro E. Mercado
Instituto de Energía Eléctrica
Universidad Nacional de San Juan
San Juan, Argentina
pfrack@ieee.org
Abstract—Due to existing conflicts or natural disasters in
many different parts of the world, refugee camps are established
by different aid organizations in order to provide local
humanitarian assistance. Nowadays, these camps are electrically
supplied using diesel generators, which are not environmentally
friendly and require huge amounts of not easily available fossil
fuels. In this sense, Microgrids (MGs) may have an opportunity
to provide efficient electrical energy including renewable energy
resources. In this paper a refugee camp located in Juba, South
Sudan was selected as simulation example. First, the proposed
MG to replace the current refugee camp topology and to supply
the required electric and heat power is presented. The MG here
considered is composed of different commercially available
technologies. An economic study of the benefit using this grid
configuration is carried out in order to determine the fuel
consumption savings due to the use of renewable energy
resources based generation technologies. Then, the replacement
of diesel by photovoltaic and wind generation results in a reduced
system inertia which brings problems related to frequency
stability. A control strategy derived from the equations of a
synchronous machine is here used to operate converter-coupled
units in order to improve the MG frequency stability.
Keywords—Distributed Generation, Smart- Microgrids,
Frequency Control, Renewable Energy.
I. INTRODUCTION
In many different parts of the world due to existing
conflicts or natural disasters, refugee camps are mounted by
many different organizations in order to help the local people.
Nowadays, the power supply in such camps is obtained using
diesel generators. Apart from being not environmentally
friendly, these generators require huge amounts of fossil fuels
that are not always easily available. In this sense, renewable
resources may be used to provide clean power generation
reducing the dependence on diesel generators.
In general, these refugee camps could be installed in any
part of the world and they could have many different sizes,
depending on the amount of refugees. These camps are usually
located in areas where the access to fuel is very difficult due to
natural disasters or ongoing conflicts. Therefore, it is of mayor
importance to use the resources available in the region and to
have an easy-to-scale modular supply system.
In this sense, the size and weight of the components to be
transported is an aspect that needs to be taken into account.
978-1-4799-8586-9/15/$31.00 (c)2015 IEEE
Garikoitz Sarriegui, Rik W. De Doncker
Institute for Power Generation and Storage Systems
RWTH Aachen University
Aachen, Germany
gsarriegui@eonerc.rwth-aachen.de
Bulky equipment is difficult to transport, especially in
devastated areas. Sometimes this equipment requires special
machinery, such as tow trucks, which makes the transport even
more difficult.
On the other hand, renewable source installations may
occupy bigger areas than the fossil fuel based electric
generators. Nevertheless, these facilities are usually modular
and, thus, they could be transported and mounted more easily.
Hence, modular constructions and equipment help to simplify
the overall effort.
Additionally, such camps normally need to operate for long
periods of time (rarely less than 3 years) and hence; several
additional requirements need to be fulfilled. All the used
equipment has to be robust to any environment, stable across
the time, cheap and easy to maintain. Refugee camps are
typically mounted in places where the access to sophisticated
technology is very limited. Therefore, the installed devices
should be as simple as possible to enable any person with a
minimum training do the required maintenance and repairing.
Refugee camps do not need to be completely CO2 free from
the very beginning. In many cases, to ensure the energy supply
just by means of renewable resources is not an easy task.
Hence, the use of some diesel generators has to be accepted if a
proper electric supply is required. Nevertheless, the use of
more efficient solutions could help to minimize the electric
power consumption and thereby the amount of power
generation could be minimized.
The focus of this paper is to demonstrate that the electric
supply of a refugee camps can be sustained by means of
renewable sources. Therefore, first a proper refugee camp
sizing is carried out taking into account weather information to
minimize the fuel consumption. Also, an economic analysis to
determine the fuel consumption savings is performed.
Second, refugee camps composed of different generation
technologies may be difficult to operate, especially when
incorporating renewable energy resources. In such cases,
control strategies are needed to keep the electrical parameters
(voltage and frequency) within the boundaries and to avoid
stability problems. In this paper, a control strategy for power
converters is selected in order to provide stability. The
proposed control is presented and assessed through the
evaluation of different events regarding the MG operation.
 Fig. 1: Global horzontal solar irradiation [1].
Note that a refugee camp might be regarded as a MG, if a
connection to the main power system is considered. However,
even when there is no such connection, a refugee camp might
still be considered a MG which operates in standalone mode all
the time.
II. REFUGEE CAMP DIMENSIONING
To determine which renewable sources are suitable for each
area or region, different climates and weather conditions needs
to be taken into account, specially the wind speed and the solar
irradiation. Usually, different energy sources need to be
combined, but depending on those conditions, one source will
dominate the power generation. In Fig. 1 the world global
horizontal solar irradiation is presented. In equator regions such
as Africa, South America, Middle and Southeast Asia or
Pacific countries, the solar irradiation is very high. This fact is
especially important considering that these regions are given to
have devastating earthquakes, riots or are not politically stable
and, thus, in many cases refugee camps need to be mounted to
help local people. Hence, the use of photovoltaic (PV) panel in
such regions is upmost compulsory.
The case of study considered in this paper will be a refugee
Current Juba’s camp assists 5000 refugees with the
consumption behavior of Tab. I. To cover all these needs, eight
100 kVA diesel generators are installed.
One alternative topology to this configuration is presented
in Fig. 2. It consists of six 20 kVA Squirrel Cage Induction
Generator Wind Turbines, an array of solar panels covering
1300 m² to generate up to 200 kW of peak PV power (using
15 % efficiency), one 100 kVA diesel generator and one array
of 300 kWh sodium-sulfur batteries. The energy provided by
this configuration is able to cover the energy needs of a typical
day at Juba’s refugee camp.
III. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
To perform a proper economic analysis the current Juba’s
refugee camp is be used as benchmark and compared to the
proposed MG. With this respect, the different grid components
such as wires, connection points, protection systems or circuit
breakers are not considered, as these elements are considered to
be common for both topologies.
‡–•
‡Žƒ›ͳ ͳ
‹† –‡””—’–‹„Ž‡
camp located in Juba, South Sudan. As it is possible to see in —”„‹‡ ‘ƒ†
ʹ
Fig. 1, the solar irradiation in this region is one of the highest in —•ͳͲ –‡””—’–‹„Ž‡
the world and, therefore, PV represents a suited option. In Š‘–‘˜‘Ž–ƒ‹… ‘ƒ†
ͷ ͵ –‡””—’–‹„Ž‡
addition to it, several wind generators will be installed to help …
‘ƒ†
…
with the electricity supply and any power supply surplus is ˜‡”–‡”
Ͷ –‡””—’–‹„Ž‡
stored using a battery energy storage system (BESS). —•ͺ
”‘’‘•‡† ‘ƒ†
…‘–”‘Ž —•ͻ
As previously stated the MG does not need to be from the
͸ ‹‡•‡ŽȀ
very beginning completely CO2 emission free and, hence, some ”‹‘”‹–›
‡”˜‹…‡ ‘ƒ† ͹
‡‡”ƒ–‘”•‡–
diesel generator will be added to provide the required power
•‡…–‘”
for system stability. Additionally, even though sometimes the ‡•‹–‹˜‡ ‡Žƒ›ʹ
‘ƒ† —•͸
public electric grid is accessible, blackouts and fluctuations
might occur especially during wars. Therefore, as these two —•͹ 

‡‡”ƒŽ ͺ
additional energy resources, wind and sun, are considered to be —„•–ƒ–‹‘ …
”‡ƒ‡” …
intermittent resources, the MG dimensioning has to be ˜‡”–‡”
—•ͷ
performed in such a way that it is able to work in standalone ”‘’‘•‡†
—•ͳ —•ʹ —•͵ —•Ͷ
mode (disconnected from the public grid) with just the local …‘–”‘Ž
power generation and the added storage system during the Fig. 2: Microgrid/Refugee camp model.
whole MG’s lifetime.
 TABLE I. REFUGEE CAMP ENERGY AND POWER CONSUMPTION

Daily energy Instant power at 12:00 PM

Amount Power per Utilization Energy per item Units in Utilization Power per item
Load Type
in units unit in kW in h in kWh operation factor in kW
Cooking plate 202 1.5 4 1212 131 0.9 176.85
Heat blower 206 2 2 824 103 0.8 164.8
Tent lighting 212 0.02 6 25 0 0 0
Shower lighting 36 0.1 6 22 4 0.9 0.36
Chain of lights 40 0.05 12 24 0 0 0
Water boilers 9 6 6 324 3 0.8 14.4
Water treatment plant 1 4 6 24 1 1 4
Water pump 1 3 6 18 1 1 3
Camp lighting 15 0.4 12 72 2 0.9 0.72
2545 kWh 364.13 kW

A. Existing diesel generators Sodium-sulfur batteries are selected for this application as
Nowadays, eight P100P2 diesel generators are used to storage technology due to their relatively high energy and
supply the required electric energy [2]. These generators are power density. Nevertheless, other reasons can lead to different
commercially available and each of them costs around selection criteria and therefore, other battery technologies, such
10,000 €. In total, the initial investment cost for this model is as lead acid or lithium-ion batteries can be considered. Sodium-
about 80,000 €. sulfur battery systems have a cost of 325 €/kWh, lead acid
battery systems a cost of 150 €/kWh and lithium-ion
These generators require diesel fuel to obtain the electric 650 €/kWh [6]. Considering that a total storage capacity of
power. The price estimation of this diesel is not an easy task as 300 kWh will be installed, the total cost of the battery system
this price depends on many different variables, such as will be of 97,500 €, 45,000 € and 195,000 €, respectively. In
availability or political stability. Additionally, this price the following, however, only the sodium-sulfur batteries will
typically fluctuates considerably within a short time period, be considered.
making more difficult setting a single fuel price. For this study
the commercial price with an increase of 50 % has been In total, the investment costs will be at least 500,000 €, only
considered. From [3], a diesel price for Sudan of 0.22 €/liter considering the renewable power generation and the storage
has been found and, thus, a total diesel price of 0.33 €/liter will systems including power electronics.
be considered. Considering the sodium-sulfur BESS as mentioned in
Taking into account a power factor of 0.8 for diesel Section II and the installed diesel generator, the total initial
generators, each of them requires 21.9 l/h of diesel. Taking into investment cost is 545,500 €. Compared to the 80,000 € that
account that they are able to generate a maximum power of the existing diesel based generation system costs, this initial
100 kW with that fuel consumption, 0.274 l/kWh are needed. investment cost is significantly higher. Nevertheless, for the
Considering the energy requirement of the MG (see Tab. I), sake of simplicity the proposed MG with one single diesel
nearly 700 l of diesel fuel per day are required, leading to a fuel generator can be considered to use 8 times less fuel and, thus, 8
cost of 230 €/day. times less operation costs, i.e. only 30 €/day are needed.
Considering all this facts and the diesel price calculated in
To simplify the cost calculation, additional elements, such Section III.A, a payback time of 6.4 years can be calculated.
as oils and coolants are not into consideration.
With an operation optimization, however, the fuel
B. Proposed microgrid utilization can be minimized; e.g. storing the energy generated
To analyze the costs of the proposed MG (see Fig. 2), each by wind turbines during nights. In an ideal case, the MG can
part of the MG needs to be considered independently, as the run completely free of diesel. In such case, with the proposed
cost of each one is not held constant. The system is composed topology the payback time still would be around 5.4 years.
of PV panels, wind generators and a battery storage system.
The price for each element is shown in Tab. II. Depending on
TABLE II. PRICE PER TECHNOLOGY [4-6]
the size and technology used for PV and wind generation, the
investment costs per peak power may change accordingly. A Type
Peak Power/
Price Total Price
PV system in the range of a few hundred kilowatts with a Capacity
typical efficiency of 15 % costs 1.35 €/Wp [4], meaning that Photovoltaic panels 200 kW 1.35 €/W 270,000 €
the full PV system will cost 270,000 €. Wind generators 120 kVA 1.4 €/VA 168,000 €
Lead acid 300 kWh 150 €/kWh 45,000 €
A similar thing happens with the cost of the wind turbines.
BESS Sodium-sulfur 300 kWh 325 €/kWh 97,500 €
Small wind turbines cost 1.4 €/VA [5]. Therefore, the entire
wind generation system will cost 168,000 €. Lithium-ion 300 kWh 650 €/kWh 195,000 €
 IV. STABILITY STUDY
A. Frequency Stability and Control Strategy
The frequency stability is defined in [7] as the ability of an
electrical system to keep steady frequency following a severe
system upset resulting in a significant system imbalance
between generated and demanded power. It is related to the
ability of the system to keep the balance between system
generation and load with a minimum unintentional loss of load.
In microgrids, the common reasons of frequency instability are
the relative slow response of speed governors and very low
system equivalent inertia resulting in insufficient instantaneous
energy reserve. The frequency stability can be assessed using
two parameters; the rate of change of frequency (df/dt) and the
maximal frequency deviation (¨fr). This is, considering a
change in the demanded power, ¨PL, both parameters can be
defined as [8],
†݂ ݂଴ οܲ୐
ൌ (1)
†‫ܪʹ ݐ‬ୣ୯ σ ܲ୬୧
݂଴ െοܲ୐ଶ
ο݂୰ ൌ Ǥ (2)
ʹ‫ܪ‬ୣ୯ Ǥ σ ܲ୬୧ †ܲ
ʹǤ ୋ
†‫ݐ‬
where Heq is the total system equivalent inertia, ™Pni is the total
power being supplied by all generation units, f0 the nominal
frequency and dPG/dt the total system governor response. As
can be noted, the system equivalent inertia plays an important
role in the frequency stability. Low inertia means high
variability and reduced capacity to keep the balance between
generated and demanded power.
Therefore, the replacement of diesel generation by PV and
wind generation as presented in this paper results in a reduced
system equivalent inertia and in reduced frequency stability.
Moreover, intermittent generation resources as wind and sun
have a greater impact on grids with low equivalent inertia.
”‡“—‡…›†”‘‘’
This negative impact can be minimized using a control
strategy to emulate the inertial behavior of synchronous
machine in converter coupled technologies. With this strategy
the converter coupled unit is able to provide inertia to the grid
improving (1) and (2). This strategy based on [9] is derived
from the swing equation of synchronous machines [10],
†ଶ ߠ †ߠ
ʹ‫ܪ‬ ൅ ݇ୢ ൌ ሺܲ୫ െ ܲୣ ሻ (3)
†‫ݐ‬ ଶ †‫ݐ‬
where H is the inertia constant, Pm and Pe are the mechanical
and electrical power, respectively, ș is the rotor angle and kd a
constant representing the effect of damper windings. This
strategy can be implemented using the three blocks of Fig. 3,
where Fig. 3.a is the outer loop responsible for the voltage and
frequency control, Fig. 3.b is middle loop responsible for the
active and reactive power control and Fig. 3.c is the inner loop
responsible for the current control.
During normal operation, the outer control loop determines
the levels of active and reactive power that the power inverter
must exchange with the grid. Then, the middle control loop
determines the current references corresponding to these power
levels and; finally, the inner control loop performs the dynamic
tracking of these current references. The general voltage and
frequency control is achieved connecting these blocks in
cascade. Note that (3) is calculated on the active power control
loop. The main contribution of this control is the emulation of
the inertial characteristic given by the virtual inertia providing
inertia to the system.
One advantage of the block structure of Fig. 3 is the
capability to be used for voltage and frequency control
connecting the three blocks, or for active and reactive power
control connecting only the blocks of Fig. 3.b and 3.c. This
means that the proposed strategy can be used to operate
controllable units such as batteries or uncontrollable units such
as photovoltaic panels.
‹”–—ƒŽ ߱Ͳ Ʌ …–‹˜‡’‘™‡”…‘–”‘Ž
‡”–‹ƒ ƒ„…
ˆ”‡ˆ ˆ ”‡ˆ ”‡ˆ οɘ ‡ ‹ƒ„…̴”‡ˆ ‹†̴”‡ˆ
ˆͲ ͳ ͳ
•…‹Žƒ–‘”
ͳ ՝
ʹ•൅† ‫ݏ‬ ‫ ݏܮ‬൅ ܴ
Ͳ  †“‘

ˆ‘—– ’‘—– Ʌ
”‡ˆ  ”‡ˆ ”‡ˆ 
 ‹“̴”‡ˆ
Ͳ ‘–”‘Ž
Ͳ  

‘—– ‘Ž–ƒ‰‡†”‘‘’ “‘—– ‡ƒ…–‹˜‡’‘™‡”…‘–”‘Ž

a b
‹†̴”‡ˆ
—””‡–…‘–”‘Ž
‹ƒ ”‘•• ˜ ˜ƒ̴”‡ˆ
‹† †
‹„ ƒ„… …‘—’Ž‹‰ †“‘ ˜„̴”‡ˆ  ‘–Š‡
՝ ‹“ ƒ† ˜“ ՝
‹… ˜…̴”‡ˆ ‹‰ƒŽ• ‹˜‡”–‡”
†“‘ …—””‡– ƒ„…
‹“̴”‡ˆ …‘–”‘Ž

Ʌ Ʌ
c
Fig. 3. Control strategy.
B. Simulation results
In order to assess the control strategy performance, some
simulations were performed under two different cases. In case
A, the impact of the virtual inertia during the MG islanding
process is considered. Important is to note that the problem to
be considered here is only about frequency control, thus, only
active power control is taken into account.
To analyze independently the impact of virtual inertia on
the MG dynamics from the impact on intermittent generation,
the stochastic characteristic of wind and sun is not considered
in this first case. Instead, constant power generation is
assumed.
In case B the impact of the virtual inertia considering
intermittent power generation caused by renewable sources is
analyzed separately.
Both cases consider the average load shown in Tab. I. At
12:00 pm the total power demand is around 364.13 kW. The
weather conditions for the area considered here, such as
ambient temperature, wind speed or solar irradiation, were
The virtual inertia is particularly beneficial in those weak
systems where the power electronic penetration is relatively
high.
Case B
In this case the intermittent power generation from wind
turbine and photovoltaic units is taken into account. The
operation occurs during the standalone mode.
Here, the proposed control is applied to operate the
photovoltaic system in active and reactive power control mode,
while the BESS system is operated using the conventional
droop control [11].
Fig. 7 shows the system frequency for different values of
virtual inertia while Fig. 8 the PV output power for the same
values. The operation of the photovoltaic system using the
proposed control strategy allows reducing the variability of the
active power injected into the grid.
ͳǤͲͳ
ͳ

›•–‡ˆ”‡“—‡…›‹’Ǥ—Ǥ
imported from [1] to the simulation model. These conditions
ͲǤͻͻ
give the average power generation of each source at 12:00 pm:
H = 0.16 s
126.4 kW from the PV array and 108.15 kW from the wind ͲǤͻͺ
turbines. ͲǤͻ͹
H = 0.016 s
Case A ͲǤͻ͸
ͲǤͻͷ H = 0.0016 s
As previously mentioned this scenario is characterized by
364.13 kW of load and 264.55 kW of local active power ͲǤͻͶ
ͲǤͻ͵ ͳ ͳǤͲ͹ ͳǤͳͶ ͳǤʹͳ ͳǤʹͺ ͳǤ͵ͷ ͳǤͶʹ ͳǤͶͻ ͳǤͷ͸ ͳǤ͸͵ ͳǤ͹
generation. The public grid supplies almost 100 kW. At t = 1 s. ‹‡‹•
the MG islanding proceed. Here, the control strategy is applied
Fig. 4: System frequency for different Hs for case A
to operate the inverter connecting the battery array (BESS) as
shown in Fig. 2 in voltage and frequency control mode
according to Fig. 3, while the PV system is operated using the ͹Ͳ
conventional control in dq-reference frame [11]. ͸Ͳ H = 0.16 s
…–‹˜‡’‘™‡”‹

Fig. 4 shows the MG’s frequency for three different values ͷͲ

of virtual inertia, H, according to Fig. 3.b. As can be noted ͶͲ H = 0.0016 s
there is a significant difference between each curve. A greater ͵Ͳ
H = 0.016 s
virtual inertia results in a reduced rate of change of frequency.
At the same time, for a given governors’ time response this ʹͲ
results in a reduced frequency deviation. This is very important ͳͲ
because lower frequency deviation results in reduced load Ͳ
shedding and in greater system stability. ͲǤͻ͵ ͳ ͳǤͲ͹ ͳǤͳͶ ͳǤʹͳ ͳǤʹͺ ͳǤ͵ͷ ͳǤͶʹ ͳǤͶͻ ͳǤͷ͸ ͳǤ͸͵ ͳǤ͹
‹‡‹•
Observe that the lower frequency deviation can only be
Fig. 5: BESS output active power for different Hs case A.
achieved by injecting more power during the transient. This
extra power injection comes from the BESS according to the
virtual inertia; i.e. the virtual inertia means energetically that ͳͲͲ
the BESS unit is injecting more power during the transient. ͻͲ
H = 0.016 s
This can be observed in Fig. 5, which shows the BESS output
…–‹˜‡’‘™‡”‹

ͺͲ H = 0.0016 s
power for the same three virtual inertia values. Observe that as
͹Ͳ
the virtual inertia increase the power injected during the H = 0.16 s
transient increases as well. ͸Ͳ
ͷͲ
On the other hand, Fig. 6 shows active power injected by
the diesel unit. As can be noted, the increase in the BESS ͶͲ
output power during the transient is counteracted by a decrease ͵Ͳ
ͲǤͻ͵ ͳ ͳǤͲ͹ ͳǤͳͶ ͳǤʹͳ ͳǤʹͺ ͳǤ͵ͷ ͳǤͶʹ ͳǤͶͻ ͳǤͷ͸ ͳǤ͸͵ ͳǤ͹
in the diesel generator output power, however, in a smaller
‹‡‹•
extend. This means that the virtual inertia not only increases
but also redistributes the instant energy reserve among the units Fig. 6: Diesel output active power for different Hs case A.
which participate in the frequency stabilization.
 ͳǤͲͳʹ On the other hand, the control strategy used to operate
ͳǤͲͲͺ H = 0.02 s H = 0.002 s converter coupled units has a great impact on the system
›•–‡ˆ”‡“—‡…›‹’Ǥ—Ǥ

ͳǤͲͲͶ H = 0.25 s dynamic, especially in standalone (micro-) grids. In the case

ͳ considered here only small virtual inertial values were
ͲǤͻͻ͸ simulated because of the system configuration. However,
ͲǤͻͻʹ greater inertia values could be also emulated, in principle,
ͲǤͻͺͺ achieving a greater stabilization effect. However, as the virtual
ͲǤͻͺͶ inertia is linked to a required instantaneous energy, the storage
ͲǤͻͺ requirements might increase proportionally, increasing the
ͲǤͻ͹͸ investment costs.
Ͳ ͳ ʹ ͵ Ͷ ͷ ͸ ͹ ͺ ͻ ͳͲ
‹‡‹• Particularly important is the capability of the control
Fig. 7: System frequency for different Hs for case B. strategy to filter out the active power injected by the PV
system, reducing the negative impact. This strategy can also be
implemented in wind generation if the full-converter topology
ͳͷͲ is considered. The operation of each converter coupled unit
H = 0.25 s
ͳͶͲ with the proposed control would achieve a greater stabilization
…–‹˜‡’‘™‡”‹

effect.
ͳ͵Ͳ
In this paper, an integral design of refugee camps taking
ͳʹͲ H = 0.002 s into account energetic (planning) as well as power (stability)
ͳͳͲ H = 0.02 s requirements was presented. Obviously, real refugee camps
ͳͲͲ
requires a more complex design, however, this study case
shows the feasibility of using renewable energy resources
ͻͲ
Ͳ ͳ ʹ ͵ Ͷ ͷ ͸ ͹ ͺ ͻ ͳͲ
together with storage technologies to supply refugee camps as
‹‡‹• an alternative to decrease fuel dependence and CO2 emissions.
Fig. 8: PV output active power for different Hs for case B. REFERENCES

Observe that the virtual inertia on PV systems acts as a
filter for the active power, reducing the rate of change of
frequency and improving the power quality. In an analogy, the
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Here, only small virtual inertia values were simulated,
resulting in a relatively small decrement of the resource
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values might result in higher instantaneous energy
requirements which increase the storage capacity requirements.
V. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a new refugee camp model based on
renewable energy sources has been introduced. Apart from the
proper dimensioning and a stability analysis, an economic
study has been carried out.
This simple study case shows that even though the required
generation and storage systems might be expensive, the
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be also considered that the fuel price in the last years has been
always increasing, while the costs of semiconductor devices
have been steadily decreasing, which conduct to shorter
amortization periods.
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