GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

CHEMISTRY: the branch of science that deals with the identification of the substances of which matter
is composed; the investigation of their properties and the ways in which they interact, combine, and
change; and the use of these processes to form new substances.

# Scientific study of the properties and behavior of MATTER.

MATTER – anything that occupies space and has mass.

ATOM - An atom is a particle of matter that uniquely defines a chemical element. An

atom consists of a central nucleus that is surrounded by one or more negatively charged
electrons

# single neutral particle.

# basic unit of matter that is indivisible

MOLECULE - The smallest particle of a substance that has all of the physical and
chemical properties of that substance

# made up of two (2) or more bonded atoms

ION - any atom or group of atoms that bears one or more positive or negative electrical
charges. Positively charged ions are called CATIONS; negatively charged ions,
ANIONS.

IONIZATION: removal of electron or adding of electron into a neutral particle making it a negative or
positive charge particle.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES: attractive force between neighboring particles of one or more

substances.

 Pulls the particles together while KINETIC ENERGY keeps the particles at a
distance and/or moving around.
 IMF and KINETIC ENERGY: Inversely proportional to the distance between
particles.
 KINETIC ENERGY is directly proportional to HEAT ENERGY ( as heat energy
increase the kinetic energy of an atom also increases)

COVALENTBOND: the mutual sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between two atoms

It is called DIPOLE because this

Partial negative Partial positive
H CL molecule now possesses two poles
pole pole

TWO POLES

DIPOLE

THEY ARE CALLED COVALENTLY BONDED OR POLARIZED MOLECULES BECAUSE THEY SHARE THE SAME ELECTRON
MAKING THEM TO HAVE A PARTIALLY NEGATIVE AND PARTIALLY POSITIVE SIDES / POLES.
 1. DIPOLE-DIPOLE: exist between polar molecules.
- Take note that (HCL) hydrogen chloride are those that possess a permanent
dipole moment attributed to the difference in electronegativities of their
component atoms and how these atoms are arrange in space.
- Each polar molecule has unequal electron densities, resulting in a dipole- a
partial negative and a partial positive end.
- Thus, when two polar molecules are brought close together, the partial
positive charge of one molecule will be attracted to the partial negative
charge of the neighboring molecule.
- Adipole- dipole is not a chemical bond but rather they are attracted because
of the so called intermolecular forces of attraction.

Partial H Partial Partial H Partial

negative pole
CL positive pole negative pole
CL positive pole

DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCE
The partially positive pole of the first molecule is attracted to the partially
negative pole of the second molecule.

2. HYDROGEN BONDS: a special type of dipole-dipole interaction that exists only in

molecules that contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom such
as N,O,or F.
- A hydrogen bond is about five to ten times stronger than other dipole- dipole
attraction.

3. ION- DIPOLE FORCES: occurs between an ion of the either positive or negative pole and a
polar molecule.
- Positive ions interact more strongly with dipoles than anions – resulting the
cations to have more/greater interaction with water.
- Becomes stronger either as the charge of the ion increases or as the
magnitude of the dipole moment of the polar molar increases.

MAGNITUDE of the DIPOLE MOMENT simply defined as the magnitude of the

charges and the distance between them

Negative Positive
charge Distance between two charge
charges
4. LONDON- DISPERSION FORCES : also called dispersion force, are intermolecular forces of
attraction that exists between all atoms and molecules. Moreover, these are the only forces
acting in nonpolar molecules. They arise from the continues movement of electrons in particles.

Temporary dipole or instantaneous dipole.

ATTRACTIVE FORCE
ELECTRON DISPERSED
TO ONE SIDE

- -
- -
- - - -
- - - -

- - - - - - -
-
- - - -

RESULTING TO HAVE A NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE POLE

BUT NOT PERMANENT (TEMPORARY ONLY)

PROPERTIES OF LIQUID

1. SOLUBILITY : the ability of the substance to dissolve in a given amount of solvent

- The larger amount of solvent the smaller amount of time is required to
dissolve a substance.

# meaning the intermolecular force of attraction in greater amount of solvent is higher

because of the larger amount of molecules in a larger volume of solvent causing the
solute to dissolve easily.

2. PHASES OF MOLECULES AT ROOM TEMPERATURE : when molecules have strong

intermolecular forces of attraction, they packed close together.

THE HIGHER
THE IMFA THE
GREATER TIME
IS NEEDED

3. MELTING POINT: temperature at which the substance changes from solid to liquid.
- Stronger IMFA means greater amount of energy is needed to break the
attractive forces between molecules.
- Substance with stronger IMFA have higher melting point compare to those
with weaker IMFA.

Melting sugar and salt at the same time with the

same amount of heat.

SUGAR MELTS FASTER SINCE IT HAS WEAKER IMFA

compared to salt.
 4. BOILING POINT : temperature at which the substance changes from liquid to gas.

# Stronger IMFA means greater amount of energy is needed to break the attractive forces
between molecules.

ICE WATER The ice has a higher IMFA

than water resulting the
water to reach its boiling
point easier.

Substance with stronger IMFA have higher boiling point

compared to those with weaker IMFA

5. SURFACE TENSION: the tendency of a fluid to acquire the least possible surface area.

# Molecules with stronger IMFA will exert greater cohesive forces and acquire less
surface area or higher surface tension than those with weaker IMFA.

The movement of attraction here is downward causing the water molecules to align at the surface causing the
molecules to move closer to each other making the surface tension higher.

6. VISCOSITY: the measure of the fluid’s resistance to flow.

The oil has higher resistance

to flow that water because its
IMFA is greater than of water.

Molecules with stronger IMFA have greater resistance to flow and thus, higher viscosity
compared to those with weaker IMFA.
 7. Vapor pressure: the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid phase in a closed
system.

Molecules with stronger IMFA have

less tendency to escape as gas and
thus lower vapor pressure
compared to those with weaker
IMFA

LIQUID: particles are distant from each other

-no definite shape , mass, volume and only follows the form/shape of the container.

-Liquid can be formed into solid by FREEZING

-Can also be turned into gas by EVAPORATION

- The intermolecular force of attraction in liquid is lesser compared with another substance that
is harder.

STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WATER

POLAR – part of a molecule is slightly positive, while the other is

slightly negative.
WE ALL KNOW THAT WATER IS MADE UP OF HYDROGEN AND
OXYGEN, where in
OXYGEN: “ hogs electrons from hydrogen
- 8 PROTONS : 10 ELECTRONS
- NEGATIVE CHARGE
HYDROGEN:
- 1 PROTON : 0 ELECTRON
-creates hydrogen bond where one water molecule sticks to another
(attracted to another)
- and because it is polar it has a high specific heat : resistance to
temperature changes. HELPS THEBODY TOMAINTAIN A CONSTANT
BODY TEMPERATURE

# RESULTING THE WATER MOLECULE TO REQUIRE HIGHER ENERGY

TO BREAK THE WATER BOND.
COHESION: polar water molecules attracted to other polar water molecules.

(PAPER CLIP STAYS ON TOP OF WATER SURFACE)

ADHESION: polar water sticks to other molecule.

MENISCUS

BLOOD

SOLVENT
PROPER READING

SOLUTION: mixture where 1 substance dissolves in another.

2 PART OF SOLUTION SOLUTE

 Solute: substance that dissolve

 Solvent substance in which the solute is dissolved

MORE H+ FEW H+
FEW OH- ACID BASE MORE OH-

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

PH SCALE MEASURES THE AMOUNT OF HIDROGEN ION IN A SOLUTION

# The higher the hydrogen present in a solution the more acidic

HYDROGEN IONS (H+) it makes the solution ACIDIC

HYDROXIDE (OH-) when release to solvent the solution becomes BASIC (sample is alkaline)

SOLID

- State of matter that is classified as CRYSTALLINE or AMORPHOUR based

on the arrangement of their particle.
CRYSTALLINE: have a highly regular arrangement of particles.

AMORPHOUS: have considerable disorder in their structure.

# SOLID PARTICLES ARE HELD TOGETHER IN RELATIVELY FIXED POSITION.

1. Has definite SIZE

2. Definite SHAPE
3. COLOR
4. TEXTURE – smooth or rough
5. Exact MASS and VOLUME

Amount of particle present in anobject

Space occupied by an object

PROPERTIES OF SOLID

1. HARDNESS: ability to resist breaking/ scratching

2. MALLEABILITY: ability of metal to be hammered in different shapes ( iron steel)
3. DUCTILITY: ability of metals like copper to be formed as strips, wire or shaving, spring.
4. BRITTLENESS: property of solid that makes it break easily
5. ELASTICITY: ability of solid to be stretch and molded (clay pot, rubberbond and balloons)

Crystalline solid can be categorized into different type:

1. Ionic metal – such as sodium chloride (NaCl), have ions at different points of lattice. Can
conduct electricity (simple definition why? Sodium chloride is polar)
2. Molecular – such as sucrose and ice
-has discrete covalently bonded molecules at each of its lattice point
DEPENDING ON THE BOND THAT EXIST AMONG THE ATOMS IN THE SOLID
3. Metallic solid- composed of metallic atoms bonded together by a metallic bond.
4. Network solid – covalently bonded atoms that form a continuous network (graphite and
diamond)
5. Group 8A- solid krypton and argon- consist of atoms of noble gases held together by londong
dispersion forces.

CGMJR., RRT
TEACHER