Article

2019, Vol. 49(5) 572–583

! The Author(s) 2018

Improved abrasion Article reuse guidelines:

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DOI: 10.1177/1528083718792655
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fabrics due to
polymer coatings

Martin Wortmann1, Natalie Frese2, Lubos Hes3,

Armin Gölzhäuser2, Elmar Moritzer4 and Andrea Ehrmann1

Abstract
Textile fabrics are often subject to abrasion, starting from exposed parts of garments to
a variety of technical textiles. Abrasion protection by usual coatings, however, can
significantly decrease the water vapor transport through a fabric which is often not
desired, especially in the case of garments. In our paper, we report on an approach to
combine increased abrasion resistance with sufficient water vapor transport properties.
For this, different polymers (poly(methyl methacrylate), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene,
or amorphous polyamides) were coated on cotton and polyester woven fabrics. The
results of abrasion tests against sandpaper show significantly increased abrasion resist-
ance. The absolute evaporation resistance, measured by a Permetest testing device, was
only slightly increased up to values still acceptable for typical garments. Images of all
coatings by helium ion microscopy deliver an explanation for the measuring results.
Polymer coatings on the polyester fabric resulted in a slight reduction of the hydro-
phobicity, while coating the cotton fabric severely increased the contact angles of the
originally superhydrophilic material.

Keywords
Coated fabrics, engineered textiles, materials, measurement, protective fabrics,
technical textiles

1
Faculty of Engineering and Mathematics, Bielefeld University of Applied Sciences, Bielefeld, Germany
2
Faculty of Physics, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
3
Faculty of Textiles, Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
4
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Paderborn University, Paderborn, Germany

Corresponding author:
Andrea Ehrmann, Fachhochschule Bielefeld Interaktion 1, Bielefeld 33619, Germany.
Email: andrea.ehrmann@fh-bielefeld.de
Wortmann et al. 573

Introduction
Abrasion resistant textile fabrics are desired for applications in garments, especially
for protective clothing or work-wear, as well as for several technical textiles.
Several approaches are described in the literature to reach this goal, amongst
which only few ideas deal with the yarn or fabric construction. The weave of
different two-layer woven fabrics could be shown to modify the abrasion resistance
as well as the finishing process of the cotton/linen fabrics [1]. Slub yarns for uphol-
stery fabrics were modified with respect to slub length, distance and thickness as
well as yarn linear density to improve the abrasion resistance of the resulting woven
fabric [2].
Chemical methods include, e.g., finishing a nylon fabric with poly(acrylic acid)
and trichloromethylsilane, resulting in abrasion-resistant superhydrophobic tex-
tile surfaces [3]. Kevlar textile fabrics were coated with silver nanocluster/silica
composite layers of different thickness to increase antibacterial properties and
abrasion resistance at the same time [4]. Especially for warp yarns before weav-
ing, PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) is an often used sizing agent which also increases the
abrasion resistance of cotton yarns [5]. Due to its missing biodegradability, tests
were performed to replace PVA by soymeal [6]. Loading polyester fabrics with
TiO2 nanoparticles in a high-temperature pressure exhaustion process could
increase washing and abrasion resistance of the fabrics, in addition to the main
aim of self-cleaning properties [7]. Including nanosilver particles in the spinning
process, the abrasion resistance of weft-knitted samples could be increased by a
factor of 3 [8]. Using a sol–gel coating, abrasion resistance and water-repellency
of silk fabrics could be increased at the same time [9]. Spider silk, on the other
hand, was used to increase the abrasion resistance of natural and man-made
furniture textiles [10].
A combined hexafluoropropane plasma treatment could increase the abrasion
resistance of cotton woven fabrics by approx. 5% [11]. Superhydrophobic surfaces
were created by coating diverse materials with nanoparticles and vinyltriethoxysilane,
showing a certain abrasion resistance of the coating, with the exception of textile
fabrics after abrasion against sandpaper [12]. Superamphiphobic cotton fabrics with
high abrasion resistance of the coating were gained by depositing organically modified
silica alcogel particles on chitosan-coated cotton fabric and binding the coating with
perfluorooctyltrimethoxysilane [13]. On the other hand, superamphiphobic coatings
based on photo-polymerization of hybrid thiol-ene resins with hydrophobic silica
nanoparticles and perfluorinated thiols showed a good mechanical durability in sand-
paper abrasion tests [14]. Compressive shrinkage of cotton fabrics was found to
increase the abrasion resistance in comparison with the original fabrics [15]. Using
a sol–gel approach, abrasion resistance, anti-pilling effect, antibacterial and fungicide
properties were obtained using (3-glycidoxypropyl)trimethoxysilane and aluminum
isopropoxide combined with bioactive nanoparticles [16]. A sol–gel method was
also used to coat cotton fabrics with hybrid SiO2/Al2O3 sols synthesized from (3-
glycidoxypropyl)trimethoxysilane and aluminum isopropoxide as precursors, result-
ing in five times higher abrasion resistance on cotton [17] and nearly 40% increased
574 Journal of Industrial Textiles 49(5)

abrasion resistance on polyester/cotton woven fabrics [18]. Embedding fluorinated

decyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane and fluorinated alkyl silane in a poly(3,4-
ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) coating prepared to show a certain conductivity
did not significantly change the conductivity but severely increased washing and
abrasion resistance [19]. With a conductive polypyrrole coating on polyester, how-
ever, the abrasion resistance was not significantly modified by coating with different
immersion times in the monomer solution [20].
Only few research groups, however, have tested the influence of polymer coat-
ings on textile fabrics for the purpose of abrasion resistance of the fabric itself.
Polyurethane (PU) was mist polymerized on a cotton fabric, resulting in a fine
polymer layer which was sufficient to double the wearing resistance as compared
to the original cotton fabric, while at the same time having only little impact on
water vapor transmission and mechanical properties [21]. Coatings with PU and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) were found to withstand a certain number of abrasion
cycles until losing their hydrophobic properties [22]. Especially PU is tested
for such applications since it is known to show excellent abrasion resistance [23].
3-glycidoxypropyltriethoxysilane (GPTES) was used to create nanohybrid organic-
inorganic coatings on cotton fabrics which did not influence the wear resistance of
the treated textile fabrics [24].
Other polymers, especially materials which can be dissolved relatively easily,
such as poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS), or amorphous polyamides (PAs), are either ignored so far in the scientific
literature (in case of ABS) or not examined in terms of their abrasion resistance
properties. The main advantage of such materials is that they can be dissolved in
relatively low-toxic solvents, such as acetone or ethanol, while PU necessitates toxic
di-isocyanates as precursors. Besides, PU usually forms a closed coating layer,
often blocking air and water vapor and making such coatings thus not usable
for garments.
This article thus shows first examinations of PMMA, ABS and PA coated on
cotton and polyester fabrics with respect to the samples’ abrasion resistance, water
vapor permeability and hydrophobicity.

Experimental
The woven fabrics described in Table 1 were chosen for the experiments described
here. The polyester used in this study is a polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Linear
densities of the yarns are 200 dtex (polyester woven fabric in warp and weft) and 98
dtex (cotton woven fabric in warp and weft), respectively.
PMMA and ABS were dissolved in acetone and PA was dissolved in ethanol
using mass concentrations of 5% and 10%, respectively. Coating was performed
using a revolving doctor with a wet film thickness of 100 mm. After the solvents
were applied, the fabrics were dried for 1 h at 55 C.
Helium ion microscopy (HIM) pictures were taken with an Orion Plus
(Carl Zeiss) at an acceleration voltage of 35 kV and a current of 0.4 to 0.5 pA.
Wortmann et al. 575

Table 1. Thicknesses, areal weights, warp and weft densities of textile fabrics used for coating.

Areal Warp Weft

Material Thickness/mm weight/(g/m2) threads/cm1 threads/cm1

Cotton (CO) 0.32 94 30 22

Polyester (PES) 0.55 123 26 25

An electron flood gun was used to avoid charging effects during the secondary
electron detection.
Abrasion resistance was tested using a linear abrasion tester (sliding block test)
according to EN ISO 13427 with sandpaper grain size 400 instead of grain size 100,
as described in the standard, to avoid too fast abrasion. In this test, the abrasion
tester consists of two parallel smooth plates of dimensions 50 mm  200 mm, one of
which is moved in a reciprocating motion with a maximum of 90 double strokes per
minute along a stroke length of (25  1) mm, while the other one is partly fixed and
can only move perpendicular to the first one. A weight of 6 kg is applied on the top
plate. Five rectangular samples of dimensions 50 mm  300 mm were prepared and
conditioned in standard atmosphere before performing the test.
Water vapor resistance was measured on five samples per data point using a
Permetest skin model (built by Sensora Textile Measuring Instruments and
Consulting, Czech Republic). The measuring head of this device is covered by a
resistant semi-permeable foil, prohibiting liquid water transport from the measure-
ment system to the sample. A sensor measures the cooling flow due to water evap-
oration from the thin porous layer and evaluates these values to calculate the water
vapor permeability and the evaporation resistance [25,26].
Hydrophobicity was evaluated with distilled water at 23 C using the contact
angle measurement device OCA 15 Pro by Dataphysics. This instrument uses a
direct dosing system to position liquids with an electronic syringe module on the
textile fabric under examination. The droplet is lighted by an LED with software-
controlled intensity which automatically compensates temperature drift. Images of
the drop are taken by a 6-fold zoom lens with adjustable observation angle.
Evaluation of the contact angle is performed automatically by the integrated soft-
ware. Each contact angle was measured for 10 different droplets.

Results and discussion

The results of the abrasion tests are depicted in Figure 1. The graph shows the
abrasion cycles until failure of the fabrics, i.e. until the occurrence of a first damage
in the woven fabric. When the fabric was examined for holes, the test was discon-
tinued to avoid exposing it to inhomogeneous shear stress.
Firstly, comparing pure cotton and polyester fabrics (green bars), the latter
obviously have a significantly higher abrasion resistance. Direct comparisons
between fabrics produced from these materials are scarcely found in the literature;
576 Journal of Industrial Textiles 49(5)

without
5%
1000 10 %

Abrasion cycles 100

10

1
O S O S O S
nC PE nC PE nC PE
So S on Ao A on Ao A on
B M P
A AB PM
M P
PM

Figure 1. Abrasion cycles until failure of uncoated references and coated fabrics. The y-axis is
scaled logarithmically.

generally, cotton seems to be less abrasion-resistant than polyester [27]. Typically

yarn and fabric constructions are reported to have a more severe influence on this
property [28]. Coating either fabric with any of the polymers used in this test
always increases the abrasion resistance significantly. With regard to polyester,
all polymers used with a concentration of 10% resulted in an abrasion resistance
against sandpaper grain 400 of at least 5000 cycles; tests were stopped afterwards.
Compared with the original value of (225  25) cycles, this is an increase by a factor
of more than 20. For the combination of PA on the polyester fabric, this result was
also achieved for only 5% concentration, while PMMA and ABS with a concen-
tration of 5% on polyester already resulted in a significantly increased abrasion
resistance. For cotton fabrics, the values are generally smaller; however, coating
with 5% of any polymer results in an increase of the abrasion resistance by nearly
one order of magnitude. Nevertheless, it should be mentioned that there is no linear
concentration dependence of the maximum abrasion cycles until failure. This can
be explained by the finding that the coated layer thickness on the surface is not
mainly influenced by the polymer concentration in the solution, but mostly by the
(constant) force on the revolving doctor and the chosen wet film thickness. It can
be assumed that coating twice with 5% polymer solution will result in a thicker
coating on the surface and thus a higher abrasion resistance than coating once with
10% polymer solution.
On cotton, only PA – which was also superior on polyester – in a concentration
of 10% reached an abrasion resistance of at least 5000 cycles. With 10% ABS and
PMMA coatings on cotton, however, abrasion resistances of several hundred cycles
could be reached which is approx. one order of magnitude higher than the abrasion
resistance of the uncoated references ((9  6) cycles). The assumption was that the
different results can be attributed to a correlation between abrasion resistance and
surface hardness. However, this could not be confirmed by hardness measurements
Wortmann et al. 577

Figure 2. Microscopic images at nominal 200 magnification of the damaged woven fabrics
after abrasion tests.

with the polymers used. Shore-D hardness measurements have yielded an average
value of 70 for PA, 73 for ABS, and 87 for PMMA on compact sample bodies.
This suggests that the adhesion of the coating on the filaments plays a crucial role
in the abrasion resistance. The original abrasion resistance of the fabric itself
becomes only significant after the coating has been at least partially removed, as
can be seen in Figure 2. In the places where the filaments have broken, it is visible
that the filaments look rough, indicating that the coating material has been rubbed
off the filaments.
The resulting abrasion resistance is therefore primarily dependent on the
adhesion between the fabric and the coating since damaging the coating may
either occur by rubbing the coating off completely or by separating it mechanically
from the filaments. For future applications and further investigations, a plasma
treatment could further increase the impregnation of the filaments and the adhe-
sion between the coating and the substrate.
The impregnation of the fabric with the coating depends on the ratio of the
surface energies, the application method, the viscosity of the polymer solution and
the morphology of the fabric.
For the smaller concentration, the results of the abrasion tests on cotton are
significantly worse; apparently, the higher concentration is necessary to guarantee a
certain protection of the cotton fabric against abrasion by sandpaper. On the other
hand, cotton is typically used in less harsh environments than polyester, which may
be used in technical applications. Thus, more series of tests using abrasives other
than sandpaper can be investigated, giving rise to the increase of cotton abrasion
resistance for applications such as T-shirts or other garments which are typically
abraded at some positions, such as on the shoulders due to heavy backpacks or
along the belly due to constant abrasion by the belt-buckle, or on the knees and
elbows of work wear.
It should be mentioned that washing the coated fabrics does not greatly affect
them; no differences could be detected during the first three washing cycles with
heavy duty detergent at 40 C. Future research will focus on investigating a larger
number of washing cycles to examine whether the typical washing fastness require-
ments for garments of 50–100 cycles are met with different washing temperatures
and detergents, which ironing temperatures are possible and whether any other
care properties are to be considered.
578 Journal of Industrial Textiles 49(5)

Figure 3. HIM images of cotton fabric with different polymer coatings with different solution
concentrations. HIM: helium ion microscopy.

Figure 4. HIM Images of polyester fabric with different polymer coatings with different solution
concentrations. HIM: helium ion microscopy.

Figures 3 and 4 depict HIM images of all samples under investigation. Due to
the use of an flood gun which preserves negative effects of electrical charging, the
samples could be investigated without sputter coatings, which might influence the
evaluation of the HIM images. It is clearly visible that a higher concentration
results in a more continuous coating on the filaments. While the 5% coatings
leave mostly separated filaments, the 10% coatings fill in the gaps between the
filaments and leave only the fabric pores open. This is another hint towards
Wortmann et al. 579

future tests with multiple coating layers of reduced polymer concentration. Since all
used polymers have roughly equal surface energy ratios, there are no great differ-
ences in the adhesion between the fabric material and the polymer coating. As can
be seen in Figures 3(c), (e) and (g) and 4(c), (e) and (g), even at 10% solvent
concentration, there is no agglomeration, but continuous coatings can be found
after drying. This is in contrast to PU coatings, which are located on top of the
textile fabrics, closing their pores completely [29–31].
Another important property of textile fabrics used for garments and other
diverse applications is their water vapor permeability. Coating textile fabrics
with polymers may lead to significantly increased evaporation resistance if the
coating is not thin enough to leave the fabric pores open. Figure 5 depicts
the absolute evaporation resistances, measured for the original fabrics as well as
the coated ones. While the evaporation resistance levels are increased by the coat-
ing by approx. 50–100%, comparing the values of coatings with polymer concen-
trations of 10% with the original fabrics, the received values are not unusually high
for garments such as a polo shirt [32], which is similar to the influence of PU
coatings with high water permeability on the water vapor resistance of coated
textiles fabrics, as reported in Yun et al. [33]. Thus, the coated textile fabrics can
still be used for most of the applications of the original fabrics. It should be men-
tioned that for both ABS and PA coatings, using a solid content of 5% in
the solution, the evaporation resistance is nearly unaltered in comparison to the
original fabrics. This suggests that these materials are advantageous in terms of
water vapor permeability, compared to PMMA. Combined with the results of the
abrasion resistance measurements (Figure 1), PA seems to be the preferable coating
polymer.
Abs. evaporation resistance (Pa m² / W)

without
10
5%
10 %
8

0
CO ES CO ES CO ES
on onP on o n P A on o nP
S S A
AB AB M MA P PA
PM PM

Figure 5. Evaporation resistance of the original and the coated fabrics determined by the
PERMETEST Skin Model [26].
580 Journal of Industrial Textiles 49(5)

The correlation of solvent concentration and evaporation resistance can be

explained by the decreasing porosity of the fabrics as seen in Figures 3 and 4.
The higher standard deviation of the samples with 10 % coatings indicates an
increasingly inhomogeneous distribution of the fabrics properties, which may in
part be due to the manual coating method.
Finally, the hydrophobicity of the original and the coated fabrics was exam-
ined. Figure 6 depicts the resulting contact angles. On pure cotton, the droplets
were immediately absorbed by the fabric so that no stable static contact angle
could be measured; other measurement procedures are not available with the
contact angle measurement device used in this study. The very first photographs
taken <1 s after setting the droplet on the textile fabric resulted in an ini-
tial contact angle of (20  10) , depending on the exact measurement time.
The highest contact angles were achieved on pure polyester. Correspondingly,
contact angles of coatings on polyester were always higher than those of the
same coatings on cotton. Differences between coatings with concentrations of
5% and 10 % are neither significant, nor are the differences between the coat-
ings on either textile fabric. Typical water contact angles of the polymers are
70–80 for ABS [34], 65–70 for PMMA [35] and approx. 70 for PA [36].
Since these values are quite similar, it is clear that the values measured here
are also relatively independent from the used polymer. While the contact angles
measured for coatings on cotton are similar to those found in the literature, the
values detected for the PES coatings are clearly influenced by the hydrophobic
properties of the textile fabric.
As the HIM images suggest, the differences in contact angle values are most
likely not due to a change in surface energy, but to a change in surface topology.
Especially for cotton of which the hydrophilicity was significantly reduced, this fact
must be taken into account and may make these polymer coatings unsuitable for

120

100
Contact angle (°)

80

60

40
without
20 5%
10 %
0
CO ES CO ES CO ES
on onP on o n P A on o nP
S S A
AB AB M MA P PA
PM PM

Figure 6. Contact angles of the original and the coated fabrics.

Wortmann et al. 581

some applications. This problem, however, can be solved by using less hydrophobic
polymers or hydrophilizing them, if necessary.
Since all three coating materials behave similarly in terms of hydrophobicity of
the coated textiles, the aforementioned finding that PA seems to be the favorable
polymer for abrasion-resistant, water vapor permeable coatings remain valid.

Conclusion
The influence of different polymer coatings (ABS, PMMA, and PA) on the abrasion
resistance, water vapor resistance and hydrophobicity of cotton and polyester woven
fabrics was examined. All coatings resulted in an increase of the abrasion resistance
by at least approx. one order of magnitude; in several coated fabrics, tests were
stopped after 5000 cycles without damage of the fabric. For all coatings, this effect
was combined with an acceptable decrease of the water vapor permeability of less
than 50% and contact angles between approx. 75 –95 , similar to the original con-
tact angles on the polyester fabrics. These results underline the possibility of creating
highly abrasion resistant textile fabrics which nevertheless can maintain their desired
water vapor permeability, allowing for applications in protective clothes, work-wear
or diverse technical textiles. Furthermore, this shows the general possibility of apply-
ing a wide variety of amorphous thermoplastic polymers such as polystyrene, poly-
carbonate, PVC, polylactides or styrene-acrylonitrile from non-toxic solvents to
woven fabrics. The results shown can also be transferred to many other thermoplas-
tic polymers that may be important for specific future applications.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article: The study was partly funded by the Ministry of
Culture and Science of the German State of North Rhine-Westphalia and by the
Erasmusþ program of the European Union.

ORCID iD
Andrea Ehrmann http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0695-3905

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