applied
sciences
Article
An Electromagnetic Circuit Design to Improve a Multi-Stage
Coil-Gun’s Energy Conversion Efficiency
Seonmyeong Kim and Jinho Kim *
Citation: Kim, S.; Kim, J.
An Electromagnetic Circuit Design to
Improve a Multi-Stage Coil-Gun’s
Energy Conversion Efficiency. Appl.
Sci. 2022, 12, 8942. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app12188942
Academic Editor: Ernesto Limiti
Received: 8 August 2022
Accepted: 5 September 2022
Published: 6 September 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8942. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12188942
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan-si 38541, Korea
* Correspondence: jinho@ynu.ac.kr
Abstract: We present in this paper a method of improving a coil gun circuit’s energy efficiency and
acceleration performance. Particularly, the improvement was performed by designing a solenoid coil
and capacitance for projectile velocity enhancement in a multi-stage coil gun, based on simulations
and experiments. A projectile decelerates in coil guns when passing through the solenoid coil’s
center by being subjugated to a force opposing the launch direction. Thus, we achieved the efficient
distribution of the electromagnetic power delivered from the circuit to the projectile by adjusting
the capacitance according to the solenoid coil’s shape. This produced a current shape suitable for
projectile acceleration, consequently enhancing its performance. Designing the coil using 1.3 mm
diameter copper wires, among the coils using copper wires of various diameters, to increase the
number of turns and reduce the capacitance improved the energy efficiency while enhancing the
acceleration performance. Finally, each stage’s measured and simulated velocities in the coil gun
were analyzed and compared. Accordingly, we arrived at an efficient design method for multi-stage
coil gun systems.
Keywords: capacitor; electromagnetic launcher (EML); finite elements method; multi-stage coil gun;
solenoid coil
1. Introduction
An Electromagnetic Launcher (EML) is a device that converts electromagnetic force
into kinetic energy to accelerate a projectile. Hence, the EML can replace the chemical
energy of liquid or solid fuel or explosives such as gunpowder. Additionally, it does
not cause any environmental problems and could launch multiple times in the presence
of a charging environment. Therefore, the EML is actively studied in various countries
as an accelerator for defense or space launchers [1,2]. A coil gun is an electromagnetic
launch system and projectile accelerator that uses electromagnetic force. Coil guns are
emerging as an important study subject among various electromagnetic launch systems
because, unlike rail guns, coil guns are not greatly damaged by the friction between the
launch tube and projectile. Moreover, they have high energy conversion efficiency and a
long operating life [3,4]. Particularly in a coil gun system, the kinetic energy converted
from the electromagnetic force generated in a solenoid coil accelerates the projectile. Here,
the generated electromagnetic force is proportional to the coil’s number of turns and the
supplied current’s magnitude. Accordingly, many studies have been conducted on the
solenoid coil design elements [5] and on the used copper wire’s diameter to improve the
gun’s performance. Jang, J.H and Lee, S.J analyzed a coil gun with a mathematical model
in 2015 to derive a projectile’s maximum velocity in a single-stage coil gun [6]. A relevant
study was also conducted on the electromagnetic force generated upon supplying the
maximum current to the coil. However, these studies did not consider the distribution of
the magnetic energy supplied to the projectile in a coil gun circuit. In a coil gun system,
due to the solenoid coil’s characteristics, when a projectile passes through the coil’s center,
it is subjected to a force opposing it, consequently decreasing its velocity. Therefore, merely
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Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8942 2 of 13

increasing the number of turns and the supplied current may decrease the energy distribu-
tion efficiency, even if the electromagnetic force generated in the coil is high, potentially
decreasing the projectile’s acceleration efficiency. Therefore, in this research, we designed
the solenoid coil and capacitance to improve the projectile acceleration performance and
the electrical to kinetic energy conversion efficiency. Notably, in this research, not only
did we set the used copper wire’s diameter as a design variable, but also the number of
turns of the solenoid coil was set as well. Accordingly, we selected the suitable capacitance
depending on the coil’s shape to efficiently convert the generated electromagnetic force
into kinetic energy. Additionally, not only do the coil gun’s electric circuit components act
as important design factors, but also the projectile’s location during operation [7]. This is
because the force received by the projectile continuously varies according to the distance
and time between it and the solenoid coil. For this reason, it is difficult to directly calculate
the projectile velocity [8,9]. Therefore, using a computation program might be the best idea
for efficient designs. Moreover, we simulated the designed coil gun model by FEA using
ANSYS Maxwell, an electromagnetic analysis FEA software [10]. Based on the simulation
results, a prototype was fabricated and the projectile velocity was measured for the pro-
totype. Since a single-coil gun’s acceleration performance is limited due to its solenoid’s
magnetic saturation point, multi-stage coil guns are studied to increase the projectile ve-
locity [11,12]. Therefore, we also considered in this study a situation where the projectile
had an initial velocity at each stage, except for the first and last ones. A multi-stage coil
gun (with 9 stages) was designed, and the design method, which was based on that of a
single-coil gun, was presented.

2. The Coil Gun’s Circuit Configuration and Projectile Selection

A coil gun system consists of a solenoid coil that generates an electromagnetic force
and a power supply that supplies current to the coil. High voltages and currents are
usually applied/supplied using a charged capacitor. Typically, a high-voltage DC power
supply, such as a booster converter, is required to charge the capacitor, and devices such
as the SCR, IGBT, and FET are required to stably supply the stored electric charge. In this
study, we used a DC power supply boosted up to 400 V using a booster converter boost
circuit. Additionally, for the sake of circuit configuration convenience, we configured a
coil gun circuit using an SCR thyristor device. Furthermore, in this study, we designed a
multi-stage coil gun targeting a projectile velocity of 100 m/s with nine stages. We chose the
projectile before designing and experimenting with any circuit. In the coil gun, a projectile
accelerates by promptly receiving an electromagnetic force. Hence, it should be composed
of a magnetic material. If its volume increases, the electromagnetic force required for
acceleration increases. Therefore, upon deciding the projectile’s shape, a coil gun circuit
that will generate the appropriate electromagnetic force should be designed.
Figure 1 shows an image of the projectile used in this experiment. The projectile was
composed of a piece of S45 C steel with a 7.5 mm diameter and a length of 35 mm. Its
weight was 11.35 g. Even though we chose steel, which is advantageous when it comes to
its material availability and ease of fabrication, using a high-permeability metal, such as
permalloy, can help increase the projectile’s velocity.
Appl.
Appl.Sci. 2022,12,
Sci.2022, 12,8942
x FOR PEER REVIEW 33 of 13
13

Figure 1. The projectile used in the experiment.

3. Establishment of the Coil Gun Design Problems

Figure1.1.The
Figure Theprojectile
projectileused
usedin
inthe
theexperiment.
experiment.
As shown in Figure 2, the solenoid coil’s winding shape is generally determi
3.3.Establishment
the number of turns
Establishment of
ofthe
theCoilin
Coil itsGun Design
radial
Gun (M)Problems
Design and axial directions (N), respectively. Addit
Problems
in this As shown
Asstudy,
shown wein Figure
also 2,
in Figure 2, the
includedsolenoid coil’s
thecoil’s
the solenoid winding
diameter
winding shape
(d) isisgenerally
of the
shape copperdetermined
generally wire usedby
determined to manu
by
the
the number
number ofofturns
turns ininitsitsradial
radial (M)
(M)and axial
and directions
axial directions(N), respectively.
(N), Additionally,
respectively. in
Additionally,
the coil in the coil design variables. In addition to the coil shape, the capacitance
this study,
in this we also
study, included
we also included the diameter
theact (d) of
diameter (d)the copper wirewire
ofvariables.
the copper usedused
to manufacture the
to manufacture
pacitor
coil in thecharging
coil designvoltage
variables. also as design
In addition to the coil shape, the capacitance and capacitor
the coil in the coil design variables. In addition to the coil shape, the capacitance and ca-
charging voltage also
pacitor charging act as
voltage design
also act asvariables.
design variables.

Figure 2. The schematic diagram of coil gun.

Figure 2. The schematic diagram of coil gun.
FigureFurthermore,
2. The schematic diagram of coil gun.
not only does the coil gun’s circuit configuration act as an important
Furthermore,
design variable but notsoonly
doesdoes the coil gun’s
the distance circuit the
(x) between configuration
solenoid coil actand
as an
theimportant
projectile
design variable
uponFurthermore, but so
launching, i.e., not does
whenonly the distance
does
the coil (x) between
thecapacitor
gun’s coil gun’s the solenoid
circuit This
discharges. coil and
configuration the
importance projectile
act as an im
sprouts
upon launching, i.e., when the coil gun’sMoreover,
capacitor the
discharges. This importance sprouts
design variable but so does the distance (x) between the solenoid coil and the pr
from the supplied current’s variability. magnitude of the electromagnetic
from
forcethe supplied
received current’s
by the variability.
projectile Moreover,
continuously variesthe magnitude
according of the
to the electromagnetic
latter’s location and
upon
force launching,
received by thei.e., whencontinuously
projectile the coil gun’s variescapacitor
according discharges.
to the latter’s This
location importance
and
the passage of time. Hence, to further understand the magnitude of the electromagnetic
from
the the supplied
passage of time. current’s
Hence, variability. Moreover,
to further the magnitude of the electrom
force generated in the coil, the circuit’sunderstand the magnitude
current waveform must beof the electromagnetic
calculated.
force received
force generated
The
inbythethe
electromagnetic
coil,projectile
the circuit’scontinuously
force generated
current waveform varies
in the solenoid
mustaccording
be calculated.
coil is determined to by
thethelatter’s
coil’s locati
the The
passageelectromagnetic
of time. force generated in the solenoid coil is determined by the coil’s
number of turns and theHence,
used copperto further understand
wire’s diameter. the magnitude
Likewise, the current’s of the electrom
waveform
number of turns and the used copper wire’s diameter. Likewise, the current’s waveform
force
flowinggenerated in the coil, the circuit’s current waveform must be calculated.
in it is determined by the resistance (R), according to the coil’s
flowing in it is determined by the resistance (R), according to the coil’s shape and inductance
shape and induct-
anceThe
(L), and the capacitance force
electromagnetic (C). Generally,
generated the coil gun’s
in the circuit is coil
solenoid composed of a sole- by th
(L), and the capacitance (C). Generally, the coil gun’s circuit is composedisofdetermined
a solenoid
noid coil and a capacitor. Due to the coil’s self-resistance, the shape of the current flowing
number
coil and aof turns and
capacitor. Duethe to theused copper
coil’s wire’s diameter.
self-resistance, the shape ofLikewise,
the currentthe current’s
flowing in wa
in the circuit takes the form of an RLC function and the shape of an underdamped system.
the circuitintakes
flowing it isthe form of an RLC
determined function and the(R),
shape of an underdamped system.
Three sub-systems, namely thebymechanical,
the resistance
magnetic, according
and electrical tosub-systems,
the coil’s shape
are and
Three sub-systems, namely the mechanical, magnetic, and electrical sub-systems, are
ance (L), and the capacitance (C). Generally, the coil gun’s circuit is composed of
noid coil and a capacitor. Due to the coil’s self-resistance, the shape of the current f
in the circuit takes the form of an RLC function and the shape of an underdamped s
Three sub-systems, namely the mechanical, magnetic, and electrical sub-system
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8942 4 of 13

coupled in a coil gun system. This coupled system can be expressed using the following
governing equation:
d2 di 1
L + R + i dt = 0 (1)
dt dt C
i (0) = 0
di V
| t =0 = 0
dt L
..
mx = F( x)
Additionally, the magnetic force received by the projectile from the coil gun is affected
by the magnetic flux density, magnetic permeability, etc. The magnetic flux density contin-
uously varies according to the projectile’s position, and the force received by the projectile
at position x is expressed as follows:
du
F(x) = (2)
dx
where u is the magnetic field energy in a certain space, expressed as the product of the
volume (v) and the magnetic flux density (B). The variation of energy, ∆u, is expressed as:

Bx2
 
1 1
∆u = v − (3)
2 µ0 µm

where µ0 and µm respectively represent the magnetic permeability of air and the material occu-
pying the space. We can obtain the force F received by the projectile using Equations (2) and (3).
We can express the magnetic flux density (B) as an integral value with respect to the distance
as follows, where r is the projectile’s radius and L is the solenoid coil’s length:

πr2
  Z x+ L
du 1 1 d
F(x) = = − [ B(ξ )2 dξ ] (4)
dx 2 µ0 µm dx x

The magnetic field B also changes according to the projectile’s distance x. Therefore,
simulating the coil gun system expressed above using analytical methods is difficult.
Figure 3 is a graph showing the projectile velocity’s shape, the electromagnetic force
received by it, and the coil gun circuit’s current waveform in a system that uses a 7000 uF
capacitor on a solenoid coil wound with 24(M) × 9(N) turns, using a 1.7 mm diameter
copper wire. Upon operating the coil gun, the distance between it and the projectile
was 7 mm. Notably, as shown in Figure 3, the projectile received a force in the direction
opposing that of its launching while its center of gravity passed through the coil’s center at
3.4 ms. Additionally, the received electromagnetic force was proportional to the current’s
magnitude. The current peaked at 3.8 ms and decreased when the projectile passed through
the coil’s center. The projectile received 70 and 30% of the total generated electromagnetic
force in the projectile motion’s forward and reverse directions, respectively. Therefore, the
current must be cut off during the coil gun’s operation using a device, such as the IGBT,
to improve its performance. Otherwise, analyzing the circuit’s RLC-function waveform
and comparing it with the projectile’s acceleration shape is important for designing the
coil gun’s components, such that the energy is distributed and most of the generated
electromagnetic force is transmitted in the projectile motion’s forward direction.
However, in a multi-stage coil gun, the RLC function’s period in the coil gun’s circuit
should be shorter than that of a single-coil gun because the projectile’s acceleration time
in the multi-stage coil gun is reduced due to its initial velocity. Therefore, it is necessary
to analyze the electromagnetic force generated in the coil based on the RLC period that
can properly accelerate the projectile. For example, the magnetic field in a circular coil is
given by:
NI
H= , (5)
2a
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8942 5 of 13

where H is the magnetic field intensity (AT/m), N is the number of turns, I is the supplied
current (A), and a is the coil’s radius (m). Therefore, the electromagnetic force is propor-
tional to the solenoid coil’s number of turns and the supplied current’s magnitude. In
cases where a solenoid coil is constructed using a copper wire with a large diameter since
the corresponding self-resistance and inductance of the coil are low, a capacitance of at
least 7000 uF is required to match the RLC function’s period. However, the corresponding
supplied current’s magnitude increases. Furthermore, merely increasing the number of
turns to reduce the capacitance increases the coil’s overall volume, potentially reducing
the magnitude of the electromagnetic force transmitted to the projectile. Therefore, in this
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
study, the shape of the coil suitable for the coil gun was proposed by comparing coil gun
systems with different copper wire diameters.

Figure3.3.The
Figure Theprojectile velocity,
projectile electromagnetic
velocity, force, and force,
electromagnetic supplied current
and evolutions.
supplied current evolutions.
4. Finite Element Analysis
However,
We conductedinthe
a multi-stage
coil gun model’scoilfinite
gun, the RLC
element function’s
analysis periodMaxwell,
using ANSYS in the coil
a gun’
should be electromagnetic
commercial shorter than that of aFEA
analysis single-coil
software.gun becausethree
Particularly, the coil
projectile’s accelerati
gun systems
using
in thea multi-stage
copper wire diameter
coil gunofis1.3, 1.7, anddue
reduced 2.0 mm, respectively,
to its were analyzed
initial velocity. and it is ne
Therefore,
compared.
to analyzeTheir respective analysis force
the electromagnetic models were configured
generated in theaccording
coil basedto the
on design
the RLC per
variables shown in Table 1, and the maximum projectile velocity of each was derived.
can properly accelerate the projectile. For example, the magnetic field in a circula
given1. by:
Table The ranges of design variables for single-stage coil guns by copper wire diameter.

Number of
Copper Wire Number of Turns in the H= ,
Turns in the Capacitance (uF)
Diameter (mm) Axial Direction, N
Radial Direction, M
where
1.3
H is the magnetic
24–27
field intensity (AT/m),
9–12
N is the number of turns, I is the s
3000–6000
current
1.7
(A), and a is23–26
the coil’s radius (m).9–12 Therefore, the electromagnetic
5000–8000
force is
tional to the solenoid coil’s number of turns and the supplied current’s magni
2.0 22–25 9–12 7000–10,000
cases where a solenoid coil is constructed using a copper wire with a large diamet
the corresponding self-resistance
Additionally, to shorten and we
the analysis time, inductance of the
only analyzed coil are low,
the respective a capacitan
2D models
least
of the 7000 uF isFigure
coil guns. required to match
4 shows the coilthe RLC
gun’s 2Dfunction’s period.
finite element However,
analysis model. Inthe the corresp
model, the design variables were set such that the RLC function’s period
supplied current’s magnitude increases. Furthermore, merely increasing the nu was sufficiently
long for the projectile to receive at least 70% of the electrical energy while moving in the
turns to reduce the capacitance increases the coil’s overall volume, potentially r
launch direction. Moreover, the values of the design variables at which the optimal projec-
the magnitude of the electromagnetic force transmitted to the projectile. Therefore
study, the shape of the coil suitable for the coil gun was proposed by comparing
systems with different copper wire diameters.
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8942 6 of 13
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 1

tile velocity was achieved were set as reference values. Notably, coil guns that accelerated
at a stopped
field. projectilevalues
The optimal were simulated and
of the coil compared
gun design based on the
elements finalderived
were projectileusing
velocity
the experi
when the projectile was completely ejected out of the solenoid coil’s magnetic
ment method’s design, which is the most efficient method because the design elements o field. The
optimal
the coilvalues of the
gun are coil gun design
independent elements
of each were
other. derived
Table using the
1 shows theexperiment
ranges of method’s
design variable
design, which is the most efficient method because the design elements of the coil gun are
according to the diameters of individual copper wires. A table of orthogonal arrays wa
independent of each other. Table 1 shows the ranges of design variables according to the
created with
diameters the set ranges
of individual copper of design
wires. variables
A table to compose
of orthogonal arrays the
wastest points,
created withand the design
the set
variables
ranges with the
of design highest
variables to velocity
compose were summarized.
the test Table
points, and the 2 shows
design the optimal
variables with the coil gun
shapes according to respective copper wire diameters obtained from
highest velocity were summarized. Table 2 shows the optimal coil gun shapes according the finite
to elemen
analysis. copper wire diameters obtained from the finite element analysis.
respective

Figure4.4.The
Figure The axisymmetric
axisymmetric 2D 2D model
model ofgun
of coil coilin
gun in MAXWELL.
MAXWELL.

Table2.1.Results
Table The ranges of design
of the finite variables
element analysisfor single-stage
giving coil
optimal coil guns
gun by copper
shapes wire
according diameter.
to the copper
wire diameters.
Number of Turns in Number of
Copper Wire
Number of the Axial
Number of Direction, Turns in the Capacitance (uF)
Copper Wire Diameter
Turns in the (mm) Turns in the Capacitance (uF)
Projectile
Diameter (mm) N Radial Direction, MVelocity (m/s)
Axial Direction, N Radial Direction, M
1.3 24–27 9–12 3000–6000
1.3 26 9 3000 33.7
1.7 23–26 9–12 5000–8000
1.7 24 9 7000 35.2
2.0 22–25 9–12 7000–10,000
2.0 22 10 10,000 30.4

Table 2. Results of the finite element analysis giving optimal coil gun shapes according to the coppe
wireFurthermore,
diameters. the respective energy conversion efficiencies of the coil guns were compared
using simple equations. Assuming that there was no loss during conversions, the energy
conversion efficiencyNumber of by comparing
was calculated Number the of electric energy stored in the capacitor
and the projectile’s
Copper Wire kinetic energy.
Turns in the In electric energy,
Turns in theC is the capacitance and V is the charging
Projectile
Capacitance (uF)
voltage.
DiameterIn kinetic
(mm)energy,AxialmDirection,
and v are theRadial
projectile’s mass and velocity, respectively.
Direction, Velocity (m/s)
N M = CV2
Eelectric
1.3 26 9 3000 33.7
1
1.7 24 9 = mv2
Ekinetic 7000 35.2
2
2.0 22 10 10,000 30.4
For the chosen values of the coil gun variables in the analysis, between the coil gun
systems using 1.3 and 1.7 mm diameter copper wires, respectively, the kinetic energy of
Furthermore,
the projectile was 9%the respective
higher. However,energy conversion
the used efficiencies
electrical energy for of the coil
energy guns were com
conversion
pared using simple equations. Assuming that there was no loss during
was 133% higher for the system using a 1.7 mm diameter copper wire. Generally, for conversions, th
energy
high conversion
energy efficiency
conversion efficiency,was calculated
it is good to use abycopper
comparing thea electric
wire with energytostored in
small diameter
the capacitor and the projectile’s kinetic energy. In electric energy, C is the capacitanc
and V is the charging voltage. In kinetic energy, m and v are the projectile’s mass and
velocity, respectively.

Eelectric = CV2
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8942 7 of 13

increase the solenoid coil’s number of turns and lower the capacitance to match the coil
gun circuit’s RLC function’s period. However, if a coil is manufactured using a copper
wire with a large diameter, it has the advantage of being able to set a shorter RLC period
in the circuit due to the low self-resistance and inductance. Thus, if the goal is to derive
maximum projectile velocity from a limited number of stages in a multi-stage coil gun, it is
recommended to fabricate a solenoid coil using a large diameter copper wire and construct
an RLC function suitable for the circuit using a high-capacity capacitor.
Notably, in this study’s coil gun system using a 1.7 mm diameter copper wire, the
maximum current was 1400 A. This required a high specification SCR, potentially affecting
the coil gun circuit’s life and durability. Due to the characteristics of the circuit using a
solenoid coil, a freewheeling diode may be additionally required in the circuit for stable
operation. Functionally, a freewheeling diode is used to avoid damaging the circuit by the
inductor’s charging current by connecting the diode with the load in parallel.
Based on the analysis, we considered that it would be appropriate to configure the coil
gun system using a 1.3 mm diameter copper wire. Therefore, we constructed a multi-stage
coil gun system using a 1.3 mm diameter copper wire. We also determined its number of
turns and capacitance through finite element analysis. We simulated the multi-stage coil
gun system using the same coil gun analysis model by inputting the projectile velocity at
the end of the previous stage as the initial projectile velocity of the current stage (except for
a current, first stage). Table 3 shows the number of turns and capacitance of the respective
solenoid coils of the 9 stages (total).

Table 3. Solenoid coil shape, capacitance, and increases in the projectile’s velocity by simulation.

Number of Turns Velocity

Number of Turns in the Initial Final
Stage in the Radial Capacitance (uF) Increase
Axial Direction, N Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)
Direction, M (m/s)
1 26 9 3000 0 33.7 33.7
2 26 7 2400 33.7 51.8 18.1
3 26 6 2400 51.8 63.2 11.4
4 26 6 2200 63.2 73.6 10.4
5 26 5 2200 73.6 82 8.4
6 26 5 2000 82 89.1 7.1
7 26 5 2000 89.1 95.4 6.3
8 26 5 1500 95.4 101.8 6.4
9 26 5 1500 101.8 107.6 5.8

We further optimized the nine-stage coil gun using the design of the experiment
method. We designed the multi-stage coil gun by setting the projectile’s final velocity
derived in the relevant stage as the projectile’s initial velocity in the next stage. Table 3
shows the velocities of the projectile calculated using simulations. The coil gun was
designed to have a projectile velocity of at least 100 m/s. In the simulation, 107 m/s was
finally derived from the nine-stage coil gun. Considering the errors that may have occurred
during the experiment, we decided to manufacture a prototype of the nine-stage coil gun.
Generally, as the stage number increases, the time for the projectile to accelerate
decreases, so the period of the RLC function of the coil gun circuit also becomes shorter.

5. Prototype Fabrication and Measurement

We fabricated a prototype based on the results of the FEA and design. We further
measured its projectile velocity. Figure 5 shows the overall view of the nine-stage coil gun
prototype used in the measurement experiment and the experimental setup. Particularly,
non-metallic materials were used to prevent projectile velocity variation arising from eddy
currents. Considering their durability, we constructed the launch tube using carbon pipes.
 prototype used in the measurement experiment and the experime
non-metallic materials were used to prevent projectile velocity
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8942
eddy currents. Considering their durability, we constructed
8 of 13
the la
pipes.

Figure 5. The
Figure nine-stage
5. The coil gun with
nine-stage certain
coil gun solenoid
withcoilcertain
and capacitors highlighted.
solenoid coil and capacitor
We configured the coil gun system’s circuit such that the charging and discharging of
the nine stages could be controlled. The capacitor was also charged by boosting a 12 V DC
We configured the coil gun system’s circuit such that the ch
power to 400 V with a booster converter. We also developed and used a charging device to
of thethenine
charge stages
nine-stage could
capacitors be controlled.
without Theposition
errors. The projectile’s capacitorwhen the was also cha
coil gun
discharges acts as one of the most important design variables. In a multi-stage coil gun,
DC power to 400 V with a booster converter. We also develope
a discharge system that can operate the circuit when the moving projectile has reached a
device to charge
certain position is needed.the nine-stage
Here, we used an SCR capacitors without
thyristor for the dischargeerrors. The pr
circuit, and
the discharge control signals were outputted using an Arduino, a commercial development
the coil However,
platform. gun discharges actsoutputted
since the signals as onefrom of the most important
the Arduino were insufficientdesign
to va
coil
operategun, a discharge
the SCR, systemthethat
a method of amplifying outputcan operate
signals the circuit
with a MOSFET device andwhen
an th
external power source was used.
reachedFor the a certain
used position
SCR in the experiment,is weneeded.
configuredHere, weusing
the circuit used an SCR thy
VS-80RIA80,
circuit,
a lead-typeandSCR the discharge
manufactured control
by VISHAY. signals
At room werethe
temperature, outputted using an
relevant model’s
operating current should be at least 6 mA; however, it should not exceed 120 mA. The
development platform.
operating voltage should be at leastHowever, since
0.25 V and should not the
exceedsignals outputted
3 V. The digital signal from
sufficient to operate
output of the Arduino the isSCR,
Mega model a method
5 V at 500 mA. Based on ofthe
amplifying
figures, we canthe output
operate
up to 4 SCRs with the Arduino’s own output. However, in this study, we must operate a
device andThus,
total of 9 SCRs. an external
we used thepower source
above method. was
Figure used.
6 shows a schematic diagram of
the discharge circuit’s connection.
For the used SCR in the experiment, we configured the circu
The charging device’s 12 V DC power supply was boosted to 400 V, which is the
lead-type SCR manufactured
capacitor’s charging capacity, using a boosterby converter
VISHAY. At
boost room
circuit. temperature,
Since a total of t
nine capacitors of the nine-stage coil gun should be charged, we developed a device that
erating current should be at least 6 mA; however, it should not ex
connects and disconnects the capacitors during charging using a relay to reduce the errors
ating
caused byvoltage should
the difference in the be at least
charging amounts0.25 V and should
of individual capacitors.not exceedit 3 V. T
We designed
of the Arduino Mega model is 5 V at 500 mA. Based on the figure
4 SCRs with the Arduino’s own output. However, in this study,
of 9 SCRs. Thus, we used the above method. Figure 6 shows a sc
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8942 9 of 13

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

to unite the capacitors before charging and separate them after it to separately discharge
them. Figure 7 shows a schematic diagram of the charge circuit.

Figure 6. A schematic diagram of the multi−stage coil gun discharging circuit.

The charging device’s 12 V DC power supply was boosted to 400 V, which

capacitor’s charging capacity, using a booster converter boost circuit. Since a total o
capacitors of the nine-stage coil gun should be charged, we developed a device tha
nects and disconnects the capacitors during charging using a relay to reduce the
caused by the difference in the charging amounts of individual capacitors. We des
it to unite the capacitors before charging and separate them after it to separately disc
them. Figure 7 shows a schematic diagram of the charge circuit.
The
Figure 6. Acharging-discharging device
schematic diagram of the multi −stageused in discharging
coil gun the experiment
circuit. is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 6. A schematic diagram of the multi−stage coil gun discharging circuit.

The charging device’s 12 V DC power supply was boosted to 400 V, which

capacitor’s charging capacity, using a booster converter boost circuit. Since a total
capacitors of the nine-stage coil gun should be charged, we developed a device th
nects and disconnects the capacitors during charging using a relay to reduce the
caused by the difference in the charging amounts of individual capacitors. We de
it to unite the capacitors before charging and separate them after it to separately dis
them. Figure 7 shows a schematic diagram of the charge circuit.
The charging-discharging device used in the experiment is shown in Figure 8

Figure 7. A schematic diagram of the multi−stage coil gun charging circuit.

Figure 7. A schematic diagram of the multi−stage coil gun charging circuit.
The charging-discharging device used in the experiment is shown in Figure 8.
As for the discharge control signals, a method of adding a delay between the discharge
of each coil gun circuit was used. The discharge of the stage 1 coil gun was controlled
via an external switch’s input. After outputting the first stage coil gun’s SCR operation
signal, that of the second stage circuit was outputted after a 2900 us delay. The delay value
was calculated considering the projectile velocity for the optimal position from the finite
element analysis and was adjusted by conducting an experiment based on it.

Figure 7. A schematic diagram of the multi−stage coil gun charging circuit.

Appl.
Appl.Sci. 2022,12,
Sci.2022, 12,8942
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13
10 13

Figure8.8. The
Figure The nine-stage
nine-stage coil
coilgun
gunsystem’s
system’scharging-discharging
charging-dischargingcircuit.
circuit.

6. Measurement Results control signals, a method of adding a delay between the dis-
As for the discharge
Theofprojectile’s
charge each coil velocity waswas
gun circuit measured using
used. The the velocity
discharge measuring
of the stage 1 equipment
coil gun wasshown
con-
in Figure
trolled via5,an
which wasswitch’s
external the WST’s X01After
input. model. Its measurement
outputting range
the first stage coiland information
gun’s SCR oper-
are summarized
ation signal, that in Table
of the 4. Particularly,
second stage circuitwewas measured
outputtedthe projectile
after velocity
a 2900 us by stage,
delay. The delay
namely from one to nine stages, to identify its velocity increment. The measured
value was calculated considering the projectile velocity for the optimal position from the velocities
are presented
finite element in Table 5.
analysis andTowas
ensure high measurement
adjusted by conductingaccuracy, the projectile’s
an experiment based on it.velocity
was measured 10 times by stage and the average velocity was considered as the stage’s
projectile velocity.Results
6. Measurement
The projectile’s velocity was measured using the velocity measuring equipment
Table 4. Error and measurement range of the velocity measuring equipment.
shown in Figure 5, which was the WST’s X01 model. Its measurement range and
information
Accuracy are summarized in Table 4. Particularly,
Test Errorwe measured the projectile velocity
< 0.35%
by stage, namely from one to nine stages, to identify its velocity increment. The measured
Input range of test ball weight 0.01–20 g
velocities are presented in Table 5. To ensure high measurement accuracy, the projectile’s
Input range
velocity wasofmeasured
test ball diameter
10 times by stage and0.01–20 mm velocity was considered as the
the average
stage’s
Energyprojectile
test range velocity. 0–999 J

Table 4. Error and measurement range of the velocity measuring equipment.

Table 5. Results of the projectile velocity measurements of the nine-stage coil gun.
Accuracy Test Error < 0.35%
Projectile Velocity
Input Initial Projectile Final Projectile
Stage range of test ball weight 0.01–20 g Velocity Error Rate with
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)
Input range of test ball diameter 0.01–20 mmIncrement (m/s) Simulation (%)
Energy
1 test range
0 31 0–999 J 31 8.01
2 31 48 17 7.33
Table 5. Results of the projectile velocity measurements of the nine-stage coil gun.
3 48 60 12 5.06
4 60 69 9 Velocity
6.25
Initial Projectile Final Projectile Projectile Velocity
Stage
5 69 (m/s) Error Rate with
Velocity Velocity76
(m/s) 7
Increment (m/s) 7.31
Simulation (%)
6 76 83 7 6.84
1 0 31 31 8.01
7 83 89 6 6.7
2 31 48 17 7.33
38 48 89
60 94
12 5
5.067.66
49 60 94 69 99 9 5 6.257.99
5 69 76 7 7.31
 6 76 83 7 6.84
7 83 89 6 6.7
8 89 94 5 7.66
9 94 99 5 7.99
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8942 11 of 13

As for the projectile velocity’s error, the frequency of different velocity measurements
increased as the number of stages increased. This correlation existed because the projectile
position Asdeviated
for the projectile
from thevelocity’s
intended error,
onethe frequency
during of different
discharge due velocity measurements
to recoiling, and the corre-
increased as the number of stages increased. This correlation existed because the projectile
sponding error accumulated as the number of stages increased. In this study, the error
position deviated from the intended one during discharge due to recoiling, and the corre-
was eliminated by completely fixing the launch tube. However, unlike this study’s dis-
sponding error accumulated as the number of stages increased. In this study, the error was
charge method,
eliminated we recommend
by completely a method
fixing the of directly
launch tube. recognizing
However, unlike thisthe projectile’s
study’s dischargeposition
using an obstacle
method, detection
we recommend sensor,ofsuch
a method as arecognizing
directly photo-interrupter, to operate
the projectile’s theusing
position discharge
circuit. Although setting the projectile’s position during discharge is difficult,
an obstacle detection sensor, such as a photo-interrupter, to operate the discharge circuit. and the dis-
charge control
Although circuit’s
setting configuration
the projectile’s position is complicated
during discharge when using
is difficult, andthe recommended
the discharge
controlwe
method, circuit’s configuration
can configure is complicated
multi-stage coil gunwhen usingwith
systems the recommended
fewer errors thanmethod,
thosewefound
can configure multi-stage coil gun systems with fewer errors than those
in this study’s discharge control method. This is because there is no reason for changing found in this
thestudy’s discharge control method. This is because there is no reason for changing the set
set discharge position due to factors such as recoiling.
discharge position due to factors such as recoiling.
Additionally, we analyzed the manufactured prototype’s performance by studying
Additionally, we analyzed the manufactured prototype’s performance by studying its
its projectile
projectileacceleration
acceleration shape
shape and and acceleration
acceleration performance.
performance. Figure
Figure 9a,b show9a,b
the show the pro-
projectile
jectile velocity
velocity and projectile
and projectile velocityvelocity increment
increment by stage,by stage, respectively.
respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 9. 9.
Figure (a)(a)
Projectile
Projectilevelocity by stage
velocity by stage(b)
(b)Projectile
Projectile velocity
velocity increment
increment by stage.
by stage.

Notably,between
Notably, between the
the coil
coil gun’s
gun’s6~9th
6~9thstages,
stages, thethe
projectile
projectile velocity increment
velocity con- con-
increment
verged to 5 m/s. We analyzed the RLC function’s period to fit the acceleration
verged to 5 m/s. We analyzed the RLC function’s period to fit the acceleration shape to shape
to improve the acceleration efficiency according to the projectile’s velocity by reducing
improve the acceleration efficiency according to the projectile’s velocity by reducing the
the number of turns and capacitance. However, since there was a limit for adjusting the
number of turns and capacitance. However, since there was a limit for adjusting the num-
number of turns, for the cases of 4~5th and 6~9th stages of the coil gun, respectively, with
bersmall
of turns, for increments,
velocity the cases ofwe 4~5th and 6~9th
recommend stages
using of the
copper coil
wires gun,
with respectively,
a diameter largerwith
than small
velocity
1.3 mmincrements,
in the solenoid wecoil.
recommend
Therefore, ifusing copper
the goal wiresa with
is to derive a diameter
projectile velocity of larger
100 m/sthan 1.3
mm or in the solenoid
higher, fabricatingcoil.
the Therefore, if the
solenoid coils goal
of the is to derive
multi-stage a projectile
coil gun circuit byvelocity of 100 m/s
incrementally
or increasing the copperthe
higher, fabricating wire’s diameter
solenoid is appropriate,
coils especially
of the multi-stage coilifgun
we were to by
circuit consider the
incrementally
increase in
increasing the the number
copper of stages,
wire’s the projectile’s
diameter initial velocity,
is appropriate, andifthe
especially weacceleration time. the
were to consider
increase in the number of stages, the projectile’s initial velocity, and the acceleration time.
7. Conclusions
In this study, we added the diameter of the copper wire used to manufacture a coil
7. Conclusions
gun’s solenoid coil as a design variable. Subsequently, the respective designed models
of In
coilthis
gunstudy,
systemswewith
added the diameter
varying copper wireof diameters
the copper wire
were used toto
simulated manufacture
compare the a coil
gun’s solenoid
circuit’s coil asperformance
acceleration a design variable. Subsequently,
and energy conversion the respective
efficiency. First, designed models of
for the efficient
conversion of the electromagnetic force generated in the circuit into kinetic energy, at least
70% of it should be transmitted to the projectile in the launch direction to reduce the force
transmitted to it in the reverse direction after passing through the coil’s center. The period
of the RLC function with the energy distribution shape suitable for the projectile’s initial
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8942 12 of 13

velocity should be set by comparing the function’s shape and the projectile’s acceleration
shape. Additionally, the electromagnetic force generated in the solenoid coil is proportional
to the coil’s winding shape and the supplied current’s magnitude. Therefore, we can use two
methods to increase the magnitude of the coil’s generated electromagnetic force. The first
method is designing a low-capacitance coil using a small-diameter copper wire to increase
the winding density and number of turns. The second is using a large-diameter copper
wire to increase the capacitance by reducing the number of turns to increase the supplied
current’s magnitude, thereby increasing the magnitude of the coil’s electromagnetic force.
When we configured the coil gun system using a 1.3 mm diameter copper wire based on
the experimented projectile in this study, the solenoid coil’s resistance and inductance
were high. Therefore, a capacitance of 3000 uF, which is a capacity less than half of
that of a coil gun system configured using a 1.7 mm diameter copper wire, was used
to match the RLC period. However, the magnetic flux density transferred from the coil
gun’s solenoid coil to the projectile increased. Thus, there was no significant velocity
difference. When configuring the coil gun circuit using a small-diameter copper wire, we
can increase the magnetic flux density by increasing the number of turns for the same
volume of the solenoid coil. However, we should use a low-capacitance capacitor to set
the RLC function’s period due to the coil’s high inductance and resistance. In the case of a
multi-stage coil gun, setting this period is limited by the number of turns and capacitance
because the acceleration time depends on the projectile’s initial velocity. This adjustment
may be good for energy conversion efficiency because the circuit can be configured with
a low-capacitance capacitor. On the other hand, when a coil gun circuit is configured
using a large diameter copper wire, if the number of turns increases, the entire coil’s
size increases compared to that of the projectile. This may decrease the efficiency of the
electromagnetic force transmission to the projectile. Therefore, we should design a multi-
stage coil gun to match the RLC function’s period using a high-capacitance capacitor and
by increasing the supplied current’s magnitude. In this study, we identified the acceleration
performance degradation in the five-stage and higher-stage coil gun systems. Despite
optimally designing the values, acceleration performance degradation and increases in the
number of stages were observable in the simulation. This was mainly because the solenoid
coil’s generated electromagnetic force decreased proportionally to the reduction in the
number of turns, even though we optimized the values by reducing the RLC function’s
period by reducing the number of turns. Therefore, if one’s purpose is to improve the
acceleration efficiency more than that in this study, the solenoid coil should be designed
using a copper wire with a diameter larger than 1.5 mm to optimize the five-stage and
higher-stage coil gun systems. Although this design method has low energy conversion
efficiency due to high capacitance, its advantage is that the circuit’s RLC function’s period
can be shortened due to the coil’s low self-resistance and inductance. Particularly, this
design method is suitable for increasing the acceleration performance when the projectile’s
initial velocity is high in a multi-stage coil gun system. Consequently, when designing
a multi-stage coil gun, it is recommended to incrementally increase the copper wire’s
diameter according to the projectile’s initial velocity.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.K.; Data curation, S.K.; Formal analysis, S.K.; Funding
acquisition, J.K.; Investigation, S.K.; Project administration, J.K.; Resources, J.K.; Software, S.K.;
Supervision, J.K.; Validation, S.K.; Visualization, S.K.; Writing—original draft, S.K.; Writing—review
& editing, J.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by
the Korean government (MSIT) (No. 2022R1A2C1005357).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8942 13 of 13

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