1.

INTRODUCTION
What is irrigation?
Irrigation is any process, other than natural precipitation which supplies water to cultivated
plants (i.e food crops, orchards, grasses etc). Irrigation can also be defined as the artificial
application of water to the soil for the purpose of supplying the necessary moisture for plants
growth.
However, irrigation is the application of water to soil for any of the following purposes;
Objectives of irrigation
1. Supply the moisture essential for plant growth.
2. Provide crop insurance against short duration drought.
3. Cool the soil and atmosphere, thereby making the environment more conducive for plant
growth.
4. Wash or dilute salts in the soil.
5. Soften tillage pan and clods.
Irrigation practice
(a) Supplemental irrigation: this is irrigation practice whereby the water supplied is used for
part of the plant water requirement in an environment where the plant can be grown
normally by natural rain but additional water is required to improve yield or control
micro climate.
(b) Total irrigation: this is the irrigation practice whereby the water supplied is used to
supply all plant water requirements. In this case, rainfall does not contribute any water to
plant need such as practiced in places like Israel, India, Saudi Arabia, etc and could also
be practiced in Nigeria during dry season.
What is Drainage
Drainage of Agricultural land is the removal of excess water from (inside or on) the soil. Water in the soil
is regarded as being in excess when the amount in it will adversely affect the production of crops. Excess
soil moisture will prevent the carbon dioxide formed by plant roots and other organisms from being
exchanged with oxygen from the atmosphere, a process known as aeration. Without aeration, the root
development and uptake capacity of most plants, for water and nutrients is reduced. The excess water
may be on the land surface (surface ponding) or deeper in the soil profile (water logging of the root zone)
due to impeded percolation or high water table.

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 2. SOIL MOISTURE

Soil moisture is important in fertile soil because it helps in the transportation of nutrients in
the soil to the plant roots. However, excessive volumes of moisture (water) in soils retards or
inhibits plant growth. Deficiencies in the amount of water cause sterility of the soil region.
Intelligent irrigation practice is therefore based on the knowledge of soil moisture. The
moisture in the soil can be classified into gravitational, capillary and hygroscopic.

 Gravitational Water: - This is the part of the soil moisture which is in excess of
capillary water and hygroscopic water and it will move out of the soil if favorable
drainage is provided.
 Capillary Water: - This is the part of soil moisture excess of the hygroscopic water
which exists in the pore space of the soil and is retained against the force of gravity in a
soil which permits unobstructed drainage.
 Hygroscopic Water: - This is the part of soil moisture which is strongly held by soil
grains and is not capable of movement by the action of gravity.
NOTE; Despite the diagram (fig 1), there is no precise boundary or line of demarcation between
the three (3) classes of soil water.
For example, measurement of field capacity tends to be arbitrary since the value obtained is
affected by such factors as the initial moisture content in the profile before wetting and the
removal of water by plants and surface evaporation and the period of downward flow. Also, the
determination as to when the downward movement of water due to gravity has essentially ceased
is rather arbitrary.
Capillary Water: - This is the principal source of water for plant and the amount of water for
plant growth. It is also the amount of water retained by the soil after gravity water has been
drained which is also called known as field capacity.
Wilting Point (W.P): - This is a point of moisture content which is slightly above the permanent
wilting point at this point, plants growing in the soils are short of water and they start to drop. If
water is supplied at this point, the plant will recover.
Permanent Wilting Point: - This is a point of moisture content at which if water is supplied to a
wilting plants, they will not recover even with the addition of water. This point is also called
wilting coefficient / P.W.P
Available Water: - The difference in moisture content of the soil between field capacity and
permanent wilting point is termed the available water. This represents the moisture which can be
stored in the soil for subsequent use by the plant.
Readily Available Water (Moisture): - Soil water or moisture content near the wilting point is
not readily available to the plant. The portion of the available moisture that is most readily
extracted by plants is approximately 75% of the available water.

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Saturated Capacity: - This is the maximum amount of water or moisture which a soil can hold
at saturation and this depends upon the volume of its pore space.

Plant Root Zone: - Different plants have different rooting depths and young plants have much shallower
root systems than mature plants. However, root patterns depend much on local soil conditions and water
availability.
 Shallow soils must contain shallow root systems.
 Excess irrigation maintaining a high water table will also tend to produce shallow roots.
 Drainage conditions with water available only at considerable depth will encourage deep
roots.
Generally, most of the water used by plants is taken from the upper half of the root zone and
because of this only about half of the root zone water is actually used.
Irrigation Efficiency
The following underlisted are the irrigation efficiency:
a. Efficiency of water conveyance (ɳc): this is the ratio of the water delivered into the field
from the outlet point of the channel, to the water pumped into the channel at the starting
point.
b. Water application efficiency (ɳa): This is the ratio of the quantity of water stored into the
root zone of the crops to the quantity of water actually delivered into the field.
c. Water Storage efficiency (ɳs): This is the ratio of the water stored into the root zone
during irrigation to the water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation.
d. Water-use efficiency (ɳu): This is ratio of water beneficially used including leaching
water to the quantity of water delivered.
e. Uniformity coefficient or water distribution efficiency (ɳd): The effectiveness of
irrigation may also be measured by its water distribution efficiency, which is defined as
d 100
ɳd = 1- ( D ) × 1

ɳd = water distribution efficiency

D = Mean depth of water stored during irrigation
d = Average of the absolute values of deviation from mean
Exercise 1. The depth of penetrations along the length of a border strip at points 30 meters apart
were measured. Their values are 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.6 and 1.5 meters, compute the distribution
efficiency?
Solution:
2.0+1.9+1.8+1.6+1.5
The mean depth of penetration = = 1.76 m
5
D = 1.76 m.

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Calculating the values of deviation from mean
Depth Deviation From Absolute Deviation
Mean
2.0 2.0 – 1.76 = 0.24 0.24
1.9 1.9 – 1.76 = 0.14 0.14
1.8 1.8 – 1.76 = 0.04 0.04
1.6 1.6 – 1.76 = -0.16 0.16
1.5 1.5 – 1.76 = -0.26 0.26
𝛴 = 8.8 (D) 𝛴 = 0.84 (d)

8.8
(D) = =1.76 m
5
0.84
(d) = = 0.168 m
5
d 100 1−(0.168) 100
ɳd =1-( D ¿ × 1 = 1.76
× 1 = 90.5
%

2. A stream of 130 litres per second was diverted from a canal and 100 litres per second was
delivered to the field. An area of 1.6 hectares was irrigated in 8 hours and the effective depth of
the root zone was 1.7 m. the runoff loss in the field was 420 m 3. The depth of water penetration
varied linearly from 1.7 m at the head end of the field to 1.1 m at the tail end. Available moisture
holding capacity of the soil is 20 cm per meter depth of soil. Determine the:
a. water conveyance efficiency
b. water application efficiency
c. water storage efficiency
d. water distribution efficiency
Note: Irrigation was started at a moisture extraction level of 50% of the available moisture.
Solution:
Parameters given are as follows:
Quantity of water diverted from stream: 130 l/s
Quantity of water delivered to the field: 100 l/s
Area of land irrigated: 1.6 hectares
Period of irrigation: 8 hours
Effective depth of root zone: 1.7 m
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The runoff loss in the field: 420 m3
Depth of water penetration interval: 1.7 m – 1.1 m
Available moisture holding capacity of the soil: 20 cm/m depth of soil.

a. Water conveyance efficiency (ɳc): it is defined as the ratio of the water that got to the
field from the water that was pumped into the channel at the starting point.

¿ 100
ɳc = water that delivered ¿ the field Water that was pumped into the channel × 1

100 100 10000

= 130 × 1 = 130 = 76.9 %

water stored ∈the root zone during irrigation 100

b. Water application eff. (ɳa) = the field ¿ ×
water delivered ¿ 1
Water delivered to the field during 8 hours at 100 l/s = 1000×8×60×60
= 2880000 l
= 2.88 × 106 l = 2880 m3. (1 litre = 10-3m3, 1 litre = 0.00m3, 2880000 litres = x m3)
= 2880000 l = 2880 m3
The runoff loss = 420 m3
Water delivered to the field – runoff = 2880 m3 – 420 m3 = 2460 m3
water stored ∈the root zone during irrigation 100
ɳa = water delivered ¿
the field for 8 hours ¿ ×
1
2460 100 246000
= × = = 85.4%
2880 1 2880

c. Water storage efficiency (ɳs) =

water stored∈the root zone during irrigation
irrigation ¿
water needed ∈the rootzone prior ¿

Moisture holding capacity = 20 cm per length × 1.7 cm = 34 cm

50 3.4
Moisture already available before the start of irrigation = × = 17 cm
100 1
Additional water required in the root zone = 34 cm – 17 cm = 17 cm = 0.17 m
Amount of water required in the root zone = 0.17 ×1.6 × 104 m3
= 0.17 × 16000
= 2720m3.
d 100
d. Water distribution efficiency (ɳd)= 1-( ¿ ×
D 1

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 0.3
=1–( )
1.4
1- 0.214
100
= 0. 786 ×
1
3. Find the field capacity of a soil having the following data?
i. Dry density of soil = 1.5 g/cm3
ii. Existing water content = 5%
iii. Root zone depth = 1.5m
iv. Area of plot = 1000 m2
v. Water applied to topsoil = 550 m3
vi. 10% of soil water is lost to evaporation
Solution:
Water available to soil
Since 10% of soil water is lost to evaporation ∴ 90% is remaining available to the soil.
90% of 550 = 495 m3
Since density of water is 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3.
Weight of 495 m3 of water = 495 × 103 × g (kg)
= 495 g × 103 kg

Crop Evapotranspiration (ETCR) / Crop Water Requirement / Consumptive Use

Different crops require different amounts of water and the quantities of water used by a
particular crop vary with its stage of growth. Initially during seedling, sprouting and early
growth, a crop uses water at a relatively slow rate. As growth develops (or increases), this rate
will increase reaching a maximum in most crops at the approach of flowering and then declining
towards maturity.
It is related to reference crop evapotranspiration (ETO) by a crop coefficient Kc so that
ETCR = KCETO
The crop coefficient Kc may vary from 0.3 to 0.35 during initial growth to over 1.0 at mid
growth.

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METHODS OF CALCULATING CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS OR
CONSUMPTIVE USE (CU)
(i) Blaney Criddle:- developed a simplified formular using temperature and day time
hours
P
Cu = k∑f = K∑ (1.8t+32)
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Where Cu = monthly consumptive use
K = is the empirical coefficient that varies on monthly, seasonal and annual basis.
P = % day time hours of the year occurring during the period (it depends on
latitudes)
t = mean temperature in ̊ C
P
f = consumptive use factor = (1.8t+32)
40
Exercise:
Complete the table below
Month Mean Mean Day time Empirical Consumptive
monthly monthly Hours (%) Coefficient
Use
Temp. ( ̊ F) Temp. ( ̊ C)
P K
CU (cm)

April. 57.9 ? 8.85 0.60 ?

May. 62.5 ? 9.82 0.70 ?

June. 65.7 ? 9.84 0.80 ?

July. 68.4 ? 10.00 0.85 ?

Aug. 67.8 ? 9.41 0.85 ?

Sept. 66.6 ? 8.36 0.85 ?

Oct. 62.2 ? 7.84 0.70 ?

Hint; To convert ̊ F to ̊ C, you use this formula

5
(x ̊ F – 32)
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(ii) Thornthwaite method :- This is another simplified empirical formula for calculating
crop water requirement. This formula has enjoyed considerable success in humid
climates. Given as
10T a
E = 16.0 ( ) mm/month
I

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 Where:
T = mean monthly temperature in ᵒc.
I = heat index for the 12 months in a year.
T
I = ∑i = ∑( )1.514 for each month of the year.
5
a = 6.75 x 10-7I3 – 7.71 x 10-5I2 + 1.792 x 10-2I + 0.49239

Procedures for using the formula (method) is summarized as follows:

(a) Find the mean monthly temperature for each month of the year, T.
T
(b) Calculate i = ( )1.514
5
(c) Calculate I = ∑i for 12 months.
(d) Calculate (a)
10T a
(e) Calculate 16.0 ( ) for the month for which the potential evapotranspiration
I
is required.

N.B
The above gives the unadjusted potential evapotranspiration. This is converted to
thornthwaite potential evapotranspiration by correcting for the duration of
sunlight for the month and the latitude.

(iii) Penman’s Method: Penman’s has made the most complete theoretical approach
showing that consumptive use is inseparably connected to incoming solar energy. The
formula is stated below.

ET = ∆H + 0.27Ea
∆ + 0.27
Where ET = Evapotranspiration (mmH2O/day)
∆ = Slope of the saturated vapour pressure versus temperature curve (mmHg/ᵒc)
H = RA(1-r)(0.18+0.55n/N) - ɤTa4(0.56-0.092√(ed))x(0.10+0.90n/N).
Where;
H = Net radiation in mmH2O/day
RA = Mean monthly extra-terrestial radiation in mmH2O/day.
r = Reflection coefficient of surface (albedo). It is unitless
n = Actual duration of bright sunlight (hrs).
N = maximum possible duration of bright sunlight (hrs).
ɤ = Boltzman constant

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 ɤTa4 = mmH2O/day where Ta = absolute temperature, ᵒk.
ed = Actual vapour pressure in air (mmHg)

3. IRRIGATION WATER

Water quality is defined in terms of the chemical, physical, and biological content of water. The
water quality of rivers and lakes changes with the seasons and geographic areas, even when there
is no pollution present. There is no single measure that constitutes good water quality. For
instance, water suitable for drinking can be used for irrigation, but water used for irrigation may
not meet drinking water guidelines. Water quality guidelines provide basic scientific information
about water quality parameters and ecologically relevant toxicological threshold values to protect
specific water uses.

Many factors affect water quality

 Sedimentation
 Runoff
 Erosion
 Dissolved oxygen
 pH
 Temperature
 Decayed organic materials
 Pesticides
 Toxic and hazardous substances
 Oils, grease, and other chemicals
 Detergents
 Litter and rubbish

Substances present in the air affect rainfall. Dust, volcanic gases, and natural gases in the air,
such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen, are all dissolved or entrapped in rain. When other
substances such as sulfur dioxide, toxic chemicals, or lead are in the air, they are also collected in
the rain as it falls to the ground. Rain reaches the earth's surface and, as runoff, flows over and
through the soil and rocks, dissolving and picking up other substances. For instance, if the soils
contain high amounts of soluble substances, such as limestone, the runoff will have high
concentrations of calcium carbonate. Where the water flows over rocks high in metals, such as
ore bodies, it will dissolve those metals.

Industrial, farming, mining, and forestry activities also significantly affect the quality of rivers,
lakes, and groundwater. For example, farming can increase the concentration of nutrients,
pesticides, and suspended sediments. Industrial activities can increase concentrations of metals

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and toxic chemicals, add suspended sediment, increase temperature, and lower dissolved oxygen
in the water. Each of these effects can have a negative impact on the aquatic ecosystem and/or
make water unsuitable for established or potential uses.

Another factor influencing water quality is the runoff from urban areas. It will collect debris
littering the streets and take it to the receiving stream or water body. Urban runoff worsens the
water quality in rivers and lakes by increasing the concentrations of such substances as nutrients
(phosphorus and nitrogen), sediments, animal wastes (fecal coliform and pathogens), petroleum
products, and road salts. Industrial, farming, mining, and forestry activities also significantly
affect the quality of rivers, lakes, and groundwater. For example, farming can increase the
concentration of nutrients, pesticides, and suspended sediments. Industrial activities can increase
concentrations of metals and toxic chemicals, add suspended sediment, increase temperature, and
lower dissolved oxygen in the water. Each of these effects can have a negative impact on the
aquatic ecosystem and/or make water unsuitable for established or potential uses.

Good quality drinking water is not easy to produce given all the possible interference from the
environment and man-made impediments. Good drinking water is free from disease-causing
organisms, harmful chemical substances, and radioactive matter. It tastes good, is aesthetically
appealing, and is free from objectionable color or odor. The guidelines for drinking water quality
specify limits for substances and describe conditions that affect drinking water quality.

More and more nowadays we are hearing about situations where the quality of water is not good
enough for normal uses. The main cause of poor water quality is caused by human impacts so it
is up to us to reduce these toxic impacts. Poor water quality is the reason why many of us need
filtration systems to be able to feel safe about our drinking water. Municipal water is deemed
safe but still has chlorine and traces of heavy metals. Drinking plenty of water is important and
for better health it is even more important that the water you are drinking is purified water.

Sources of Irrigation Water

The sources of water for irrigation can include surface water sources, groundwater sources,
municipal water supplies, grey-water sources, and other agricultural and industrial process
wastewaters.

Surface water sources include 'flowing' water supplies (i.e., creeks, streams, canals) and
'standing' or stored water supplies (i.e., ponds, reservoirs, lakes).

Groundwater supplies may come from springs and wells, and although the quality is usually
good, the available quantity that can be pumped at any time may again limit the irrigation
method.

Grey-water is domestic wastewater, other than that containing human excreta, such as sink
drainage, washing machine discharge or bath water.

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The quality of agricultural or industrial process wastewaters often limits their use to surface or
sprinkler irrigation methods, and in their suitability for fruit and vegetable crop irrigation.

Form of groundwater

Ninety-six percent of liquid fresh water can be found underground. Groundwater feeds springs
and streams, supports wetlands, helps keep land surfaces stable, and is a critical water resource.

About 60% of the water that is taken from the ground is used for farming in arid and semi-arid
climates, and between 25% and 40% of the world’s drinking water comes from underground.
Hundreds of cities around the world, including half of the very largest, make significant use of
groundwater. This water can be especially useful during shortages of surface water.

Groundwater aquifers vary in terms of how much water they hold, their depth, and how quickly
they replenish themselves. The variations also depend on specific geological features.

Much of the water underground is replenished either very slowly or not at all, and is thus termed
“non-renewable”. The largest aquifers of non-renewable water are found in North Africa, the
Middle East, Australia, and Siberia. There is some debate about how and when to use this water.
Many aquifers that contain non-renewable groundwater resources are shared by more than one
country and need to be managed in common for the benefit of all administrative entities
concerned.

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If the infiltration of precipitation recharges the aquifer, the groundwater is considered
“renewable” and can be used for irrigation, domestic and other purposes. While most renewable
groundwater is of a high quality and does not require treatment, it should be analysed before it is
used to avoid possible health impacts. However, few countries measure the quality of
underground water or the rate at which it is being withdrawn. Monitoring is being improved in
Europe and India, but remains minimal in many developing countries, and is deteriorating in
many industrialised ones. This makes it hard to manage underground water resources
sustainably.

Forms in which groundwater exists are the following;

- Rivers
- Stream.
- Lakes
- Ground water
- Domestic water

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 4. IRRIGATION PUMPING MACHINE

How to Select a Pump for Irrigation

The mechanism by which the water is lifted from the underground or a source at a lower
elevation to some height or to some place is known as pump.

Pumping in ancient time (left) modern time (right)

Farmers can select from a wide range of pumps for irrigation purposes. Some applications have
special pump requirements, but there are many common considerations in the selection of an
appropriate pump. Some of these are:
• discharge and pressure (or head) required
• suction conditions
• frequency of operation
• reliability required
• source of power available
• cost per unit of power
• capital cost, depreciation and interest charges
• physical constraints (for example, must the pump fit in a limited space such as a
borehole?)
• shelter available (for example, will an electric motor need waterproofing?)
• potential for corrosion and wear
• facilities for maintenance.

The best pump for you depends on the type of irrigation system you have. The irrigation system
and how you operate it will determine the pump performance you require. Descriptions of
pumps and their performance will help you to select a suitable pump for your situation.

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Types of pumps
Pumps are classified in two main categories, based on how energy is given to the water:
1. Rotodynamic pumps
Examples of rotodynamic pump are
a. radial flow centrifugal pumps (volute pump)
b. mixed flow pumps,
c. mixed flow bore hole pumps and
d. axial pumps.
2. Positive displacement pumps Examples of Positive displacement pumps are
 piston pumps, and
 helical-rotor pumps.

The principal requirement for pumping equipment used in commercial sprinkler irrigation is
high efficiency against comparatively high pressures. This requirement usually makes
rotodynamic pumps used for spray systems.
a. Centrifugal pumps are widely used in agriculture and are a good example of the
rotodynamic pump group.
However, for small systems requiring pump discharges of less than 2 l/s (2 litres per second),
positive displacement pumps can be used under certain conditions. In irrigation terms, a
pumping rate of 2 l/s is a very low flow and would be applicable to nurseries with misting jets,
vegetable growers using drip irrigation, and domestic irrigation situations. The two pump
categories should be looked at separately since the basic principle of operation of each is
different.

Rotodynamic Pumps
Rotodynamic pumps have a rotating impeller which gives energy to the water. The speed and
size of the impeller determines the pressure and the rate of water flow out of the pump.
The two main types of rotodynamic pumps are the volute pump and the turbine pump. Volute
pumps are widely used in irrigation. They are of simple construction, the only moving parts
being the impeller and shaft. The impeller is housed in a casing (volute).
The volute pump most often used for irrigation purposes is the (radial-flow) centrifugal pump.
It can be installed with the pump shaft in the vertical or horizontal position. Its size is specified
by the internal diameter at the discharge outlet.

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 A typical centrifugal pump

The advantages of the centrifugal (volute) pump include the following:

• It can be installed above the water surface.
• It can be mounted on skids for rapid removal from danger of floods.
• Not being submerged, it is less liable to corrosion, although most can operate submerged for
short periods without damage.
• It can be installed as a portable unit and used at more than one pumping site.
• Where its use is applicable, it is easy and cheap to install.
• It is cheap to maintain.

Turbine pumps
Turbine pumps are mixed-flow and radial-flow (centrifugal) pumps which direct water to the
discharge outlet with diffusion vanes. Since turbine pumps are most often used for pumping
from bores, there is a limit on impeller diameter and the pressure which can be developed at a
given speed. Volute pumps do not have this physical limitation. When high pressures are
required from turbine pumps, extra impellers (stages) are added to the pump. Turbine pumps
are driven by either a line-shaft or a submersible electric motor mounted below and close
coupled to the pump.
The advantages of the turbine pump include:
For bores and wells:
• It can be driven by an engine.
• It is less prone to damage by silt and sand in the water than the electro-submersible pump.
• It is easier to maintain than an electro-submersible unit.

For dams, creeks and rivers:

• The prime mover can be mounted above flood level by extending the drive shaft.
• It can be used for supplies inaccessible to centrifugal pumps which would require too long a
suction pipe.

15
• It can be used for high pressure conditions beyond the capacity of conventional centrifugal
pumps.
• It can be used to pump silt or sand-laden water unsuitable for an electro-submersible pump.

Electro-submersible pumps
Electro-submersible pumps are turbine pumps that are close-coupled to an electric motor. The
motor and pump are in the one unit with the motor underneath keeping the unit submerged. The
motor depends on the water pumped for cooling, and a failure of the water supply can result in
serious damage to the unit. The pump is dimensioned for use in bores and is very long in
comparison to its diameter.
The advantages of the electro-submersible pump are:
• It does not have a long drive shaft.
• It may be installed in a misaligned bore.
• It may be installed in rivers subject to flooding. As the pump has no above-ground working
parts, the starting equipment, meter and transformer can be placed above flood level on a
pole.

Jet pumps are single-stage centrifugal pumps fitted with a special assembly called an ejector.
The ejector allows the pump to draw water from depths not possible with a conventional
centrifugal pump. The disadvantage of jet pumps is their very poor efficiency and discharge
when used in high pressure applications.

Positive Displacement Pump

The positive displacement (or reciprocating pump) consists of a piston (or displacer) moving in
a cylinder from which liquid enters or leaves through a valve arrangement. The positive
displacement pump is a low volume, high head pump, and so is not used extensively in
irrigation systems. Where these pumps are used, they are most commonly in constant flow
systems like drip, spray or mist irrigation.

Piston pump

16
 Piston pumps have a horizontal cylinder sealed at both ends with a piston inside. As the piston
moves backwards and forwards, water is drawn in during the suction stroke and discharged
during the compression stroke. The discharge pulsates because of this and needs to be smoothed
out using an air chamber in the delivery line.

Helical Rotor Pumps

Helical rotor pumps are single screw pumps consisting of a rigid screw-like rotor rolling with a
slight eccentric motion in a resilient internal rubber lining (stator). The rotor and stator engage so
that a constant seal between the two is maintained. The diameter, pitch and eccentricity of the
rotor control the pump's performance.
The characteristic curve (see below) for helical rotor pumps is very steep: small changes in flow
result in large changes in pressure.
All positive displacement pumps require a pressure relief valve downstream of the pump to
protect the mainline.

Helical rotor pump

Characteristic Curve
Pump manufacturers provide performance characteristics called pump characteristic curves.
They are a graphical representation of the relationship between the variables involved in
pumping:
• head
• discharge
• speed
• power
• cavitation susceptibility (limiting suction lift).
To obtain an operating point on the characteristic curve we must know the pump duty. Pump
duty is the basis of pump selection, and is the performance required of the pump. It is expressed
in terms of flow rate (or discharge) and the total head (pressure) required. For example, in the
second performance curve, a flow rate of 4 L/s and a total head of 25 m requires the pump to be
operated at 2100 rpm for an efficiency of about 70%.

Suction performance
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Most problems with volute pumps can be traced to the suction system. Water is non-cohesive
and cannot be pulled. It is not lifted by a pump, but pushed by atmospheric pressure to the low-
pressure area created at the suction inlet of the pump. The suction `lift' a pump can handle is a
function of pump design and atmospheric pressure. Theoretically, the atmosphere at sea level
will push water about 10 m up an evacuated column. This height is reduced by elevation, about
1.1 metres per 1000-metre increase in altitude. The actual suction lift must be less than this to
allow for friction, pump design and pump wear. Suction lifts are shown on some characteristic
curves produced by pump manufacturers.
Cavitation
Cavitation is the formation and subsequent collapse of bubbles (cavities) of vapour in the water.
The bubbles form when the liquid boils. Boiling can happen without heating, when the absolute
pressure of the water is reduced to the point where vapour bubbles form.
The water carries these bubbles to regions of higher pressure in the pump where they suddenly
collapse. If the bubbles collapse near a metal surface, then pitting of the surface will occur.
Cavitation is accompanied by noise and vibration, and the vapour bubbles decrease the
performance (the efficiency) of the pump.
To avoid the undesirable and costly effects of cavitation, do not site the pump so that it has to
raise water more than the limit of suction lift set by the manufacturer.

The rate of deterioration depends on:

• material type
• water quality
• temperature
• mechanical design
• maintenance schedule
• suitability of pump for the duty
• cavitation susceptibility.

Pumping do's and don't's

Do:
• site the pump as close as possible to the water
• make sure suction and delivery pipes do not put a strain on the pump casing
• check that all pipe connections are tight
• use a strainer recommended by the pump manufacturer
• anchor the pump securely so that it doesn't move during operation
• work the pump within its limits
• provide ventilation for the motor or engine
• keep the pump and motor connection aligned

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 • make sure the pump is primed before starting
• keep the strainer clean
• service the pump regularly.

Don't:
• pump corrosive liquids
• operate the pump without water
• operate the pump if the discharge valve is closed
• operate the pump if the strainer is blocked
• operate the pump if it is vibrating excessively
• install the suction pipes so that air can build up in them
• forget to do regular maintenance.

5. EFFECTS OF WATER STRESS ON PLANT GROWTH

Water is vital to the existence of plant life. Not only do plants use it to keep their cells from
drying out, but they need water to move nutrients and raw materials throughout their systems to
areas where photosynthesis and seed production take place. When water stress occurs, whether
caused by drought or root impairment, many invisible processes are affected and they as follows

Wilting
The first obvious effect of water stress is wilting because turgor pressure, which inflates plant
cells and keeps them erect, is lost. Without this force, the cells inside plant leaves begin
collapsing, giving them a limp appearance. As wilting increases, plant cells fully deflate, causing
their deaths. Partially wilted plants that are still green may recover if watering is quickly initiated
the addition of mulch helps to keep soil moisture even.
Reduced Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process through which plants create their own food. The amount of water,
sunlight and carbon dioxide available to the plant directly influences the amount of food a plant
can produce. When water levels are low due to water stress, photosynthesis can slow or even
stop, causing internal food supplies vital to other processes to diminish or disappear -- yellowing
may also occur if photosynthesis stops completely.
Reduced Respiration
Respiration is the process through which plants break down their food supply for energy to
power system processes. When plants are actively growing, they respirate heavily, using up food
stores quickly. With low water levels reducing the plant's ability to photosynthesize, the plant's
system processes slow down, causing reduced or delayed growth and discoloration of leaves, as
well as flower or fruit drop, since the plant can't support this extra baggage.
Reduced Transpiration

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Hearts pump blood through animal bodies, carrying nutrients and removing waste -- similarly,
plants use osmotic pressure to create circulation in their systems. As water moves through the
system, vital minerals and nutrients are delivered to different areas of the plant. Water taken up
by a plant's roots is slowly drawn up to openings in its leaves called stomas. The stomas release
waste products such as oxygen into the environment and bring in carbon dioxide. This release
also helps cool plant tissues. In addition, transpiration maintains turgor in plants, keeping cells
evenly filled with water. When transpiration is stopped or slowed, the plant begins to die from
lack of nutrients, usually from the top down.

YIELD AND RECHARGE OF A WELL

The maximum safe yield of a well represents its dependable and continuous output during a long
drought. Homeowners should know their well yield to ensure it can sustain them in demanding
times. The well yield may be found in the well log created when the well was drilled and its
pump installed. Many communities also require a yield test when a property is bought or sold.

What is a well yield test?

Determining the yield of a well involves a test to see the balance between the maximum amount
of water that can be pumped out of the well and the amount of water that recharges back into the
well from the surrounding ground water source.
The test requires the continuous pumping of the well for an extended period of time. During the
pumping period, measurements are made. The rate at which water is being pumped out of the
well and the distance the water level is lowered in the well as a result of the pumping is known as
the drawdown. Balance or equilibrium is achieved when the water level within the well stops
dropping for a given discharge rate. Once equilibrium is achieved, less pumping results in less
drawdown.
Well water professionals rely on the yield pump test to set the well pump at the correct level. It is
common to maintain the water level in the well at least 25 feet above the top of the submersible
pump. This depth of water over the pump provides a reasonable level of safety for dry conditions
and provides for full cooling of the pump’s electrical motor.
Don’t be fooled by water pressure in the home. Pressure at the tap is not necessarily dependent
on ample well yield. Proper sizing of the well pump, pressure tank and distribution lines by a
well water professional can increase pressure when yields are quite low. Many communities set
minimum levels. Contact your local health department or ask your water well professional for
minimum well yield requirements in your area.
How to conduct a well yield test
Determining the safe yield of a well is an involved process. In most cases, well owners should
contact a well water professional, who will have the specialized equipment needed and can
modify existing plumbing, if necessary. For a new well, a yield test can be performed
immediately after the drilling has been completed, but before the well is connected to the house.
A yield estimate can be conducted by blowing compressed air into the well or a temporary pump
can be used to measure yield.

20
For an existing well already in use, a well water professional can create an artificial water
demand on the home’s plumbing system so that the well pump runs continuously and water
discharges from exterior faucets. Measurements can be taken during this constant pumping. In
either case, the yield test will generate lots of water that must be discharged to an appropriate
location. Take care not to let the water flow towards or back into the well being pumped. Try to
direct the water to a stream, pond or wetlands.
For new wells, piping can be used to direct water away from the well being tested. For testing of
existing wells, lengths of garden hose can be connected to outside faucets to direct the water to
an appropriate location.

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING

Irrigation scheduling is the use of water management strategies to prevent over-application

of water while minimizing yield loss due to water shortage or drought stress.

Importance of Irrigation Scheduling

Some irrigation water is stored in the soil to be removed by crops and some is lost by
evaporation, runoff, or seepage. The amount of water lost through these processes is affected by
irrigation system design and irrigation management. Prudent scheduling minimizes runoff and
percolation losses, which in turn usually maximizes irrigation efficiency by reducing energy and
water use. (Of course, in situations where not enough water was being applied, proper irrigation
scheduling will increase energy and water use.)

You can save energy by no longer pumping water that was previously being wasted. When water
supplies and irrigation equipment are adequate, irrigators tend to over irrigate, believing that
applying more water will increase crop yields. Instead, over irrigation can reduce yields because
the excess soil moisture often results in plant disease, nutrient leaching, and reduced pesticide
effectiveness. In addition, water and energy are wasted.

The quantity of water pumped can often be reduced without reducing yield. Studies have shown
that irrigation scheduling using water balance methods (to be discussed later) can save 15 to 35
percent of the water normally pumped without reducing yield. Maximum yield usually does not
equate to maximum profit. The optimum economic yield is less than the maximum potential
yield. Irrigation scheduling tips presented in popular farm magazines too often aim at achieving
maximum yield with too little emphasis on water and energy use efficiencies. An optimum
irrigation schedule maximizes profit and optimizes water and energy use.

21
Irrigation scheduling requires knowledge of:

 the soil
 the soil-water status
 the crops
 the status of crop stress
 the potential yield reduction if the crop remains in a stressed condition.

Irrigation scheduling is the process of answering two basic questions:

 Do I need to irrigate?
 How much water should I apply?

Determining When to Irrigate

There are three ways to decide when to irrigate:

 measure soil-water
 estimate soil-water using an accounting approach (the check-book method)
 measure crop stress

There are many different methods or devices for measuring soil water. These include;
 the feel method,
 gravitational method, use of tensiometers,
 electrical resistance blocks,
 neutron probe,
 Phene cell,
 time domain reflectometer.
These methods differ in reliability, cost, and labor intensity.

6. TYPES OF IRRIGATION

There are four general types of irrigation systems; namely, surface irrigation; subsurface
irrigation; sprinkler irrigation; and, drip or microspray irrigation. The choice of the irrigation
system depends upon availability of water, topography, soil characteristics, crop requirements,
cost, and cultural practices. For instance, surface irrigation would not be appropriate for fruit
crops but would be for rice, whereas drip or microspray irrigation would not be appropriate for
rice but would be for fruit crops. Likewise, if the crop to be irrigated is located adjacent to a
stream or similar water source, and water abstractions would not adversely affect downstream
users, surface irrigation might be used in preference to other, perhaps more water-efficient and
more costly, methods of irrigation.

Surface Irrigation

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Water is either diverted or pumped from a river or stream onto the area to be irrigated. There are
three common surface irrigation methods; namely, flood irrigation, where water enters the area
uncontrolled and minimal land preparation is required (Figure 5.1); border irrigation where
water enters the area as a controlled sheet of water, resulting in less water loss than flood
irrigation, and earth borders must be constructed to achieve controlled sheet flows (Figure 5.2);
furrow irrigation, where water i directed into shallow channels that can be constructed using
ordinary farm machinery.

Flood irrigation method

Border Irrigation

Sub-surface Irrigation
Water is directed to the subsoil (crop root zone) in the area to be irrigated. The water is used to
artificially control the groundwater table, and is normally delivered through perforated pipes
buried in the ground. In some Latin American countries, porous clay pots are buried in the
ground and filled with water that slowly seeps into the subsoil to moisten the roots of crops. Of
the irrigation methods, subsurface irrigation is used the least.

Sprinkler Irrigation
Water is applied to the areas to be irrigated in a form that mimics the action of rain. This is
achieved by distributing the water through pipelines under pressure to various types of sprinkler
heads that spray the water from above onto the crop and land. Sprinkler irrigation systems can be

23
fixed in place, portable, semi-portable, or mobile. Sprinkler nozzle types and numbers are
selected depending on designed application rates and wetting patterns.

Example of Sprinkler Irrigation

Drip Irrigation
Water is applied to each plant through one or more emitters and/or microsprayers located at, or
just above, ground level (up to 300 mm above). The system suits areas of high temperatures and
limited water resources. This system allows for the accurate application of water with minimal
loss due to evaporation, poor distribution and seepage, or over-watering. Due to the small
diameter of the emitter openings, filtration of the water is normally required to reduce potential
blockages in these systems.

Drip or Microspray Irrigation System

Operation and Maintenance

The success of any irrigation system depends on the timely application of water to satisfy crop-
water requirements. This timing is influenced by such factors as rainfall, crop, and soil moisture

24
content. An irrigation schedule (i.e., a timetable stating when to apply water and when to stop)
should be developed for each irrigation system to maximise crop production with minimal water
wastage due to over-watering.

Each irrigation system has at least three components that must be maintained for trouble-free
operation; namely, the headworks, conveyance system, and on-farm systems. The headworks
are any intakes, dams, reservoirs, pumps, wells, and boreholes required to abstract water from
the source (i.e., river or groundwater) for delivery to the conveyance system. The conveyance
system includes canals, channels, and pipelines that convey water from the source to the on-farm
systems. The on-farm systems could be surface, subsurface, spray or drip irrigation systems,
and include any subsystems required for (booster) pumping, filtration, flow control, distribution,
turn out, and support. All irrigation systems require routine maintenance to maximise crop
production and minimize water losses.

Choosing an Irrigation Method

The farmer must know the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods when choosing
an irrigation method. He/she must know the method which suits the local conditions best.
Unfortunately, in many cases there is no single best solution: all methods have their advantages
and disadvantages. Testing of the various methods - under the prevailing local conditions -
provides the best basis for a sound choice of irrigation method.

Surface, Sprinkler or Drip Irrigation;

The suitability of the various irrigation methods, i.e. surface, sprinkler or drip irrigation, depends
mainly on the following factors:
- natural conditions
- type of crop
- type of technology
- previous experience with irrigation
- required labour inputs
- costs and benefits

Natural conditions
The natural conditions such as soil type, slope, climate, water quality and availability, have the
following impact on the choice of an irrigation method:

Soil type: Sandy soils have a low water storage capacity and a high infiltration rate. They
therefore need frequent but small irrigation applications, in particular when the
sandy soil is also shallow. Under these circumstances, sprinkler or drip irrigation
are more suitable than surface irrigation. On loam or clay soils all three irrigation
methods can be used, but surface irrigation is more commonly found. Clay soils
with low infiltration rates are ideally suited to surface irrigation.
When a variety of different soil types is found within one irrigation scheme,

25
 sprinkler or drip irrigation are recommended as they will ensure a more even water
distribution.
Slope: Sprinkler or drip irrigation are preferred above surface irrigation on steeper or
unevenly sloping lands as they require little or no land levelling. An exception is
rice grown on terraces on sloping lands.
Climate: Strong wind can disturb the spraying of water from sprinklers. Under very windy
conditions, drip or surface irrigation methods are preferred. In areas of
supplementary irrigation, sprinkler or drip irrigation may be more suitable than
surface irrigation because of their flexibility and adaptability to varying irrigation
demands on the farm.
Water Water application efficiency (see Annex 4, step 8) is generally higher with
availability: sprinkler and drip irrigation than surface irrigation and so these methods are
preferred when water is in short supply. However, it must be remembered that
efficiency is just as much a function of the irrigator as the method used.
Water Surface irrigation is preferred if the irrigation water contains much sediment. The
quality: sediments may clog the drip or sprinkler irrigation systems.
If the irrigation water contains dissolved salts, drip irrigation is particularly
suitable, as less water is applied to the soil than with surface methods.
Sprinkler systems are more efficient than surface irrigation methods in leaching
out salts.

Type of crop
Surface irrigation can be used for all types of crops. Sprinkler and drip irrigation, because of
their high capital investment per hectare, are mostly used for high value cash crops, such as
vegetables and fruit trees. They are seldom used for the lower value staple crops.
Drip irrigation is suited to irrigating individual plants or trees or row crops such as vegetables
and sugarcane. It is not suitable for close growing crops (e.g. rice).

Type of technology
The type of technology affects the choice of irrigation method. In general, drip and sprinkler
irrigation are technically more complicated methods. The purchase of equipment requires high
capital investment per hectare. To maintain the equipment a high level of 'know-how' has to be
available. Also, a regular supply of fuel and spare parts must be maintained which - together with
the purchase of equipment - may require foreign currency.
Surface irrigation systems - in particular small-scale schemes - usually require less sophisticated
equipment for both construction and maintenance (unless pumps are used). The equipment
needed is often easier to purchase and maintain.

Previous experience with irrigation

The choice of an irrigation method also depends on the irrigation tradition within the region or
country. Introducing a previously unknown method may lead to unexpected complications. It is

26
not certain that the farmers will accept the new method. The servicing of the equipment may be
problematic and the costs may be high compared to the benefits.
Often it will be easier to improve the traditional irrigation method than to introduce a totally new
method.

Required labour inputs

Surface irrigation often requires a much higher labour input - for construction, operation and
maintenance - than sprinkler or drip irrigation. Surface irrigation requires accurate land leveling,
regular maintenance and a high level of farmers' organization to operate the system. Sprinkler
and drip irrigation require little land leveling; system operation and maintenance are less labour-
intensive.

Costs and benefits

Before choosing an irrigation method, an estimate must be made of the costs and benefits of the
available options. On the cost side not only the construction and installation, but also the
operation and maintenance (per hectare) should be taken into account. These costs should then
be compared with the expected benefits (yields). It is obvious that farmers will only be interested
in implementing a certain method if they consider this economically attractive.

In conclusion: Surface irrigation is by far the most widespread irrigation method. It is normally
used when conditions are favourable, such as mild and regular slopes, soil type with medium to
low infiltration rate, and a sufficient supply of surface or groundwater. In the case of steep or
irregular slopes, soils with a very high infiltration rate or scarcity of water, sprinkler and drip
irrigation may be more appropriate. When introducing sprinkler and drip irrigation it must be
ensured that the equipment can be maintained.

7. DRAINAGE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION: - Drainage of Agricultural land is the artificial removal of excess water

from (inside or on ) the soil for the main purpose of improving agricultural productivity. Excess
water on agricultural land may come through irrigation, rainfall, ground water flow or seepage
from canals, reservoir, rivers and other water bodies.
When there is excess water in the soil, crop generally perform poorly, and other agricultural
activities are negatively affected. Because of this, it is necessary to remove the excess water from
land so as to enhance crop and animal production and improve the quality of farm life.
THE EFFECT OF POOR DRAINAGE: -

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 a. Crop Growth is impaired:- In water logged soils, the air content of the soil is low
because most pore spaces are filled with water. In consequence respiration is restricted by
the oxygen defiency while at the same time the carbon dioxide accumulates to toxic level
impairing the root growth and the root ability to absorb nutrients.
b. Farm Operation is Impaired:- On a poorly drained land there will be fewer working days
available for essential farm operations, since dried land is needed for good traction of
agricultural equipment and tractor will be lacking. Seedbed preparation, planting,
weeding, spraying and harvesting may be critically delayed.
c. Occurrence of Soil Salinization:- Inadequate land drainage is the main cause of
accumulation of salts in root zone of some plants – the problem is most prevalent in the
arid climates especially when the land is poorly irrigated.
d. Occurrence of Surface Erosion due to Runoff:- Where the agricultural land is sloppy and
the land is under intensive rainfall with insufficient soil conservation practice,( that will
lead to good retention or detention of raindrops), surface erosion is inevitable and soil
volume is reduced.
e. Reduction in Amount of Nutrient:-With the washing off of the top soil on a sloppy land, a
good proportion of the soil nutrient will be carried away.
f. Suppression of Root Development:-- With reduction in soil nutrient and reduction in soil
volume the root of the plant will be stunted due to poor development.

What then are the benefits of drainage?

I. Adequate drainage often results in new areas being brought under cultivation, areas
which are previously not accessible for agricultural practice. It may even result in the
change of the area once the condition of the land become favorable for greater number of
different range of crops.
II. Due to drainage, a lowering of the water table may result in a better structure of the
topsoil, on increased infiltration rate and porosity will also occur, leading to good surface
drainage.
III. Good drainage will lead to better aeration and moisture condition throughout the greater
part of the soil profile. This leads to stimulate growth and development of roots in all
directions. The resulting extensive root growth explores a large volume of water and
nutrients.
IV. In a well drained soil air will not only penetrate into the deeper soil layers but the volume
of air in the surface layers will be greater than the diffusion rate of the oxygen in the soil
with deeper groundwater table. This will be more favorable for plant root.
V. In general when the soil is well drained, the soil surface climate is favorable to promote
early planting in areas with cold climate (e.g. winter)
VI. The tillage operations which are estimated for crop production will require lower draft, in
a well-drained soil, to move and operate the machines and equipment.

28
 In general to derive the maximum benefit for drainage the soil should be put under well
graded tillage (level terrace etc.) to avoid difference in physical relief of the level.
CAUSES OF WATER LOGGGING
 Over irrigation
 Seepage from canals: Excessive seepage from unline canal system and water courses
result in the raise of water table leading to water logging condition.
 Impervious Barrier: There may be an impervious stratum below the top layer which
obstruct the seepage from going down resulting in creation of false water table leading to
water logging.
 Inadequate Drainage: In irrigated areas, water losses from canal system and water courses
continuously contribute to water table, if drainage is inadequate, water logging condition
will develop.
 Poor Irrigation Management: Poor irrigation management can also result in the
development of water logging condition.
 Obstruction of Natural Drainage
 Excessive Rainfall
 Flat Topography
 Occasional Spill by Flood
 Soil and Sub soil
 Land locked Patches
 Unsuitable Cropping Pattern
 Physiography of the Water shed
ANTI-WATER LOGGING MEASURES
(A) Preventive Measures; Preventive measures aim at reducing the in-flowing into sub-soil
water table. The principal among these measures are;
 Arresting percolation from rainfall
 Arresting percolation from canal
(B) Curative Measures; Curative measures aim at extracting excess water from the root
zone of crop to restore condition conducive for normal growth of crops.
Key Measures Under This Are;
1. Vertical drainage; pumping out of water vertically
2. Surface drainage; This means that you will installed canal, channels.
3. Establishing eucalyptus tree plantations.
4. Improving the grading of the land.
5. Adopting suitable cropping pattern.
6. Optimizing the use of water; this involve consumption use of water.
7. Adopt the proper method of irrigation.
8. Incorporate sub-surface drainage system.
9. Puncturing of underground barrier

29
 10. Removing obstructions to natural drainage.
11. Undertake soil reclamation; The reclamation of water-logged soil by various
reclamation methods is an important curative measures.

8. LAND RECLAMATION
Land reclamation is the process of restoring to cultivation lands which have been
rendered uncultivable or have suffer reduction in the yield. Various considerations governing the
method of land reclamation are;
1. Soil characteristics
2. Salt distribution and its nature in the soil
3. pH value and total solute salt content in the soil
4. Irrigation water quality
5. Present state of salt content of the soil related to the yield of the crops.
LAND RECLAMATION PROCESS
The land reclamation process comprises of the following;
i. Reduction in salt content
ii. Reduction in soil alkalinity
iii. Restoration of nitrogen

LAND RECLAMATION METHODS

The principal method of land reclamation are the following;
i. Levelling
ii. Leaching; This is the process of flooding the surfaces and deposit of salt with
abundant irrigation water to a depth of 15-25cm, the dissolved salt are drained
off to deep seepage drains. The leaching operation may be repeated a couple
of years later, if salt deposit re-appeared.
iii. Crop rotation
iv. Addition of soil amendment
v. Surface drainage; There must be provision for surface drainage. Anywhere
surface drainage is absent, the soil depreciates quickly.
vi. There should be provision for sub-surfaces drainage.
vii. Addition of waste products; Agricultural waste products and agricultural
related waste product can also be used to reclaim land e.g. waste from
distillers.
viii. Breaking of impervious pan; Hard impervious sub-soil pan should be broken
down by deep chiseling deep ploughing of sub-soiling.

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ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENT OF THE DRAIN
The essential requirements of a drain are the following;
1. It should admit all the flood discharge from the catchment.
2. There should be quick and unobstructed flow of water toward the drain from the
catchment.
3. The drain should have the capacity to carry away the received water to the out-fall.
4. There should be ideal out-falling condition without over topping.
5. The season of the drain must be stable with non-silting tendency.
6. Seepage or low discharge must not spread over the entire season.
7. There should be low initial cost.
8. There should be low maintenance cost.

9. CLASSIFICATION OF DRAINS

According to consumption According to function

Natural drains Artificial drains

Open drains Closed drains

Surface drains Seepage Drains Mole Link Field Sub surface

drains surface drains drains drains drains
drains
Open Drains
Under open drain there are;

(1) Surface drains; these are manually used for the removal of excess surface
irrigation water or for the disposal of storm.
(2) Seepage drains; seepage drains cater for sub-soil water, they are made deep
enough to allow water table to drop into the drain and the seepage water is carried
away. They are of smaller section than surface drains.
(3) Surface and seepage drains; this have the dual purpose of seepage and storage
water drain, during raining season. They have bed level below the water table.
(4) Mole drains; Mole drains are cylindrical drains, form into the sub-soil by pulling a
mole plough of 5-10cm diameter by tractor. The plough is pulled along the
sloping ground with the mole shoe at a depth of 60cm. They are spaced 3.5-5cm
apart. A round channel is form in the soil with cranks along the mole, the drainage
water enters the mole through this cranks and carrier along the slope in sub-
surface or open drains. They are suitable in clay and clay-loam soil but
impracticable in sandy soil, durability of the mole depends on texture and
structure of the soil.

31
 (5) Link and Field drains; link drains are branch drains which drains sub-catchment
into the out-fall drains. These are aligned along the valley. Field drains are small
drains which drains individual field or group of field into the link drain.

CLOSED DRAINS
Closed drains are sub-surface which remove water that has entered the soil. They are
initially lined at 1-1.5m below the ground surface and at a suitable spacing and grade to lower
water table to greater depth.

The advantages of using closed chains in the following;

(1) There is no hindrance to farming operations.
(2) Since they occupied no-surface land, no area of farm land is put out of operation.
(3) They give root zone greater depth.
(4) They lower the water table to a greater depth.
(5) They can be used to permanently acclaim saline soil.

___________________________________________________________________________

Soil level

Tile Drain Sub-surface

TILE DRAIN

Close drains are commonly designated as tile drains. Tile drains constitute the most efficient and
permanent type of sub surface drainage. When the water table has permanently risen close to the
ground surface. They are located at a suitable depth usually 1-1.5m below the ground surface and
at a suitable spacing and slope depending on the soil, climate and topography of the area. The
water drained by tile drains is disposed off by gravity into deep surface drains and pumped out
depending on outfall conditions. In the system laterals removed water from the soil, sub-drains
collect water from a group of laterals and empty into drains for disposal into the outfall.

The sources of drainage problems are;

 poor land grading
 flood
 poor soil structure
 high water table

32
  surface runoff
 soil compaction.

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
In the past the most common practice of removing excess water, all over the world is by a system
of open ditches (drains or gutters). However, in this modern time, especially in the field of
drainage of agricultural land, many of the open ditches are being replaced by pipe drains in
developed countries.
In many systems of pipe drainage, the following arrangement of drains may be distinguished:
Field drains or field laterals: - These are usually parallel drains that are installed under the
ground to control the groundwater depth on a field.
Collector drains: - These functions to collect water from the drains and transport the collected
water to the main drains.
Main drains: - These are the drains which transport the water out of the area being drained
(Figures a and b).

10. TYPICAL AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE SYSTEM AND HERRINGBONE

SYSTEM

Fig a

33
 Fig b

N.B. Herring bone systems are used for areas where the problem of drainage is not
uniform everywhere on the agricultural field e.g. where there are patches of high water
table.

Components of a Typical Drainage System

a. Field Drains or Field Lateral System:- This is the drainage system which gathers
the excess water from the field (farms) by means of field drains

Two principal types of field drains may be distinguished:

 Groundwater drainage systems:- These are used in the field where exists moderate
hydraulic conductivity (K) and where infiltration rate is not limiting (Figures 3a and 3b).
 Shallow drainage systems:- These are used where exists low K and the predominant
flow is interflow or overland flow (Figure 4)

34
b. Disposal System (or Main system):-

35
 Disposal system is made up of ditches and canal of varying orders e.g. Tertiary,
Secondary and Primary. These canals and ditches receive water from the field
systems and convey it to the outlets. The smaller tertiary canals (or collector
ditches) are usually aligned along the field boundaries towards which the field
drains flow (Figure 5) The tertiary canal discharges into the secondary canal
which in turn discharges into the primary canal and eventually to the outlet.
Where the drainage water is of good quality, it may be reused for irrigation.

c. Outlet:-This is the terminal point that receives the drained water from the whole
drainage system; this may be river, lake, sea, pond etc.
The water level at the outlet constitutes the drainage base for the area concerned.
The level relative to the land governs the amount of hydraulic head available for
the drainage flow. It also determines whether the area can be drained by gravity or
requires pumping.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
The general drainage problems in open drains are;
i. Erosion of beds and banks.
ii. Settlements along the channels.
iii. Silting along the channels.
iv. Vegetation growth.
v. Seepage.
The buried drains have maintenance problems like
(a) Physical blockage.
(b) Blockages due to weed growth or organic growth.
(c) Blockages due to chemical substances.

36
The work plan for maintaining drains include;
i. Monitoring
ii. Cleaning of various sections and banks
iii. Physical removal of roots and obstructions
iv. Repairs of damage sections

11. Methods of conserving water on the farm

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. The reservoirs created by
dams not only suppress floods but provide water for various needs to include irrigation,
human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture and navigability. Hydropower is often used
in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or
for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally
serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or
levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land
regions.

Common purposes
Function Example

Hydroelectric power is a major source of electricity in the world. Many

countries that have rivers with adequate water flow, that can be dammed for
Power
power generation purposes. For example, the Itaipu Dam on the Paraná River in
generation
South America generates 14 GW and supplied 93% of the energy consumed by
Paraguay and 20% of that consumed by Brazil as of 2005.

Many urban areas of the world are supplied with water abstracted from rivers
Water supply
pent up behind low dams or weirs.

Stabilize water Dams are often used to control and stabilize water flow, often for agricultural
flow / purposes and irrigation. Others can help to stabilize or restore the water levels
irrigation of inland lakes and seas, in this case the Aral Sea.

Flood Dams such as the Blackwater Dam of Webster, New Hampshire and the Delta
prevention Works are created with flood control in mind.

Land Dams (often called dykes or levees in this context) are used to prevent ingress of
reclamation water to an area that would otherwise be submerged, allowing its reclamation
for human use.

Water A typically small dam used to divert water for irrigation, power generation, or
diversion other uses, with usually no other function. Occasionally, they are used to divert

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 water to another drainage or reservoir to increase flow there and improve water
use in that particular area.

Dams create deep reservoirs and can also vary the flow of water downstream.
This can in return affect upstream and downstream navigation by altering the
Navigation river's depth. Deeper water increases or creates freedom of movement for
water vessels. Large dams can serve this purpose but most often weirs and
locks are used.

vb
Recreation and
aquatic beauty

Large dams, distinct from smaller ones, enable larger storage of water at suitable places, thus
saving on multiplicity of efforts which would be needed to construct several smaller ones.
Larger water storages are necessary in response to the needs of growing urban and industrial
centres, generation of hydropower or for agricultural support.

Classification of Dams
Dams can be classified in number of ways. But most usual ways of classification i.e. types
of dams are mentioned below:

Based on the functions of dams, it can be classified as follows:

1. Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there is a large
flow in the river. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for later use in dry summers.
Storage dams may also provide a water supply, or improved habitat for fish and wildlife.
They may store water for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation or for a flood control
project. Storage dams are the most common type of dams and in general a dam means a
storage dam unless qualified otherwise.
2. Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the river
into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). They provide sufficient pressure for pushing water
into ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems. Such shorter dams are used for irrigation,
and for diversion from a stream to a distant storage reservoir. It is usually of low height and
has a small storage reservoir on its upstream. The diversion dam is a sort of storage weir
which also diverts water and has a small storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs and diversion
dams are used synonymously.
3. Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam retards the
flow in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water. Thus the
effect of sudden floods is reduced to some extent. The water retained in the reservoir is later
released gradually at a controlled rate according to the carrying capacity of the channel

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 downstream of the detention dam. Thus the area downstream of the dam is protected against
flood.
4. Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and drift wood
flowing in the river with water. The water after passing over a debris dam is relatively clear.
5. Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to exclude water so that
the construction can be done dry. A coffer dam is thus a temporary dam constructed for
facilitating construction. These structure are usually constructed on the upstream of the main
dam to divert water into a diversion tunnel (or channel) during the construction of the dam.
When the flow in the river during construction of hydraulic structures is not much, the site is
usually enclosed by the coffer dam and pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer dam on the
downstream of the dam is also required.

Based on structure and design, dams can be classified as follows:

1. Gravity Dams: A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from concrete or stone
masonry. They are designed to hold back large volumes of water. By using concrete, the
weight of the dam is actually able to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing against it.
This is why it is called a gravity dam. Gravity essentially holds the dam down to the ground,
stopping water from toppling it over. Gravity dams are well suited for blocking rivers in
wide valleys or narrow gorge ways. Since gravity dams must rely on their own weight to
hold back water, it is necessary that they are built on a solid foundation of bedrock.
2. Earth Dams: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting successive
layers of earth, using the most impervious materials to form a core and placing more
permeable substances on the upstream and downstream sides. A facing of crushed stone
prevents erosion by wind or rain, and an ample spillway, usually of concrete, protects
against catastrophic washout should the water overtop the dam. Earth dam resists the forces
exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of the soil. Although the weight of this structure
also helps in resisting the forces, the structural behavior of an earth dam is entirely different
from that of a gravity dam. The earth dams are usually built in wide valleys having flat
slopes at flanks (abutments).The foundation requirements are less stringent than those of
gravity dams, and hence they can be built at the sites where the foundations are less strong.
They can be built on all types of foundations. However, the height of the dam will depend
upon the strength of the foundation material.
3. Rockfill Dams: A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An
impervious membrane is placed on the rockfill on the upstream side to reduce the seepage
through the dam. The membrane is usually made of cement concrete or asphaltic concrete.
4. Arch Dams: An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side. It
transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by arch action.
An arch dam is quite suitable for narrow canyons with strong flanks which are capable of
resisting the thrust produced by the arch action. The section of an arch dam is approximately

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 triangular like a gravity dam but the section is comparatively thinner. The arch dam may
have a single curvature or double curvature in the vertical plane. Generally, the arch dams of
double curvature are more economical and are used in practice.
5. Buttress Dams: Buttress dams are of three types : (i) Deck type, (ii) Multiple-arch type, and
(iii) Massive-head type. A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by
buttresses. Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from
the deck slab to the foundation. Buttresses are compression members. Buttresses are
typically spaced across the dam site every 6 to 30 metre, depending upon the size and design
of the dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called hollow dams because the buttresses do not
form a solid wall stretching across a river valley. The deck is usually a reinforced concrete
slab supported between the buttresses, which are usually equally spaced. In a multiple-arch
type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced
by horizontal arches supported by buttresses. The arches are usually of small span and made
of concrete. In a massive-head type buttress dam, there is no deck slab. Instead of the deck,
the upstream edges of the buttresses are flared to form massive heads which span the
distance between the buttresses. The buttress dams require less concrete than gravity dams.
But they are not necessarily cheaper than the gravity dams because of extra cost of form
work, reinforcement and more skilled labor. The foundation requirements of a buttress are
usually less stringent than those in a gravity dam.
6. Steel Dams: Dams: A steel dam consists of a steel framework, with a steel skin plate on its
upstream face. Steel dams are generally of two types: (i) Direct-strutted, and (ii) Cantilever
type . In direct strutted steel dams, the water pressure is transmitted directly to the
foundation through inclined struts. In a cantilever type steel dam, there is a bent supporting
the upper part of the deck, which is formed into a cantilever truss. This arrangement
introduces a tensile force in the deck girder which can be taken care of by anchoring it into
the foundation at the upstream toe. Hovey suggested that tension at the upstream toe may be
reduced by flattening the slopes of the lower struts in the bent. However, it would require
heavier sections for struts. Another alternative to reduce tension is to frame together the
entire bent rigidly so that the moment due to the weight of the water on the lower part of the
deck is utilised to offset the moment induced in the cantilever. This arrangement would,
however, require bracing and this will increase the cost. These are quite costly and are
subjected to corrosion. These dams are almost obsolete. Steel dams are sometimes used as
temporary coffer dams during the construction of the permanent one. Steel coffer dams are
supplemented with timber or earthfill on the inner side to make them water tight. The area
between the coffer dams is dewatered so that the construction may be done in dry for the
permanent dam.
7. Timber Dams: Main load-carrying structural elements of timber dam are made of wood,
primarily coniferous varieties such as pine and fir. Timber dams are made for small heads
(2-4 m or, rarely, 4-8 m) and usually have sluices; according to the design of the apron they
are divided into pile, crib, pile-crib, and buttressed dams.

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 The openings of timber dams are restricted by abutments; where the sluice is very long it is
divided into several openings by intermediate supports: piers, buttresses, and posts. The
openings are covered by wooden shields, usually several in a row one above the other.
Simple hoists— permanent or mobile winches—are used to raise and lower the shields.
8. Rubber Dams: A symbol of sophistication and simple and efficient design, this most recent
type of dam uses huge cylindrical shells made of special synthetic rubber and inflated by
either compressed air or pressurized water. Rubber dams offer ease of construction,
operation and decommissioning in tight schedules. These can be deflated when pressure is
released and hence, even the crest level can be controlled to some extent. Surplus waters
would simply overflow the inflate shell. They need extreme care in design and erection and
are limited to small projects.

Small Earth Dams

Simple earth dams can be built where there is an impervious foundation, such as un-fissured
rock, or clay subsoil. The channel upstream should preferably have a gentle slope, to give a
large reservoir for a given height of dam. An ideal dam site is where the valley narrows, to
reduce the width of the dam.

Section through a small earth dam

Some of the importance of water on the farm

For Irrigation For aesthetic purpose etc.

For drinking For hydroelectric power generation

For food processing linguistic

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