R 3 Thé @SI Model Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnec- tion (OSI) model. An open system is a model that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. Vendor-specific protocols close off communication between unrelated systems. The purpose of the OSI model is to open communication between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable. ISO is the organization. OSI is the model. 3.1 THE MODEL The Open Systems Interconnection model is a layered work systems that allows for communication across all consists of seven separate but related layers, each of whit cess of moving information across a network (see Fig mentals of the OSI model provides a solid basis for Layered Architecture The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers: ph network (layer 3), transport (layer 4), session (I application (layer 7). Figure 3.2 shows the layers in device A to device B. As the message travels fro intermediate nodes. These intermediate nodes of the OSI model. In developing the model, mitting data down to its most fundamentacreated OSI mo mn Pet Al Presentation ‘Transport functions had related usés and ¢9 lec became the layers. Each lay other layers. By defining anSECTION 3.2. FUNCTIONS OF THE LAYERS 47 3.2, FUNCTIONS OF THE LAYERS In this section we briefly de Tibe the functions of each layer in the OST model, Physical Layer medium) also defines the procedures and functions that physi- cal devices and interface: have ‘aces have to perform for transmission to occur. Fi the position of the physical | nae layer with respect to the i fe P transmission medium and the data : : ~ Lad Figure 3.4 Physical layer | From data link layer | 12 data ‘To data link layer Representation of bits. The physical layer data quence of Os and 1s) without any interpretation, encoded into signals—electrical or optical-The pi encoding (how Qs and 1s are changed to si Data rate. The transmission rate—the m defined by the physical layer. In other wo tion of a bit, which is how long it lasts. Synchronization of bits. The sender level. In other words, the sender and © Line configuration. The physica to the medium. In a point-to- together through a dedicated lit between Several devices.HAPTER 3° THE OSI MODEL Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are ggg make a network. Devices can be connected using & mesh topology (ey . connected to every other device), a star topology (devices are connecter d central device), a ring fopology (every device is connected 10 the next g ring), of a bus fopology (every device on a common link) a = Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of ty between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In the Simple only one device can send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send ang . but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two send and receive at the same time ‘evi Data Link Layer The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility jp, able link and is responsible for node-to-node delivery. It makes the phy appear error free to the upper layer (network layer). Figure 3.5 shows the of the data link layer to the network and physical layers. 1010100000010 To physical layer Specific responsibilities of the data Framing. The data link layer di layer into manageable data units. Physical addressing. If frames network, the data link layer a address of the sender (sous the frame. If the fr ii“srw control. Ifthe rate dt which the d the rate produced in the nism to lata are sender, the data link | Prevent overwhelming the rece = Error control. The d mechanisms to detect nism to prevent duplic trailer added to the ‘absorbed by the receiver is less than layer imposes a flow control mecha- iver. fata link layer adds reli ability to the physical j and retransmit d layer by adding imaged or lost frames. It also uses a mecha, {ion of frames. Error control is normally achieved through a end of the frame. @ Access control. Whe en (Wo or more devices are necess are connected to the same link, data link at any given time. link layer protocols ‘ary to determine which device has control over the Example 3.1 In Figure 3.6 a node With physical The two nodes are address 10 sends a frame connected by a link. At the addresses in the header. These are the only other information needed at this level. The detection, to a node with physical address 87. data link level this frame contains physical (link) addresses needed. The rest of the header contains trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error Figure 3.6 Data link layer (Example 3.1) Trailer vetwork Layer The network layer is responsible for the Possibly across multiple networks (links). delivery of the packet between two systems ¢ layer ensures that each packet gets from its pe If two systems are connected to the : work layer. However, if the two systems: connecting devices between the netwo layer to accomplish source-to-destinatio the network layer to the data link and tFigure 3.7) Network layer From transport layer \ en fenenn Network | layer } | 1 ' ' ' t ' ' 1 1 13 data To data link layer i 7 1 1 Specific responsibilities of the network layer include the following: = Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the o we need another addressing system to help distinguish the source systems. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of receiver. m= Routing. When independent networks or links are connected tog internetwork (a network of networks) or a large network, the co (called routers or gateways) route the packets to their final d functions of the network layer is to provide this mechanism. Example 3.2 Now imagine that in Figure 3.8 we want to send data from a node with n Physical address 10, located on one local area network, to a node with a ne physical address 95, located on another local area network. Because the two on different networks, we cannot use physical addresses hly; the physical local jurisdiction, What we need here are universal addresses that ‘can pass aries of local area networks. The network (logical) addresses have this at the network layer contains the logical addresses, which remai source to the final destination (A and P, respectively, in the figure). They go from network to network. However, the physical addresses will change moves from one network fo another.,The box with the R is a router (inte we will discuss in Chapter 21, / Transport Layert does not recognize any relationship between # one independently, as though each’piece belonged to a not it does. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensu arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control to-destination level. Figure 3.9 shows the relationship 0 work and session layers, For added security, the transportdayer may create a end ports. A connection is a single logical path between th is associated with all packets in a message. Creating connection establishment, data transfer, and connectit sion of all packets to a single pathway, the tra sequencing, flow, and error detection and correctior Specific responsibilities of the transport layer i ® Service-point addressing. Computers often r time. For this reason, source-to-destinati one computer to the next but also from a s] computer to a specific process (running pro; header therefore must include a type of pert address). The network layer getcniarinns port faye? crue 29 DUN? Figure From network layer mbly. A message is divided into ae = YG sequence number. These numbers ach segment containing a s ee ‘d Jayer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the identify and replace packets that were lost in the transmission, — ® Connection control. The transport layer can be either connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the t P' y' n | at the destination machine first before delivering the-packets, A\ transferred, the connection is terminated, R ae nit Like the data link layer, the transport layer is control. However, flow control at this layer j, S layer is performed en across a single link, pee Control. However, erro across a single link, Th arrives at the teceivin tion), Error Correction jg Example 3.3 Figure 3.10 sho . 8 ‘4 Service-point (po, ue @ tran, ; the address an a 858 j and j ae layer, Dagan Teceiving an’: Jis the eo cal A sana aMe the data gens SPPlicaion), Sinn e1HtESS of Xample of ie:Session Layer The serv ices Bo ided io the first three layers (physical, data link, and — systems. Specific responsibilities of the session layer include @ Dialog control. The session layer allows two allows the communication between two processe duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two wi dialog between a terminal connected to a mainfi m Synchronization. The session layer allows a pro nization points) into a stream of data. For exa 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoin that each 100-page unit is received and acknowle if a crash happens during the transmission of page 501: pages | to 500 need not be retrans tionship of the session layer to the transpoiFigure 3.11 Session layer si To transport layer From transport layep Presentation Layer The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the exchanged between two systems. Figure 3.12 shows the relationship sentation layer and the application and session layers. Figure 3.12 Presentation layer From application layer L7 data ' 1 I i ' | } j t Presentation 1 Encoded, encrypted, and compressed dataSECTION 3.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE LAYERS 58 re being transmitted, Because ng, systems n layer is, different encoding methods. The om its sender-dependent the rece’ nal information to network. Decryption be transmitted. in the transmission of multime- < bles the user, whether human or software, to access the net- faces and support for services such as electronic mail, ster, shared database management, and other types of distrib. onship of the application layer to the user and the n layer. Of the many application services available, the figure shows three: X.400 (message-handling services); X.500 (directory services); and file transfer, access, and management (FTAM). The user in this example uses X.400 message. Note that no headers or trailers are added at this layer. Specific services provided by ™ Network virtual terminal, A 1be (to make changes or pel ‘age Or Control filey int provides the basis fop n provides distributeq t various objects and Summary of Layer Functions seven layers are summarized in Figure 3, of layer functions | To provide reliable end-to- | end message 3.3. TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE The TCP/IP protocol suite, used in the Internet, was develo Therefore, the layers in the Transmission Control Protocol/ col (TCP/IP) protocol suite do not match exactly with those. TCP/IP protocol s made of five layers: physical, data link, n application. The first four layers provide physical standards, net networking, and transport functions that correspond to the fi model. The three topmost layers in the OSI model, however, ar by a single layer called the application layer (see Figure 3. TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of ii provides a specific functionality, but they are not necs he, specifies which functions belong to eaKM AN on the needs of the system. The term ported by one or more lower-k nsport layer, TCP/IP defines two protocols: 3.4 KEY TERMS AND CONCEP layer err data link layer dest