Advanced Mathematics for High School

Teaching Portfolio
Sara Hanrahan
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
Eastern Connecticut State University
Willimantic, CT 06226, USA
May 4, 2009

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Contents
NCATE/NCTM Indicators 3

Introduction 3

1 Number Systems 8
1.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 High School Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Algebraic Structures 14
2.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Solution I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Solution II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 High School Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 Shape and Measurement 20

3.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 Solution I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Solution II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4 Solution III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5 High School Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.6 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.7 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4 Function 26
4.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3 High School Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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 4.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5 Discrete Mathematics 33
5.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3 High School Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6 Data Analysis and Uncertainty 38

6.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.2 Solution I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.3 Solution II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4 Solution III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.5 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.6 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

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NCATE/NCTM Indicators
The entries include the following indicators:

Entry 1: 1.3, 1.4, 2.3, 2.4, 4.1, 4.3, 5.3, 6.1, 9.1, 9.5, 9.7, 9.8, 9.10, 10.5,
11.3, 11.4, 11.5

Entry 2: 1.11.4, 4.1, 4.3, 5.1, 5.3, 6.1, 9.1, 9.5, 9.9, 9.10, 10.2, 10.3, 10.5,
10.6, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 15.1, 15.2

Entry 3: 1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 5.1, 6.1, 9.5, 10.5, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3,
11.4, 11.5, 11.6, 11.7, 11.8, 15.1, 15.2, 15.4

Entry 4: 1.2, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.10, 10.1, 10.4, 10.5, 11.4,
11.7, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 15.1, 15.2, 15.4

Entry 5: 1.2, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.10, 10.1, 10.5, 10.6, 13.1, 13.2,
13.3, 13.4, 15.4

Entry 6: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.4, 9.6, 10.4,
10.5, 11.7, 14.1, 14.2, 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, 14.6, 14.7, 14.8, 15.1, 15.3

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Indicator List.

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Introduction
This portfolio is a collection of entries that demonstrate my proficiency
in mathematics. These six entries represent the topics of number systems,
algebraic structures, shape and measurement, function, discrete mathemat-
ics and data analysis and uncertainty. Through these six entries, you will
see problems, various solution strategies, connections to how these problems
relate to high school mathematics topics, and brief synopses of the histories
behind several key mathematical ideas and subjects. Underlying this portfo-
lio is the necessity of presenting and communicating mathematics in a clear,
concise, logical manner.
The following are brief introductions to the six problems I selected for
this portfolio.
Entry 1: Number systems. For this entry, I selected a problem that in-
quires whether the given points are vertices of an equilateral triangle. One
of the reasons I chose this problem is that the points are complex coordi-
nates, and thus the solution requires some knowledge of complex numbers.
Further, this problem has strong ties to geometry. It can be related to a
triangle formed in the Cartesian Coordinate plane, with real valued points.
This connection allows for the comparison of the real number system to com-
plex numbers, in order to determine the similarities and differences, and to
compare the solution processes.
Entry 2: Algebraic structures. For this second entry, I chose a problem
that asks the solver to determine if three given points form the vertices of
a right triangle. What is interesting about this problem is that the triangle
lies in the three-dimensional plane. Thus, it was possible and helpful to
use vectors to solve this problem. However, it is convenient to relate this
problem to a triangle in the two dimensional plane, and answer the same
question. By doing this, I was able to compare the process for determining
perpendicularity using vectors in three dimensions with the process using
line segments in two dimensions. This problem, like the problem in Entry 1,
also has strong ties to geometry.
Entry 3: Shape and measurement. The problem for entry three deals
with finding two reflections that will translate the point (0,0) onto the point
(5,0). The reason that I found this problem interesting is that there are so
many solutions and possibilities, it is impossible to explore them all. So,
this problem provides an excellent opportunity to explore possibilities, and
to create and test conjectures. Several hypotheses are explored in this entry.

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 Entry 4: Function. The problem I selected to represent function asks
the solver to determine the volume of a solid rotated around the y-axis. I
chose this problem for its strong ties to calculus, but also for the reason
that its solution cannot be interpreted without some knowledge of geometry.
We must understand the shape that we are finding the volume of to give
this problem any meaning. Another attraction of this problem is that it
incorporates many formulas and processes that are familiar to older high
school students, but combines them in a new way to find more complicated
information. It is an excellent example of the type of problem that has real
world applications.
Entry 5: Discrete mathematics. This problem involves finding a recursive
formula to determine the amount of money that will be in a bank account,
following certain specified criteria. I chose this problem because it is a good
illustration of determining an algorithm to solve a problem. In discrete math,
much of the modern focus is on finding algorithms and testing solutions
through computer programs. This problem would fit into that pattern quite
nicely. Also, this problem has real world applications, as it deals with interest
and bank accounts. Another high point of this problem is that it is accessible
to high school students. In fact, one popular math topic for high school
students is to study the compound interest formula, sometimes to derive it,
and to practice its applications.
Entry 6: Data analysis and uncertainty. The problem for this entry deals
with determining if there exist linear or exponential functions that fit the
given data set well. One reason I chose this problem is for its accessibil-
ity and real world application. Another reason is to contrast the solution
determined by algebraic manipulation and graph analysis with the solution
determined by actual statistical tests. This problem has several different op-
tions of solution, and is a great example of the need to analyze solutions and
determine their accuracy.

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1 Number Systems
1.1 Problem
Saff, Snider (2003) p. 12 no. 5. √ √
Show that the points 1, − 12 + i 23 and − 21 − i 23 are the vertices of an
equilateral triangle.

1.2 Solution
First, let us plot these points on the complex plane so we may visualize
our triangle. The definition of a complex number is z = x + yi, where x is
the real part and y is the imaginary part. Complex numbers can thus be
thought of as points in the complex plane. Thus, plotting complex numbers
is very similar to plotting points on the Cartesian coordinate plane. To plot a
complex number the real part, x, is like the x-coordinate of a coordinate pair,
√
and the complex √part, yi, is like the y-coordinate. Let z1 = 1, z2 = − 21 + i 23 ,
and z3 = − 21 − i 23 . The resulting graph follows:

Figure 1.
p
The modulus of a complex number is given by |z| = x2 + y 2 . This
corresponds to the absolute value of a real number, which is defined as its

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distance from 0. Thus, the modulus of a complex number corresponds to its
distance from the origin in the complex plane.
To find if the given points are the vertices of an equilateral triangle, we
must find and compare the distances between each pair of points. We do this
by finding the modulus of za − zb for each pair of points where za = x1 + y1 i
and zb = x2 + y2 i. Here, we see that |za − zb | relates to the distance formula,
since |za − zb | = |x1 + y1 i − (x2 + y2 i)| = |(xp
1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 )i|. Using the
definition of modulus, we come to |za −zb | = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 , which
is the very definition of the distance formula when dealing with Cartesian
coordinate pairs.
Using this definition, we can now find the distance between each pair of
complex points.
√ q √ q q
3 3 2
|z1 − z2 | = |(1 + 21 ) + (0 − 2
)i| = ( 32 )2 + (− 2
) = 9
4
+ 3
4
= 12
4
√
= 3
√ √ √ 2 √
q
|z2 − z3 | =|(− 12+ + ( 23 + 23 )i = 02 + 3 = 3
1
2
)
√ q √ q q
|z3 −z1 | = |(− 2 −1)+ (− 2 −0)i| = (− 32 )2 + (− 23 )2 =
1 3 9
4
+ 3
4
= 12
4
√
= 3 √
The distance between each pair of points is 3, so we conclude that the
triangle is equilateral.

1.3 High School Connections

We see how Complex numbers relate very closely to coordinate pairs,
which are addressed in high school mathematics. This problem can easily
be extended to a problem which a high school student could understand and
solve. For example, we can transform each complex point into a point with √
1 3
two real coordinates.
√
Our resulting points are P 1 = (1, 0), P2 = (− ,
2 2
),
1 3
and P3 = (− 2 , 2 ). Students can then graph these points as follows:

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 Figure 2.

As we mentioned, we found the distance between two complex points

za , zb by finding |za − zb |. We mentioned that this resembles using the dis-
tance formula when dealingpwith Cartesian coordinate pairs. In high school,
the distance formula d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 is used to find the dis-
tance between a pair of points. Thus, when we expand this problem to the
Cartesian coordinate
q pair, we can now use this q familiar formula as
qfollows:
√ √
3 3 2
d(P1 , P2 ) = (− 12 − 1)2 + ( 2
− 0)2 = (− 32 )2 + ( 2
) = 9
4
+ 3
4
=
q
12
√
4
= 3
q √ √ q √ √
d(P2 , P3 ) = (− 12 + 12 )2 + (− 23 − 23 )2 = 02 + (− 3)2 = 3
q √ q √ q q
d(P3 , P1 ) = (1 + 2 ) + (0 + 2 ) = ( 32 )2 + ( 23 )2 = 94 + 34 = 12
1 2 3 2
4
√
= 3 √
Again, we see that the distance between each pair of points is equal to 3,
and we can conclude that these three points are the vertices of an equilateral
triangle.

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1.4 Comments
As a summary of what we discussed when solving this problem, we see
that complex numbers relate to points in the Cartesian coordinate plane. A
complex number has two parts: the real part and the imaginary part. The
real part corresponds to the x-coordinate of a point, and the imaginary part
corresponds to the y-coordinate of a point. Thus, when we plot a complex
number, it looks the same as if we plot the corresponding Cartesian coor-
dinate pair. Likewise, the distance between two complex numbers can be
found similar to how we find the distance between two points. More pre-
cisely, |za − zb | is analogous to using the distance formula do find d(Pa , Pb ).
This connection between complex numbers and real numbers can be fur-
ther extended to the concept of absolute value. For instance, the absolute
value of a real number is sometimes defined as its distance from 0, leading to
the result that the absolute
√ value √operation always outputs a positive num-
ber. Let us consider 5 3 and −5 3. To find the distance of each of these
numbers to 0, we use the concept of absolute value. Using the definition of
absolute value,
√
|x| = x2 .
√ √ √
we see that |5 3| = | − 5 3| = 5 3. This illustrates that the absolute value
of a number is always the same as the absolute value of its opposite.
Now, let us examine the absolute value of complex numbers, referred to
as the modulus. The modulus of a complex number, as we mentioned, is its
distance from the origin in the complex plane. Like the absolute value of a
real number, this operation√ on complex√numbers will output a positive real
number. Consider 5 + 3i and −5 − 3i We want to find the modulus of
each of these complex numbers. Using the definition of modulus,
p
|z| = x2 + y 2
√ √ √
we see that |5 + 3i| = | − 5 − 3i| = 2 7. Like real numbers, taking the
modulus of a complex number and the modulus of its opposite will always
result in the same positive value.
One interesting observation arises on contrasting these two operation.
When taking the absolute value of a real number, we see that the number
value does not change, only the sign. However, when we take the modulus
of a complex number, it does not always result in the same number value.
However, consider when the real part of a complex number is equal to 0.

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This will result in taking the square root of the square of the imaginary part.
This
√ operation√will preserve
√ the y value of the complex number. For example,
|5 3i| = | − 5 3i| = 5 3.
Notice that, earlier in this entry, we simplified the original problem to
make it accessible to high school students. This is an example of how this
problem connects with the idea of shape and measurement. Though the ver-
tices of the original problem are complex numbers, the root of the problem
is to discern whether the triangle formed is equilateral or not. Because of
the close ties between complex numbers and real numbers, this problem vi-
sualizes very nicely when compared to coordinates in the Cartesian Plane.
We also notice that, whether we work with complex numbers or real num-
bers, the methods of solving the problem are very similar, and involve the
same concepts. For example, the process we use to find the distance (or
modulus) between two complex numbers correlates to the process we use to
find the distance between two Cartesian points. The examples given in this
entry show how geometry can be used to solve this problem that involves
imaginary numbers.

1.5 History
Imaginary numbers were discovered and used long before they were un-
derstood. Mathematicians such as Cardano, Descartes, Bombelli, DeMoivre
and Euler all encountered and computed with imaginary numbers. Cardano
discovered imaginary numbers as solutions to problems, but could not con-
vince himself to accept them as meaningful answers. He saw that, for some
problems, he would have to consider the square root of a negative number as
a solution, but he did not acknowledge it as a meaningful answer. Descartes
suggested that an imaginary answer implies that there is no solution to the
problem. Euler, likewise, used imaginary numbers to find solutions, and as
solutions. However, he still was not able to conceptualize the true mean-
ing of an imaginary number. At first, the imaginary
√ unit was rejected as
something false or impossible. But then, as −1 kept reappearing, mathe-
maticians started to experiment with this number, and discover in what √
ways
they could use it. Mathematicians asserted that computations involving −1
indicated that the solution to a problem was impossible or imaginary, and
thus denoted it i, the imaginary number. Later mathematicians saw that
i could be used to solve cubic equations, and began to accept that, even
though they did not understand it, they would have to use it. Finally, i

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was used to find real solutions to problems, and eventually mathematicians
learned how to graph numbers involving i. It can be seen that the concept
of imaginary numbers and complex numbers took many years to evolve and
become accepted. Thus, the confusion that many high school students have
when they encounter imaginary numbers is natural and understandable. By
knowing the history of this hard to grasp concept, it becomes easier to con-
vince students that, even though they may not fully understand imaginary
numbers, they can still learn how to use them to find answers to problems.

1.6 References
Berlinghoff, W. P. and Gouvea, F. Q. (2002). Math through the ages:
a gentle history for teachers and others. Farmington, Maine: Oxton House
Publishers, LLC.

Saff, E. B. and Snider, A. D. (2003). Fundamentals of complex analy-

sis with applications to engineering and science. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Pearson Education.

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2 Algebraic Structures
2.1 Problem
Adapted from a Quiz in MAT 340: Calculus III.
Determine if the following points are vertices of a right triangle:

P (1, −3, −2), Q(2, 0, −4) and R(6, −2, −5).

2.2 Solution I
One way to solve this problem is to use vectors. First, consider the vectors
from the origin to each point. Use these vectors to find vectors between each
point. Once we have the three vectors between pairs of points, we can then
use the dot product to see if any two vectors are orthogonal. If the dot
product of two vectors is equal to 0, then the vectors are orthogonal, or
perpendicular.
→
P Q= q − p =< 2, 0, −4 > − < 1, −3, −2 >=< 1, 3, −2 > .
→
P R= r − p =< 6, −2, −5 > − < 1, −3, −2 >=< 5, 1, −3 > .
→
QR= r − q =< 6, −2, −5 > − < 2, 0, −4 >=< 4, −2, −1 > .
Now that we have these three vectors, we can apply the dot product.
When you take the dot product of two vectors, you multiply corresponding
components and add the products. So, < a, b, c > · < d, e, f >= ad + be + cf.
We see in our example that
→ →
P Q · QR=< 1, 3, −2 > · < 4, −2, −1 >= 4 + (−6) + 2 = 0

so these vectors are orthogonal. Therefore, these three points are vertices of
a right triangle.

2.3 Solution II
An alternative way to solve this problem is to determine the magnitude of
the vectors between each pair of points. Then, we can use the Pythagorean
Theorem top determine if the triangle is a right triangle.
√ √
|P Q| = p(2 − 1)2 + (0 + 3)2 + (−4 + 2)2 = 1 + 9 + 4 = 14. √
√
|QR| = p(6 − 2)2 + (−2 − 0)2 + (−5 + 4)2 = 16 + 4 + 1 = √ 21.
√
|P R| = (6 − 1)2 + (−2 + 3)2 + (−5 + 2)2 + 25 + 1 + 9 = 35.

14
 We see now that these three magnitudes satisfy the Pythagorean Theo-
√ 2 √ 2 √ 2
rem, since 14 + 21 = 14 + 21 = 35 = 35 . Therefore, we can conclude
that these three points are indeed the vertices of a right triangle.

2.4 High School Connections

Right triangles are heavily studied in high school mathematics class.
However, students in high school have not usually developed the level of
abstraction to be able to clearly visualize, understand and manipulate three-
dimensional objects. However, this problem can easily be generalized to
two-dimensional triangles. If a student has three vertices in the Cartesian
coordinate plane, he can check to see if it is a right triangle. For example,
let us use the points

A(−2, 1), B(1, 4) and C(2, 3).

Figure 3.

The first way to solve this problem relates to using the dot-product. High
school students may find the slope of a line passing through a pair of points.

15
Then, they can check to see if any two slopes are opposite reciprocals, which
would indicate that they are perpendicular. As in our first solution, the
students may then conclude that these three points form the vertices of a
right triangle. Let us find the slopes of lines passing through each pair of
points.
4−1 3
The slope of the line passing through A and B: 1+2
= 3
= 1.
3−4 −1
The slope of the line passing through B and C: 2−1
= 1
= −1.
3−1
The slope of the line passing through A and C: 2−(−2)
= 4 = 12 .
2

We see that the slopes of the first two lines are opposite reciprocals,
indicating that these lines are perpendicular. Thus, the sides of the triangle
formed by AB and BC meet at a right angle. Now we can conclude that
these three points are the vertices of a right triangle.
The second way students can solve this problem relates to the use of mag-
nitude and the Pythagorean Theorem in Solution II of the original problem.
High school students may use the distance formula to find the lengths of the
sides of the triangle, combined with the Pythagorean Theorem to check if
they form the sides of a right triangle. Let us find the distance between each
pair of points.p √ √ √
d(A, B) = p(1 + 2)2 + (4 − 1)2 = 9 + 9 = √18 = 3 2.
√
d(B, C) = p (2 − 1)2 + (3 − 4)2 = 1 + 1 = √2. √
√
d(A, C) = (2 + 2)√ 2 + (3 − 1)2 = 16 + 4 = 20 = 2 √5.
√
We now see that (3 2)2 + ( 2)2 = 9 · 2 + 2 = 20 and (2 5)2 = 4 · 5 = 20.
This satisfies the Pythagorean Theorem, so we conclude that these points
are the vertices of a right triangle.
Students may also find it convenient to use a Geometry program such as
GeoGebra, which was used to construct the triangle, to measure the angles
and see if any is a right angle. We see from the following depiction that the
angle B is a right angle, thus triangle ABC is a right triangle.

16
 Figure 4.

2.5 Comments
The original problem in this entry involved vectors, but it was easily al-
tered to refer to a triangle formed by line segments. We also explored several
ways of solving this problem. This problem not only fits well as a demon-
stration of understanding algebraic structures (specifically vectors) but also
of understanding shape and measurement. This is because the problem deals
directly with triangles and involves using lengths or magnitude. This is also
an excellent problem to illustrate solving problems using various approaches.
There is no one right way to solve this problem. Questions like this are
interesting because they allow for different modes of thought and learning
preferences to arise, and different questions to explore.
This problem also demonstrates various possibilities for notations. For
example, we denote the original vectors as bold, lowercase letters, but the
direction vectors between two vertices as uppercase letters with an arrow
over them. Also, here we use the < > brackets to denote vector, while other
individuals may use ( ). We also see that the symbol · used for dot product is

17
the same as that commonly used to denote multiplication. Another notation
we use is || to denote magnitude. This notation may be a little ambiguous
sometimes because it is also used to denote absolute value. Another notation
that has many representations is that to indicate distance. Notice, here
we use d(A, B) with A and B being the points we are finding the distance
between. Despite the disparity of the notations used, this problem involves
many notions that are common to mathematicians.
Though the original problem asks to determine if any pair of vectors
is orthogonal, this problem can easily be translated to refer to standard
triangles that high school students are familiar with. Once we are dealing
with a familiar triangle, we can then use the strategies that are familiar
to us to determine if the triangle is right angled. This problem is a great
example of some of the parallels between algebra and geometry. For example,
finding the dot product of two vectors correlates to finding the product of
the slopes of two lines. When dealing with vectors, if the product is 0, then
we conclude that they are orthogonal. Similarly, when dealing with lines, if
the product is -1, then we conclude that they are perpendicular. Though the
indicated products are not equal, the method and processes are comparable
to each other. The second approach to this problem also corresponds to
concepts that are studied in depth in geometry. In other words, finding
the magnitude correlates to finding the distance between two points. These
similarities between algebraic and geometric structures make this problem
very generalizable and interesting to study. It may be looked at from many
perspectives, and the answer can be derived using a variety of methods.

2.6 History
This problem provides a good opportunity to discuss a little about the
history of mathematical notation. When mathematics was first studied, it
did not have its own set of symbols, or language, as it does today. Rather,
mathematicians wrote their questions and computations in sentence form,
using common words in the vernacular language. Eventually, mathematicians
began to abbreviate common math words. Pacioli, for example, used one or
two letter abbreviations separated by periods. Descartes played a prominent
role in making math symbol-based, by his introduction of an equal sign. Math
continued to evolve as a symbol-based language of its own, resulting of course
in discrepancies, overload meanings, and constantly evolving notations. Even
today, math symbols continue to evolve and change, with some taking more

18
precedence while others fade in popularity. Judging by the history of math
notation, I would say it will continue to slowly evolve and change, maybe
indefinitely.
We may also talk about the origins of Algebra. This branch of mathe-
matics has its primitive roots in the culture of the Babylonians. They solved
problems such as quadratic equations. However, these equations were not
expressed in the form we would see them today. Rather, they were written
out in words, as problem descriptions, and solved by explanation rather than
equation manipulation. The ancient Greeks studied algebraic ideas from a
geometric view. Euclid, in particular, had many ideas with algebraic re-
sults. However, the way he expressed these ideas was by using geometric
explanations and depictions. The first ”True Algebra” was performed by
al-Khwarizmi. He took the great leap toward modern algebraic notation and
expressing problems in equation form. Also, in the Islamic culture, Sharaf al-
Din al-Tusi made great contributions to algebra. This mathematician knew
that there were solutions to cubic equations, and attempted, but could nit
find an algorithm to solve these types of equations. However, Cardano was
finally able to uncover this algorithm. Later, algebra further evolved when
Fermat and Descartes explored analytic geometry. This was a great leap
away from the concrete and into the abstract. Finally, we introduce La-
grange. It was he who noticed that equations of powers greater than four
had no easy solution. His suggestion led to the discovery that there is no
algorithm or set process to solve equations of the 5th degree or higher.

2.7 References
Berlinghoff, W. P. and Gouvea, F. Q. (2002). Math through the ages:
a gentle history for teachers and others. Farmington, Maine: Oxton House
Publishers, LLC.

Katz, V. and Barton, B. (2007). Stages in the history of algebra with

implications for teaching. Educational Studies in Mathematics (66.2), 185-
201. EBSCOhost, 30 April 2009:
http://0-web.ebscohost.com.csulib.ctstateu.edu/
ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=17&sid=502c8b42-61ad-4720-
90c8-cc81a35fcf39%40sessionmgr8&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc
3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=26618755#db=aph&AN=26618755

19
3 Shape and Measurement
3.1 Problem
Usiskin, Peressini, Marchisotto & Stanley (2003) p. 320 no. 6.a. Home-
work problem in MAT 372: Advanced Mathematics for High School Teaching.
Find equations for a pair of lines m and n so that rn ◦ rm is the given
transformation:
the translation that maps the origin onto (5, 0).

3.2 Solution I
Let m : x = 0 and n : x = 2.5. Then rn ◦ rm first reflects the origin onto
itself, and then onto (5, 0).

Figure 5.

This is a transformation using two vertical lines, which results in two hor-
izontal translations. There are many transformations of this form. Given the
reflection of the origin over any horizontal line m, you can find a horizontal
line n that will result in reflecting the point onto (5, 0). To do this, you must
find the midpoint of the segment formed by the image of the first translation
and the point (5, 0), and let the vertical line pass through this point.

20
3.3 Solution II
Let m : y = x − 2.5 and n : y = −x + 2.5 Then rn ◦ rm first reflects
the origin onto (2.5, −2.5), and then onto (5, 0). If the composition of these
reflections is reversed, the origin will first be reflected onto (2.5, 2.5) and then
onto (5, 0).

Figure 6.

3.4 Solution III

Let m : y = x − 5 and n : y = −2.5 Then rn ◦ rm first reflects the origin
onto (5, −5), and then onto (5, 0).

21
 Figure 7.

3.5 High School Connections

This exercise deepens the understanding of reflections as well as compo-
sitions. In high school, students often study reflections as though looking
through a mirror. This problem gives the idea of extending this view of re-
flections to study the composition of reflections. For example, looking at the
image of one object after reflecting off of two mirrors. Any young girl will
be familiar with the idea of looking through to mirrors to see her hairdo. By
exploring this problem, teachers can get a greater idea of reflections, in order
to have a more in-depth knowledge of the topic when presenting it to their
students.
One great game I have played with my students, in order to present the
idea of reflections, is the game of WAR. In this game, students formulate the
idea that reflections are perpendicular to the line, and the reflected point is
the same distance from the line as the original point.

22
3.6 Comments
Though only three solutions are given for this problem, there are many
possibilities and many questions that arise. One of the questions presented
by the solutions presented is as follows:

If the origin is reflected over two non vertical lines, do the lines necessarily
have to be perpendicular?

The following example illustrates a case when m and n are non vertical lines
that are not perpendicular.
Let m pass through (5, 0) and (0, 1). Reflect (0, 0) over m, let us call
this reflected point P. Let p be the line that passes through (0, 0) and P.
Then m⊥p. Now, let l be the line that passes through P and (5, 0). Notice
that the three lines intersect to form a right triangle. Now, construct the
line n that reflects P onto (5, 0), which is the perpendicular bisector of the
segment formed by the two points.since p⊥m and l⊥n, then m and n can
only be perpendicular if p and l are perpendicular. However, p and l cannot
be perpendicular, because then our triangle would have two right angles.
Therefore, m and n cannot be perpendicular.

Figure 8.

23
 However, this problem arises from studies of Euclidean geometry. Here,
we are reflecting points in a plane. If we extended this problem to spherical
geometry, we could very well conclude that l⊥p, which would lead us to
conclude that m⊥n. However, because the lines we are working with are on
the two-dimensional plane, we have the restriction that a triangle may not
have more than one right angle.
The following is another question that arises from this problem:
Given an arbitrary line m, does there necessarily exist a line l that,
composed with m, will reflect the origin onto (5, 0)?
This line can always be found. Let P be the image of (0, 0) reflected
over an arbitrary line m. Then, to find l, simply construct the perpendicular
bisector of the line segment formed by P and (5, 0).

3.7 History
Euclidean geometry was not developed by Euclid, as commonly misun-
derstood by students. Rather, his role was to study geometry in depth, and
organize all the vital and relevant information into one source. His book
Elements is a compilation of the studies of Greek mathematicians before
Euclid’s time. He included definitions, axioms, notations and postulates.
Though he did not discover all he wrote about, he made it very accessible
to other mathematicians, which is one reason his name lives on. His studies
focused on two dimensional - or what some might call ”flat” - geometry. It is
the basis of the geometry that is studied in schools today. However, Euclid’s
view of geometry began to be challenged when Saccheri and Legendre set out
to prove his Fifth Postulate, which states that, there is only one line through
a point not on a given line, which is parallel to the original line. They were
never successful in doing so. Later mathematicians were never able to come
up with a solid proof for this postulate. Then, Gauss suggested that there
was an alternative to Euclid’s geometry, in which this fifth postulate did not
hold true. Lobachevsky took this suggestion one step further to define a new
fifth postulate, and so introduced non-Euclidean Geometry. Lobachevsky’s
postulate states that, rather than there being only one parallel line, there
are two parallel lines through a point that is not on the line. Riemann later
introduced the notion of spherical geometry. We see that these geometries
are just as valid and consistent as Euclid’s plane geometry, only that they
are dealing with a different surface.

24
3.8 References
Berlinghoff, W. P. and Gouvea, F. Q. (2002). Math through the ages:
a gentle history for teachers and others. Farmington, Maine: Oxton House
Publishers, LLC.

Marshall, D. & Scott, P. (2004). A brief history of non-Euclidean ge-

ometry. Australian Mathematics Teacher (60.3), 2-4. EBSCOhost, 30 April
2009:

http://0-web.ebscohost.com.csulib.ctstateu.edu/
ehost/detail?vid=5&hid=106&sid=502c8b42-61ad-4720
-90c8-cc81a35fcf39%40sessionmgr8&bdata=JnNpdGU9Z
Whvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=13862763#db=aph&AN
=13862763

Usiskin, A., Peressini, A., Marchisotto, E. A., and Stanley, D. (2003).

Mathematics for high school teachers: an advanced perspective. Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.

25
4 Function
4.1 Problem
Stewart (2003) p. 452 no. 5. Homework problem in MAT 244: Calculus
II.
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by
the given curves about the specified line:
y = x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, y = 4, x = 0, about the y-axis.

4.2 Solution

Figure 9.

The first step to solving this problem is to find the volume of a cross-
sectional slice of the solid. A cross-sectional slice of this solid will be in the
shape of a cylinder. So, we must find the area of the circle that forms the
base of this cylinder, multiplied by the height of the cylinder. The area of
a circle is defined as π · r2 , where r is the radius. In this case, the radius
of a particular cross section will be the x value. Since the equation we are
√
working with is y = x2 , we solve for x to give us the radius of y. Thus,

26
 A = π · r2
√
= π( y)2
= π · y.
Which gives us the volume of the cylinder:
Vcyl = A · ∆y
= πy∆y.
To find the volume of the whole solid, we use what we know about integra-
tion. In other words, we must find the total volumes of all the cylinders of
minuscule size within the solid. Thus, we integrate:
R4
V = 0 πydy
R4
= π 0 ydy
2
= π y2 k40
= π · 16
2
− π · 02
= 8π.

4.3 High School Connections

This is a good problem for teachers, because it puts together many dif-
ferent concepts that high school students should be familiar with. First, the
area of a circle must be found. Geometry students are exposed to this, and
oftentimes expected to memorize the formula. Then, the solver must know
that to find the volume of the cylinder, you must multiply the are of the base
by the height of the cylinder. In this problem, the height is ∆y, but this
can be generalized to find the volume of any cylinder. Then, the solver must
know something about integration. Calculus students learn to use integra-
tion to find the area under a curve. This problem uses the same concept,
except that it is asking to find the area between the curve and the y-axis.
Nonetheless, it simplifies to an easy integration problem. This is an excellent
problem to demonstrate why students have to learn so many different types
of math problems that seem to have no relation. This problem joins together
several different concepts that high school students should be familiar with.

4.4 Comments
This problem is also an excellent example of a math problem that has real
life applications. This process could be used to find the volume of an object

27
with similar shape, perhaps needed to know the capacity of a container for
liquid, or countless other uses.
This problem can be generalized to find the volume of any curve rotated
around the y-axis. The following is the formula to use:
Rd
V = π c x2 dy

where c is the lower bound and d is the upper bound. One simply needs to
take the original function, solve for x, and substitute the function as well as
the bounds into the formula.
Another related problem would be to find the volume of a curve rotated
around the x-axis. The formula for this is generalized as follows:
Rb
V = π a y 2 dx

where a is the lower bound and b is the upper bound. In this case, one only
needs to substitute the function and the bounds into the formula.
One of the great overlaps in this problem is with Geometry. The solution
detailed here is a simple integration problem. However, if we look past the
operation, we notice the connection with shape and measurement. The first
thing to do is to determine the shape of the solid that we are finding the
volume of. In this case, we must combine the notion of a parabola with a
rotation. To be able to interpret the solution to this problem, we must under-
stand the shape that results when we rotate a parabola around the y-axis.
This transforms the shape from a two-dimensional to a three-dimensional
figure. We must then analyze how we are to find the volume of this figure.
Looking at the problem from the calculus point of view, we are dealing with
the idea of infinitesimals. Geometrically, this relates to slicing the solid into
infinitely small portions, and then finding the volume of each small slice.
In the study of geometry, we will easily realize that we know how to ap-
proximate the volume of one of those small slices; it is through the simple
formula for the volume of a cylinder. We now see that we are using the cylin-
der to find the volume of the parabola rotated around the y-axis. Now we
return to the calculus concepts, and perform the integration. However, we
must again relate our answer to its geometric implications to interpret the
resulting information. Without some knowledge of geometry, this problem
would dsintegrate into plugging numbers into a formula, and loses much of
its meaning.

28
4.5 History
Written as response to an exam question in MAT 372: Advanced Math-
ematics For High School Teaching.
One concept we can discuss, related to this problem, is the history of π.
The ratio π has been used for thousands of years. Various approximations of
this number have been calculated, though none are exact since π is irrational.
The oldest record of this ratio occurs on the Rhind Papyrus in 1650 B.C., as
4( 98 )2 . The Egyptian Ahmes found this approximation by relating the circle
to the square, then transforming the square into an octagon, of which he
approximated the area, and performed the equivalent of plugging that into
the formula for area of a circle to solve for π. Archimedes’ calculation of pi
applied the same method, but used a 96-sided polygon. Ptolemy used the
approximation 377 120
and Zu Chongzhi used the approximation 377120
, which is π
62832
to 6 decimal places. Aryabhata calculated π as 20000 . In the 19th century,
William Shanks calculated pi to the first 607 decimal places, though only the
first 527 were correct. He later extended his approximation to the first 707
digits, but had not detected the mistakes in accuracy.
This approximation was written on the walls of the ”π room” in Paris,
until the mistake in calculation was noticed and corrected by Ferguson. The
number on the wall was corrected, and the ”π-room” lived on, undergoing
several changes in decoration. Surprisingly, references to π can even be found
in the Bible, concerning calculations by Solomon when building a circular
structure. However, the ratio in this case was approximated as simply the
whole number 3. The accuracy did not affect the structure too much, since
it was large enough to withstand the error.
DaVinci approximated π by rolling a short cylinder on a piece of paper,
and using the area created by the rectangle to approximate the decimal.
One occurrence of π I find interesting is its occurrence on a tombstone. One
mathematician spent 14 years of his life calculating pi. The last three digits
that he calculated appear on his tombstone. Newton performed calculations
concerning π while he was in the process of discovering and refining calculus.
After the development of calculus, the computations and approximations of
π skyrocketed. Then, after the invention of computers, it has become even
easier to compute millions and even billions of decimal places of π.
Even today, people continue to expand the approximation of pi. There
are contests to memorize many digits of the decimal, as well as world records
of memorization and recitation. People have even created poems honoring

29
π and helping to memorize its digits. Some individuals or groups of people
celebrate Pi-Day on March 14th with pie baking, pi activities, and pi related
poem recitations. Today, computations of the digits of π are used to test
the accuracy of computers. They are also used to help improve technology,
finding ways to make calculations more accurate and quick.
Another reason people are still so enamored with π is that, by calculating
and studying this number, they may discover new things about irrational
numbers. For example, we know that irrational numbers to not repeat a
string of digits. However, there are still questions about whether there are
any patterns or predictable sequences in the digits. There are also still open
questions about the frequency of numbers. For example, does each number
occur equally as many times? Or are there numbers that will appear more of-
ten than others? Mathematicians have found formulas to calculate a specific
digit of pi, without calculating all the preceding digits. Recent research on
π suggests that the decimal is normal, meaning that strings of digits appear
equally frequently.
This entry also allows for the opportunity to discuss the history of cal-
culus. This subject has its ancient roots in Greek mathematics. Archimedes
applied the method of exhaustion to shapes whose area was difficult to calcu-
late. By this method, he was able to come up with an approximation for the
ratio π. Calculus did not make many major advanced between this time and
the 16th century, when Newton and Leibniz lived. These two mathematicians
are responsible for the calculus we study today. They studied separately, but
reached the same discoveries and conclusions. They developed a structure to
the topic, but it was not supported by the necessary foundations to make it
acceptable to mathematicians of the day. Newton’s major contribution was
his three laws of motion, which he used for differentiation. However, New-
ton was not confident in his own work, and would not publish his findings.
Leibniz, on the other hand, developed calculus using the notations that we
are familiar with today. At this time, integration was developed based on
the studies of Archimedes work. This period of time was the greatest leap
toward what we know today as the study of Calculus.

4.6 References

Beckmann, P. (1971). A history of pi. Macmillan. Google Books, 25

April 2009:

30
http://books.google.com/books?id=TB6jzz3ZDTEC&dq=
history+of+pi&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=
3V7kruRj2R&sig=w2yYGfJm6Dw7hgWa00i_3qCrBDY&hl=en&ei=
2nDzSaj4PJmqMsrX4MsP&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=5#PPP1,M1

Berlinghoff, W. P. and Gouvea, F. Q. (2002). Math through the ages:

a gentle history for teachers and others. Farmington, Maine: Oxton House
Publishers, LLC.

Harding, S. & Scott, P. (2005). The history of calculus. Australian Math-

ematics Teacher (61.2), 2-5. EBSCOhost, 30 April 2009:
http://0-web.ebscohost.com.csulib.ctstateu.edu/
ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=116&sid=210f4e16-72ea-
4f52-b594-e2bd1cbf7773%40sessionmgr102&bdata=
JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=17606083#db
=aph&AN=17606083

Humphries, M. & Scott, P. The history of Chinese mathematics. Aus-

tralian Mathematics Teacher (59.3) 2-5. EBSCOhost, 25 April 2009:
{http://0web.ebscohost.com.csulib.ctstateu.edu/ehost/
detail?vid=3&hid=114&sid=5bdd426b-c691-4c63-aaad-
eac3d13dc04e%40sessionmgr102&bdata=
JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=10946746}

Huylebrouck, D. (1996). The π room in Paris. The Mathematical Intelli-

gencer (18.2). EBSCOhost, 25 April 2009:
http://0-web.ebscohost.com.csulib.ctstateu.edu/ehost/
detail?vid=1&hid=116&sid=0742f392-0b45-4327-8cc1-
073a2c737f75%40sessionmgr107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3
QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=9605231084#db=aph&AN=9605231084

Peterson, I. (2001). Pi a la mode. Science News (160.9), 137-137, EB-

SCOhost:

31
http://0-web.ebscohost.com.csulib.ctstateu.edu/ehost/d
etail?vid=1&hid=5&sid=8d9bf8e0-99a9-4f0a-99ed-b13c1fc10a4c
%40sessionmgr9&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=
aph&AN=5100658

Stewart, J. (2003). Calculus: early transcendentals, fifth edition. Bel-

mont, California: Thomson Learning.

Watson, B. (2000). Squaring the circle is no piece of pi. Smithsonian

(31.2), 71-79. EBSCOhost, 25 April 2009:

http://0-web.ebscohost.com.csulib.ctstateu.edu/
ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=116&sid=fd23f3fc-6b79-4bbf-
be3c-9fabec30a3b6%40sessionmgr2&bdata=JnNpdGU9Z
Whvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=3023480

32
5 Discrete Mathematics
5.1 Problem
Kolman, Busby & Ross (2005) p. 193 no. 9. Problem from MAT 230:
Discrete Mathematics.
On the first of each month Mr. Martinez deposits $100 in a savings
account that pays 6% compounded monthly. Assuming that no withdrawals
are made, give a recurrence relation for the total amount of money in the
account at the end of n months.

5.2 Solution
One way to go about finding a recursive relation for this problem is to
calculate the amount Mr. Martinez will have at the end of several successive
months, and then try to determine the pattern to follow, and so generalize
the formula.
At the beginning of the first month, Mr. Martinez deposits $100. The
interest of 6% is compounded monthly, so in the first month, he only gets
1
12
of the interest rate. Thus, we have to multiply the original $100 by .06
12
to find the interest he receives, and then add this to the amount he started
with. So:
A1 = 100 + 100( .06
12
) = $100.50
In the beginning of the second month, Mr. Martinez deposits another
$100, so he starts the month with $200.50 Again, we find the interest on
this amount, and add it to the initial. At the end of the second month, Mr.
Martinez has:
A2 = 200.5 + 200.5( .06
12
) = $201.50.
In the beginning of the third month, Mr. Martinez deposits another $100.
Following the same pattern, we find the amount he has at the end of the third
month:
A3 = 301.5 + 301.5( .06
12
) = $303.01.
By examining this pattern, we see that each month, Mr. Martinez adds
$100 to the amount from the previous month, and multiplies that by the
quantity 1 + .06
12
which leads us to the recursive formula:

33
 A1 = 100(1 + .06
12
)
.06
An = (100 + An−1 )(1 + 12
).

5.3 High School Connections

This problem is similar to the compound interest problems that students
see in high school. Although they are not often introduced to problems whose
principle value changes monthly, they are introduced to problems involving
compounding annually, semi-annually, quarterly, etc. The formula that these
students are mostly exposed to is

A = P (1 + nr )n·t ,

where A is the amount of money at the end of the time period, P is the
principle investment, r is the rate of interest, n is the number of times the
interest is compounded annually and t is the amount of time that passes, in
years.
One good exercise to have high school students perform is to take a simple
compound interest problem, find the amount of money month by month, and
try to derive this formula for themselves. This would eliminate one more
memorization fact as well has provide the students with an opportunity for
a deeper understanding of the formula, rather than a plug-it-in type of use.

5.4 Comments
This problem deals with the concept of recursion. The original question
asks to determine a recursive formula to output the amount of money that
Mr. Martinez has in the bank. Probably the most common setting for a
problem like this is in the world of computers. Recursion relates strongly to
problem solving and computer programming, and is inherent to this tech-
nology. However, we see that this problem also has strong ties to algebra.
One of the main focuses of algebra is to discover algorithms to solve prob-
lems. In a problem such as this, once the solver finds the formula or process
to determine the answer, the problem is essentially solved for any time in-
terval or input value. This ties to the idea that the purpose of algebra is
to find, analyze, and expand the algorithms to solve specific problems, and
even types of problems. However, in algebra, sometimes the discovery is that
there is no algorithm or process that can be followed to solve a certain type

34
of problem. This, in itself, is not a big problem. Rather, it is quite an inter-
esting occurence, and many mathematicians expend much energy trying to
prove that there are no solutions to specific problems. However, in discrete
mathematics, if there is no algorithm to be followed to solve a problem, then
we have lost the whole essence of the problem. In addition, if there is no
algorithm then we cannot employ the use of a computer to solve a problem.
For a computer to aid in problem solving, the algorithm must first be pro-
grammed by an individual who has discovered how to find the solution. Thus
we see the overlap of the concept of recursion with algebra, and also some
of the restrictions that discrete mathematics has because of its reliance on
algorithms. Contrastingly, we see that part of the beauty of algebra is the
question of solvability and the existence of algorithms.

5.5 History
A large part of discrete mathematics is based on the algorithms involved
in finding solutions to problems. This branch of mathematics deals with the
process of solving, and the patterns in finding solutions to certain types of
problems. This process is a way of making order of the problem. One reason
that discrete mathematics is so popular today is the invention of computers.
With the rise of computers, we are able to carry out algorithms that may be
very lengthy to solve complicated problems in a short amount of time. With
the invention of the computer, mathematicians such as Grace Hooper made
the connection that we could input a set of directions into the computer, and
it would output the answer. Thus, several different computer programming
languages began to evolve and be studied and utilized by mathematicians
in the problem solving process. Of course, there were many obstacles to
overcome, such as the original speed of computers was very slow, there may
be problems with input, and the programmer must know how to properly
compile a program that will give the correct output. Rather than frustrating
the process, these served as incentives to study algorithms further, which
would help perfect the topic of discrete mathematics, as well as the computer
language that was evolving alongside discrete math problems. Computers
allow, not only to speed up currently known ways to solve problems, but also
to discover new ways of analyzing and solving problems, and developing new
algorithms. Discrete mathematics has become an integral part of computer
programming and operation, which has increased its popularity and study in
recent years.

35
 Let us now introduce a brief history of the development of algorithms.
The first important stage in the history of algorithms is the development of
the Hindu-Arabic number system. In India, their number system included
three important factors: place value, the notion of zero as a base holder,
and the expression of numbers in base ten. We know that, before these
were developed in India, the Babylonians also reflected the idea of place
value. However, their work did not take the step of combining these three
ideas. After the unification of these concepts, al-Khwarizmi was able to use
this decimal system to develop algorithms for various arithmetic operations.
He was the first major proponent of finding algorithms to solve problems.
Later, with the rise of the Italian abacists, there was the introduction of the
Hindu-Arabic decimal system to teach students processes and methods of
computation. By using this method, rather than computations on beads or
by words, it was easier to keep track of each step of the algorithm, so that it
may be explained and repeated to solve similar problems.
The second development in the history of algorithms is the problem of
solving cubic equations. We may retrace the problem of solving linear equa-
tions back to China, Babylonia and Egypt. In each of these cultures, they
were able to solve linear equations and were aware of the patterns and algo-
rithms in finding solutions. Then, we shall consider the solution of second
degree, or quadratic equations. China and Babylonia both had algorithms
to solve these in their historical mathematics. The Greek mathematicians,
as well, showed proficiency in solving quadratic equations; however, they did
so in the geometric form, and did not relate it to algebra. Then arose the
problem of solving cubic equations. The Babylonian culture is the only one
from early history that shows evidence of algorithms to find approximate
solutions for these types of equations. Since problems such as these did not
have many easily foreseeable real-world applications, inquisition on the so-
lutions remained dormant until the sixteenth century. During this era, the
search for algorithms and specific solutions bloomed. There were even con-
tests to find general methods to solve certain types of problems. During this
time, Cardano finally discovered a general algorithm to find solutions for the
cubic equation. Soon after, Ferrari found a general solution to equations of
the fourth degree.
The final major stage in the history of algorithms concerns calculus. With
the rise of differentiation and integration came the need for new algorithms to
solve these types of problems. These algorithms took a long time to discover.
In fact, many mathematicians were reduced to taking each type of problem

36
separately, and developing an algorithm to solve it as they discovered the
solution. Eventually, though, these many smaller algorithms were generalized
to produce algorithms to be able to differentiate or integrate any type of
problem. This was a great step in discovering processes that underly the
solutions within mathematics.

5.6 References

Anthes, G. (2008). Back to basics: algorithms. Computerworld (42.13),

30-31. EBSCOhost, 1 May 2009:

http://0-search.ebscohost.com.csulib.ctstateu.edu/login.
aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=31708807&site=ehost-live

Barnett, J. H. (1998). A brief history of algorithms in mathematics. The

teaching and learning of algorithms in school mathematics. Reston, VA: The
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Berlinghoff, W. P. and Gouvea, F. Q. (2002). Math through the ages:

a gentle history for teachers and others. Farmington, Maine: Oxton House
Publishers, LLC.

Kolman, B., Busby, R. C., and Ross, S. C. (2005). Discrete source: the
prentice hall custom program for discrete mathematics; chapter 4: counting.
Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Custom Publishing.

37
6 Data Analysis and Uncertainty
6.1 Problem
Usiskin, Peressini, Marchisotto & Stanley (2003) p. 121 no. 3. Homework
Problem from MAT 372: Advanced Mathematics for High School Teaching.
The following table gives years of life expected at birth in the United
States, for census years from 1900 to 1990, as estimated by the National
Center for Health Statistics. Consider the Intervals 1900-1940, 1950-1990
and 1900-1990.

Figure 10.

a) Does any linear function fit the data well for one or more of these
intervals?
b) Does any exponential function fit the data well for one or more of these
intervals?
c) From your analysis, discuss the suitability of using linear or exponential
functions to describe these data.

6.2 Solution I
a) To see if there is a linear function that fits each set of data well, we must
first determine the successive differences between data points in each set. If
the differences are exact or close, we can find a linear function to model the
data. If not, we must say that there is no linear function that will model
the data well. The following table provides the successive differences for
each set of data:

38
 Figure 11.

First, let us consider the interval from 1900-1940. The differences for the
male set of data are within a three year range. This indicates that there may
be a linear function to roughly fit this data. However, the differences are not
close enough to consider it a well fit. The differences for the female set of
data are mostly within a one year range, with an outlier that is about 3.5
years higher than the rest of the differences. Because most of the differences
are so close, we can find a linear function that fits this data well. For the
entire set of data, the range of differences again is too wide (2.9) to consider
it to have a linear function that fits well. However, we can say that there is
a linear function that roughly fits this data set.
Now, let us consider the interval from 1950-1990. The differences for
the male set of data are again inconsistent, and though we can find a linear
function to roughly fit this data, there is none that fits the set well. The
differences for the female set of data are within 1.5 years of each other, which
indicates that there is a linear function that fits this data well. For the entire
set of data, the differences are within 1.8 years of each other. Though they
are not extremely close, we could consider this set of data to have a linear
function that fits it well.
When we look at the entire interval from 1900-1990, we see that the
average of all the differences between 1900 and 1940 is about 3.9 years, and
that the average of all the differences between 1950 and 1990 is about 1.4
years. Because these two averages are so far apart, we cannot consider this
data to have a linear function that fits it well.
For the intervals in which we determined there exists a linear function
that fits the data well, let us now find the linear function. We will define
the linear function as L(x) = I + Dx, where I is the initial term and D is
the average difference between terms. Thus, we arrive at the following linear
functions:

39
 Female: 1900-1940: L1 (x) = 48.3 + 4.2x 1950-1990: L2 (x) = 71.1 + 1.9x
All: 1950-1990: L3 (x) = 68.2 + 1.4x

b) To determine if there is an exponential function that fits this data well,

we must first determine whether the rate of change between successive data
points in each set is exact or close to exact. If it is exact or close, then we
may conclude that there is an exponential function that fits the data well.
The following table provides the rate of change between successive data
points in each set of data:

Figure 12.

First, let us consider the interval from 1900-1940. For the male set of
data, we see that the differences are between 1.00 and 1.11. For the female
set of data, the differences range from about 1.05 to 1.13. For the entire
set of data, the differences again range from approximately 1.0 to 1.1 years.
These very close values show that there are exponential functions to fit each
of these data sets well.
Now, we consider the interval from 1950-1990. Again, we see that the
differences for all sets of data are very close to each other. When we look at
the entire interval, we notice the same pattern. These observations indicate
that there are exponential functions that fit every set of data well.
Let us now find the exponential functions that fit each set of data. We de-
fine the exponential function as G(x) = I(Rx ) where I is the initial term and
R is the average rate of change. Thus, we arrive at the following exponential
functions:
Male: 1900-1940: G1 (x) = 46.3(1.07x ) 1950-1990: G1 (x) = 65.5(1.02x )
1900-1990: G1 (x) = 46.3(1.05x )
Female: 1900-1940: G1 (x) = 48.3(1.08x ) 1950-1990: G1 (x) = 71.1(1.03x )
1900-1990: G1 (x) = 68.2(1.06x )

40
 All: 1900-1940: G1 (x) = 47.3(1.07x ) 1950-1990: G1 (x) = 68.2(1.03x )
1900-1990: G1 (x) = 47.3(1.05x )

c) After completing the first two parts of this problem, we see that linear
functions may roughly fit the data, but there are very few cases where they
fit the data well. However, we also see that exponential functions can be
used to describe the trends of every data set. Thus, we can conclude that it
would be more suitable to use exponential functions to discuss this data.

6.3 Solution II
Another way that we can go about discerning if there is a function that
fits each data set well is to enter the data into an Excel spreadsheet, and
use the program to fit both linear and exponential functions to the data
sets. Then, we can visually determine whether or not the function fits the
data well. This method requires more visual judgment and comparison than
computational.

a) Let us again consider each interval separately. Below is a scatterplot for

the data sets from 1900-1940, along with the Excel generated linear
functions.

Figure 13.

We see that, with the exception of one outlier, the linear function for the
female set of data seems to fit well. We also see that the function for the

41
overall set of data seems to roughly fit the scatterplot. However, we also
notice that the function for the male set of data does not seem to accurately
represent the trend. So, we can conclude that for the female set and for the
entire set, there are linear functions that roughly fit the set of data in this
interval.
Next, let us consider the scatterplot for the interval 1950-1990, along with
the Excel generated linear functions.

Figure 14.

Notice that the functions fit the female set of data well, the entire set
roughly, and do not quite accurately represent the male set of data. Thus,
we again rule out the possibility of a linear function that fits the male set of
data.
Finally, let us consider the scaterplot for the entire interval, 1900-1990,
along with the Excel generated linear functions.

42
 Figure 15.

Here we see even greater discrepancy between the functions and the scat-
terplots they are supposed to represent. We can conclude that linear func-
tions may not be the best way to try to represent this data.

b) We follow the same procedure to determine if there is an exponential

function that fits each set of data in the indicated intervals. The following
are the scatterplots for the three intervals, as well as the Excel generated
exponential functions.

Figure 16.

43
 Figure 17.

Figure 18.

Notice that all these functions seem to accurately represent the trends in
the data, especially for the intervals from 1900-1940 and 1950-1990.

c) By examining these graphs, we conclude that it makes more sense to

represent this data using exponential functions rather than linear functions.
However, both these types of functions have the limitation that the average
life expectancy cannot continue to increase indefinitely. This must be taken
into consideration when predicting life expectancy in the future.

44
6.4 Solution III
As a third solution to this problem, I ran a regression analysis of the
combined data set for male and female in MiniTab, to determine whether or
not there is a linear function that fits this data well. To do this, I used the
program MiniTab. The following is the analysis output.

Regression Analysis: All versus Years Since 1900

The regression equation is

All = 48.5 + 0.326 Years Since 1900

Predictor Coef SE Coef T P

Constant 48.518 1.148 42.28 0.000
Years Since 1900 0.32582 0.02150 15.16 0.000

S = 1.95246 R-Sq = 96.6% R-Sq(adj) = 96.2%

Analysis of Variance

Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 1 875.80 875.80 229.74 0.000
Residual Error 8 30.50 3.81
Total 9 906.30

This analysis suggests that a suitable linear equation for this data is
L(x) = 48.5 + .326x. Notice, from this test, that the P-value is 0. This
suggests that the fact that these points line on a line with a positive slope
is not by coincidence. Therefore, the P-value indicates that the linear model
for this data is a suitable representation of the pattern, and may be used as
a predictor. Combine this observation with the R-Squared value, which is
96.6%. Since this value is very large, we may conclude that, not only is there
a linear model to fit this data, as suggested by the P-value, but we know the
the model fits the data very well. The best fit would be 100%, and our value

45
is incredibly close to that. Therefore, we know that all of our data points lie
very close to the line given by the regression analysis. So, by running this
statistical regression analysis, we can conclude that there is indeed a linear
model to fit this data set very well.

6.5 Comments
To expand on the solutions we have encountered in this problem, let us
compare the first two solutions to the third, focusing on the possibility of
a linear model to fit the data. The first solution was found by computing
the differences between subsequent data points, and determining whether
the differences were close enough in span to consider there to be a linear
model that fits the data well. We had concluded that, though there was a
rough relationship, there was not a linear model to fit the data very well. In
the second solution, we graphed each set of data and used Excel to plot a
linear function to fit the data. We then compared the function to the data
plots, and saw that there was some variance in the points. Thus, we again
concluded that there were linear models to roughly fit the data, but that
they did not fit well. However, now let us examine the third solution. In
this solution, we ran actual statistical tests using MiniTab. In this solution,
we concluded that there was a linear model to fit the data, and that the fit
was very well. We concluded that our data points were significantly close
to the indicated line with slope .326. Notice that this conclusion contrasts
with our first two solutions significantly. This is an example of how algebraic
calculations and eyeball analyses may not always accurately reflect the real
trends in the data. The statistical analysis gave the surprising result that we
had not come up on our own, by doing calculations and comparisons. This
example illustrates the difference between the two branches of math, and the
complexity of statistical analysis.

6.6 History
The science of statistics consists in collecting, analyzing, and reporting
on data. Many consider statistics to be a separate discipline than math,
though it requires mathematics to perform many of the tests and analyses
necessary in the science. Statistics is a relatively new field, whose earliest
traceable roots date to around 1660 A.D. It’s roots are in the rise of the study
of probability, which was mostly nonexistent in early history. This concept

46
was mostly explored through the study of games. The next step in statistics
was data analysis, though the analyses were very primitive, and formal rules
and procedures did not exist as of yet.
What we may consider the second state of statistics is the period from
1750 to 1820, which is when the math of the science began to evolve. About
this time, mathematicians began to introduce the elements of error and un-
certainty, discovering how to measure these, and the implications of those
measures. Other important statistical concepts that arose during this period
are the normal distribution and least squares. Some mathematicians who
studied the rising science of statistics during this period are Laplace, Gauss
and Legendre.
The next stage in statistics spans from 1820 to 1900, in which statistics
became more of a social science, used to establish norms and predict possi-
bilities and outcomes in society. In this area, the ideas of skew curves and
correlation were developed to help study data trends.
The final historical stage of statistics brings us from 1900 to 1950, in
which statistics began to take the modern form that it is studied in today.
One important thing to realize about this science is that the invention of
computers helped this science become popular, and accessible to study. The
computer has made it quick and efficient to perform many tests on large data
sets fairly quickly. This will lead to more accurate studies, as well as greater
opportunities to expand on and perfect this new science. As a field of study,
statistics is relatively new, and I would predict that it will continue to change
rapidly, as our ever-advancing technology provides more and easier ways to
analyze data.

6.7 References
Berlinghoff, W. P. and Gouvea, F. Q. (2002). Math through the ages:
a gentle history for teachers and others. Farmington, Maine: Oxton House
Publishers, LLC.

Fienberg, S. E. (1991). A brief history of statistics in three and one-half

chapters. Historical Methods (24.3), 124-36. EBSCOhost, 29 April 2009

http://0-web.ebscohost.com.csulib.ctstateu.edu/ehost
/detail?vid=1&hid=6&sid=7ba6e8ae-7f8d-4795-8a47-22b0e8df7625
%40sessionmgr2&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db

47
=aph&AN=9709120309

Usiskin, A., Peressini, A., Marchisotto, E. A., and Stanley, D. (2003).

Mathematics for high school teachers: an advanced perspective. Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.

48