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CONTENTS

1. Basic concepts
2. Divergence and curl
Chapter 1 3. Line integrals
4. Green’s theorem
VECTOR CALCULUS
5. Surface integrals
6. Gauss’s divergence theorem
7. Stoke’s theorem
8. Engineering applications

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1. BASIC CONCEPTS

• Let = + + . • Consider the transformation or mapping from the

• A scalar point function is a rule, = , which , plane to the , plane defined by
assigns to each point with coordinate in the = , , = ,
domain of the function a unique real number . • The Jacobian of the transformation is defined by
• An alternative name for a scalar point function is
scalar field. ,
= = =
• A vector point function is a rule, = , which ,
assigns to each a unique vector .
• An alternative name for a scalar point function is
vector field.

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Gradient

• If • The vector
= , , , = , , , = , ,
represents a transformation in three dimensions , ,
from , , to , , then the corresponding is called the gradient of the scalar point function .
Jacobian is
• It’s denoted by grad or , where is the vector
, , operator
= = =
, ,
= + +

grad = = + + = , ,

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2. DIVERGENCE AND CURL

• The divergence of the vector field = , , • The divergence of a vector field at the point is
div = ⋅ flow out of Δ
div = ⋅ = lim
→ Δ
= + + + +
• A vector field satisfying div = is sometimes
termed solenoidal (điện từ).
= + +

Example 2.1. Find the divergence of the vector

= 2 − ,3 + ,4 −
at the point 1,2,3 .

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Curl

• The vector measuring the rotation about a point in Example 2.2. Find the curl of the vector
the fluid is called the curl of vector field = 2 − ,3 + ,4 −
at the point 1,2,3 .
curl = × =

= − + −

+ −

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Further properties of

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Example 2.3. Verify that

× × = ⋅ −
for the vector field = 3 ,− , + 2 .

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3. LINE INTEGRALS

Example 2.4. Maxwell’s equations in free space may be • Consider the integral
written, in Gaussian units, as
(a) div = 0, (b) div = 0 , , where = , ∈ ,
(c) curl = × = • This type of integral is called a line integral.
(d) curl = × =− • There are many different types of such integrals, for
example
where is velocity of light (assumed constant). Show
that these equations are satisfied by , , , , , ,
1 1
= grad × , =− + grad , + ,
where satisfies =
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Example 3.1. Evaluate ∫ from 1,0 to 0,1

along the curve that is the portion of + = 1 in
the first quadrant.

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Example 3.2. Evaluate the integral • If , , , , , and , , are the scalar

components of a vector field then
= +2 + +
, , + , , + , ,
from 0,1 to 2,3 along the curve defined by
= + 1.
= ⋅

• Similar, we can evaluate line integrals of form

×

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• The work of a force moves along a given path • In general, depends on the path chosen.
can be expressed as a line integral. • If is such that ⋅ is an exact differential,
= ⋅ say − , then =∫ − = − , which
depends only on and and is the same for all
paths joining and .
• Such a force is a conservative force, and ( ) is its
potential energy, with = −grad .

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4. GREEN’S THEOREM

• Consider a simple closed curve, , enclosing the

region .
• If , and , are continuous functions with
continuous partial derivatives then
+ = −

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Example 4.1. Evaluate

∮2 + + + + around the
square with vertices at 0,0 , 1,0 , 1,1 and 0,1 .

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8/11/2019 C01144 - Chapter 1 37 8/11/2019 C01144 - Chapter 1 38

5. SURFACE INTEGRALS

• Consider the surface described in terms of two • The vector element of area is given by
parameters and
= × = ×
= , = , , , , ,
• These are two types of surface integrals = , , × , ,
, , = + +
where
⋅ = ⋅
= − , = −

= −

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• Hence • If the surface is described by = , then

⋅ = + + = , , , with and as independent
variables.
, , = , + + • This gives =− , =− , = 1 and
where = , , and is the region of the
⋅ = − − +
, plane corresponding to
, ,

= , , , 1+ +
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Example 5.1. Evaluate the surface integral Example 5.2. Evaluate ∬ ⋅ where = + −
+ + 3 and is the surface of the cylinder + =
16 in the first octant between = 0 and = 5.
where is the portion of the sphere + + =1
that lies in the first octant.

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6. GAUSS’S DIVERGENCE THEOREM

• Consider the closed volume with surface area Example 6.1. A vector field is given by
flow out of Δ = + +
div = lim
→ Δ Find ∬ ⋅ where is the surface of the region in
⋅ = lim flow out of Δ the first octant for which + + ≤ 1.
→

= lim div Δ
→

• This leads to
⋅ = div
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Example 6.2. Verify the divergence theorem

⋅ = div

when = 2 + + and is the volume

enclosed by the upper hemisphere + + = ,
≥ 0.

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7. STOKES’ THEOREM

⋅ = lim flow round Δ

→

= lim curl ⋅Δ
→

⋅ = curl ⋅

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8. ENGINEERING APPLICATION

Streamlines in fluid dynamics

• Consider the case of steady-state incompressible
fluid flow in two dimensions.
• Let , be the velocities of the fluid in the and
directions respectively.
, Δ + ̅, Δ
= +Δ , Δ + , +Δ Δ
+Δ , − , , +Δ − ̅,
+ =0
Δ Δ

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Heat transfer

• Letting Δ → 0 and Δ → 0 gives the continuity • The total amount of heat within the region is
equation
= ,
+ =0
where is the specific heat of the medium, is the
• We deduce that there is a function , , called density and , is the temperature at the point
stream function, such that at time .
• The rate at which heat flows across the whole
= and =−
surface of the region is given by
• The equations of the streamlines is given by − ⋅ =− ⋅ =−
, = constant

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• If there are no sources or sinks of heat within the

region then
− , =−

• This implies that

− =0

• Thus
1
= = where =

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