INTRODUCTION

Color is extremely important in the modern world. In most cases color is an important factor in the
production of the material and it is often vital to the commercial success of the product. It is obvious
that a standard system for measuring and specifying color is much desirable. The color of an object
depends on many factors, such as lighting, size of sample, and background and surrounding colors. In
considering the appearance of an object, factors such as texture and gloss are important, as well as
color. Almost all modern color measurement is based on the CIE (International Commission on
Illumination) system of color specification. The system is empirical, i.e. is based on experimental
observations rather than on theories of color vision. (McLaren.et,al.1987&RiggB.et,al.1988)

Color is the result of the physical modification of light by colorants as detected by the human eye
(called a response process) and interpreted in the brain (called a perceptual process, which induces
psychology). The existence of color requires a source of light, an object, and an observer to see the
light. The reflectance of light by an opaque object as a function of wavelength describes the color of
the object. The color of a textile material is often one of its most important features. Color is a
subjective (individual/personal) perception and in a color-using industrial environment, objectivity is
of great importance.(Bartleson, 1980)

The delicate art of colour-matching has ever proved a source of difficulty to the dyer and textile
colourist. Even in the earliest annals of industrial history we learn that the skill of the famous dyers of
ancient Tyre was often put to the severest test in the matching of their renowned Tyrian purple to that
particular amethyst hue which was then so- much esteemed .

If the matching of dyed colours was found to be a difficulty then, when the daylight was clear and
unpolluted by the smoke-cloud of industry, when colours were simple; and textile fabrics few, the
difficulty is very much increased now, when we consider the impure atmosphere of our large
industrial cities, the many different kinds of fabrics, and the complexity of the innumerable shades
which are demanded by the tastes and fashions of the present day.

Before a good match of any coloured material can be made, either on the palette or on dyed fabric, we
must, in the first place, be endowed with eyes capable of distinguishing the finer gradations of hue ;
and, at the same time, in order to see the colours in their truest aspect, the colours themselves must be
illumined with a good white quality of daylight.

At the very threshold, therefore, of our study of colour-matching are two questions of pre-eminent
importance, i.e., Colour-Perception and Daylight ; and to these we will first confine our attention
(Scott, Greenwood,et.al. 1901).
 Color is defined as visual sensation arising from the stimulation of the retina of eye. Thus it is
defined as psychophysical (The psychological response to the physical stimulus). Color may have
different meaning to the different people.

With the consideration of textiles, color is a very desirable parameter of a textile product. In case of
technical textiles, color of the material is not necessary. Because it is only made with functional
characteristics for high performance application. But in case of apparel production, color is a very
crucial parameter. Because the consumers while buying the cloth in the market, they are highly
attracted by the color of the material as well as the handle of the product.

The color of the textile product may varies with person to person and also the source which is used to
perceive the color. The main reason for the variation of color vision in human is body motors
(physically balancing) and mentality (psychologically balancing) of the person. Then the color of the
material varies under the different sources. It is called metameric behaviour of the textile material.
Also the color of the sample should be matched with buyers sample was very difficult. There are
numerous coloring material available for coloration of textiles. Now we shall learn about principle of
perception of color in the human vision.

Perception of color involves a series of events which are interdisciplinary in nature. Perception of
color includes source of light, object that is illuminated and eye and brain that perceive the color. It is
clearly shown in the following figure that how perception of color occur in object.

The source of the light is characterized by its energy distributed at different wavelengths ( i.e. spectral
power distribution of the light source ). The modification of the incident light depending upon the
nature the colorant which is present in the object. Then the radiations reflected by the object is
received by the eye. The radiant energy is absorbed by the photosensitive pigments in the retina of
eye. This gives rise to nerve impulse which transmitted to the brain. The brain interprets the signal of
the nerve depending on the informations (data’s) stored in the memory. We shall now consider each
of these components of color viewing separately.(Kiron & S, 2020).

Colour psychology describes the colour as ‘Colour Space’. This has been widely studied by many
scientists like Newton, Goethe, Munsell, Ostwald etc. Colour physics explains the relationship
between light and colour using Newton’s theory (Shah & Gandhi 1990). Light reflection, refraction,
transmission, absorption, emission and diffusion are to beconsidered while studying about the colour.
Interaction of light and object is called colour physics and the other hand the colour chemistry deals
with the colour and colourants (Shah & Gandhi 1990). It was Newton who split light in spectrum of
different colours when it passes into a prism and the human eye can only perceive the visible part
(380nm to 720nm). Isaac Newton studied the colour at the age of 23 in 1666 and constructed the
Newton’s colour circle
It is also mentioned that light contains all wavelengths of visible spectrum. The colour theory gives
the clear picture of primaries Red, Green and Blue - ‘additive’ and Yellow, Cyan and Magenta -
‘subtractive’. Also their mixing, which result as secondary and further to tertiary colours. Gothe, in
the year 1810, reported different approach that colour arising from the interaction of light and dark.
Goethe sought to show that, as a turbid medium, the prism was an integral factor in the arising of
colour.

In 1905, Albert H Munsell an artist quantified colour without measuring them. Colour space contains
Hue, Value and Chroma. Munsell organized the colour space in three dimensional structures. Munsell
system’s colour shows the central vertical axis representing the neutral colours ie., white and black at
the top and bottom respectively scaled from 0 to 10. The lightness of a sample called ‘value’, the
intensity of colour called ‘chroma’ and the various colours are ‘hue’ (Shah &Gandhi 1990, Gulrajani
2010).

On the other hand Oswald suggested the colour triangle which is depicted .It is an artist way of
describing the colour. Each colour (pure) can be mixed with white or black to get ‘tint’ and ‘shade’.
The tone is obtained when two colours having the same lightness (gray) value are compared.

Color schemes are must to know to use colors in combinations for better contrast & powerful
designing. There are 6 color schemes & after knowing them it will be able to create harmonious
designs quickly. Colors has some symbolism & traits like every brand available to sell & service
something. Meaning every brand must have a primary color & then we should search for a color that
can accompany it or Secondary color & that is the color scheme. So, here I explain 6 color schemes.

schemes are derived from a single base hue & extended using its shades,tones & tints. Tints
are achieved by adding white & shades & tones are achieved by adding darker color,gray or
black. Monochromatic color schemes provide opportunities in art & visual communication
design as they allow for a greater range of contrasting tone that can be used to attract
attention,create focus & provides a strong sense of visual cohesion & can help support
communication objectives through the use of a connotative color. The relative absence of hue
contrast can be offset by variations in tone & the addition of texture. This scheme looks clean
& elegant. It produce a very soothing effect.

- Those color across from the each other on a colorwheel. The high contrast
of complementary colors creates a vibrant look especiallywhen used at full
saturation. This color scheme must be managed well so it is notjarring.
Complementary colors are tricky to use in large doses,but work well whenwe
want something to stand out. These colors are really bad for text. So, this
colorscheme looks best when we place a warm color against cool color. This
is anintrinsically high contrast color scheme.

T he split complementary color scheme is avariation of the complementary

color scheme. In addition to the base color,it usesthe two colors adjacent to
 its complement. This color scheme has the same strongvisual contrast as the
complementary color scheme,but has less tension. Thisscheme is often a
good choice for beginners,because it is difficult to mess up. So,
this provides high contrast without the strong tension of complementary color scheme.

- This Scheme is the richest of all the schemes because it uses for colors arranged into
two complementary color pairs. This scheme is hard to harmonize & requires a colors to
be dominant or subdue the colors; if four colors are used in equal amounts, the scheme
may look unbalanced. So, the distance between selected complementary pairs will effect
the
overall contrast of the final composition.

:- This color scheme uses three colors equally space around the
color wheel. The easiest way to place them on the wheel
is by using a triangle of equal sides. This color scheme
tend to be quite vibrant,even when using pale orunsaturated versions of hues,offer a higher
degree of contrast while at the sametime retains the color harmony. This scheme is very
popular among artists because it offers strong visual contrast while retaining balance & color
richness. The triadic scheme is not as contrasting as the complementary scheme, but it is
easier to
accomplish balance & harmony with these colors . So, to use the triadic harmony successfully
,the colors should be carefully balance- let one color dominate & use
the two others for ace

: -This color schemes are group of colors that are adjacent to each other on the color wheel,
with one being the dominant color, which tends to be a primary & secondary color, & two on
either side complimenting,, which tend to be tertiary The term analogous refers to the having
analogy, or corresponding to something in particular. An analogous scheme craets a rich
monochromatic look. It is best used with either warm & cool colors creating alook that has
certain temperature as well as proper color harmony while this is true, the scheme also lacks
contrast & is less by brand then complimentary scheme. Red, Yellow & Orange are example
of this scheme.(Diane & Csssidy,2005)
. — If we look steadfastly at a bright red colour for some time, such as found
in dyed pattern, and then immediately view a white sheet of paper, we
observe a bluish-green image of the red-coloured object. This is owing to the
set of red sensitive cones or fibrils being fatigued or paralysed with the too
long action of the red light ; and on viewing white, only the two remaining
colour nerves act, namely, the green and violet, which combine and form the
bluish-green of the after- image. As the red nerve fibre gradually recovers its
powers of perceiving the red element in the white reflected light, the blue-
green image fades away, and the paper again appears white.

Another example may be found in the beautiful, bright pink dye Bhodamine, which, after viewing
for a few seconds, gives a bright yellow-green after- image. This pink colour of Bhodamine
consists principally of red and violet rays, which stimulate and fatigue the red and violet sensitive
nerves. On viewing a white sheet of paper, therefore, the eye perceives a green image, as the
 green nerve is the only one left unexhausted. Green is, therefore, the “ complementary ” colour to
pink.

By gazing steadfastly on the bright orange in dyed specimen No. 4, and then turning the eyes
immediately to a white sheet of paper, we observe a greenish- blue after-image. In viewing orange
not only are the red sensitive nerves acted on, but also the green nerves to a much less extent. The
nerve fibrils that are left active after gazing at orange are, therefore, the violet and also to a
considerable degree, the green ones. Consequently, the after-image, or complementary, " to
orange is violet, plus a portion of green, which goes to produce a greenish-blue, as we have
already observed.

Yet another instance may be found by viewing a bright blue such as the beautiful blue seen in dyed
(Night blue). This gives a red-tinged after-image, due to the fact that in viewing the blue only the
green and violet nerves are affected and fatigued ; consequently the green and violet lights reflected
from the white paper are no longer perceptible, but the remainder of the white light, i.e., the red rays,
stimulate the active red sensitive nerve, and produce the complementary red image as observed.

The following pairs are complementaries : —

a. Red and Blue-green.
b. Orange ,, Greenish-blue.
c. Pink ,, Yellow-green.
d. Orange ,, Green-blue.
e. Yellow „ Blue.
f. Green-yellow ,, Violet.
g. Green ,, Purple.
h. Yellow-green ,, Crimson.

The proportion of stimulation of the three sets of colour sensitive nerves may be represented
diagrammatically by means of curves drawn on the chart of the solar spectrum. for example,
represents the three sensations as drawn by Helmholtz. The lines A, B, C, D, etc., represent
the well-known fixed lines of the solar spectrum. In this diagram it will be observed that
Helmholtz gives the three colours, red, green and blue, all equal luminosities. The sensation
of yellow is produced by the combined action of the red and the green colour sensations.
Diagram 2 represents the colour sensations as represented by Dr. Koenig, and are known as
Koenig’s curves. They were made after a great many experiments, not only with normal
colour vision, but with those who were colour-blind.
It will be observed by carefully comparing these three charts representing the three colour
sensations, as formulated by these expert physicists, that they all slightly differ, more or less,
from each other ; so that the question of the exact locality on the spectrum of the true
fundamental colour sensations is still uncertain.(Diane & Csssidy,2005)

A color mode determines the color model used to display & print images.Computer application such
as photo shop uses its color modes on established models for describing & reproducing colors. In
addition to determine the number of colors that can be displayed in an image , color modes affect the
number of channels & the file size of an image. So, a document can be converted to, displayed in &
edited in any of the following color modes:

1. RGB
2. CMYK
 3. Gray scale
4. Lab
5. Indexed
6. Duo tone
7. Bitmap & Multichannel

1. RGB Mode- RGB color mode that defines in terms of its red,green & blue
components,known collectively as RGB components. Red, green & blue lights are a
set of primary colors:when mixed in equal proportion they produce white light &
when mixed in other proportions they produce light of a range of different colors. So,
RGB is addictive combination of all primary lights. Intensity value for each pixels
ranging from 0-255 levels. RGB images use 3 colors or channels to produce upto 16.7
million colors on screen. The three channels translate to 24 bits of color information
per pixel. It is a primary color mode & known as addictive color mode as it reproduce
white color when we add all the three components at their maximum in tensity.

2. CMYK Mode- The CMYK is a subtractive color mode,used in color printing & is
alsoused to describe the printing process itself. CMYK refers to the four inks used in
some color printing: Cyan,Magenta,Yellow & Key (black). Though it varies by print house,
press operator,press manufacture,ink is typically applied in the order of the
abbreviation. The 'k' in CMYK stands for Key because in 4 color printing,cyan,magenta &
yellow printing plates are carefully keyed,or aligned,with the key of the black key plate. So,'k'
is used as 'key' which was possibly chosen
because black is often used as outline. The CMYK mode works by partially or entirely
masking colors on a lighter,usually white background. The ink reduces the
light that would otherwise be reflected such a mode is called subtractive because ink subtract
brightness from white. So, this is called standard color mode. The level of CMYK for each
pixel are represented as a percentage from 0-100.

3. Complimentary Color Modes :RGB & CMYK color modes are complimentary color
modes as they canreproduce each other in computer.Primary & Secondary color
according to manual definitions are completelydifferent. Primary colors are Red,
Yellow & Blue. Secondary colors areOrange, Green & Purple.

Gray scale Mode – Gray scale is a range of shades of gray without apparent color.

The darkest possible shade is black, which is the total absence of transmitted or
reflected light. Intermediate shades of gray are, represented by equal amounts of
the three primary representation of the gray level, so this is called 8 bit gray scale.
So, this is made uses up to 256 shades of gray. Every pixel of a gray style has a
brightness value ranging from 0 (black) to 255 (white). Gray scale values can also
be measured as percentages of black ink converge (0 % is equal to white ,100% is
equal to black). Images produced black- and- white or gray scale scanners typically
are displayed in Gray scale mode. Although gray scale is a standard color model,
the exact range of grays represented can vary, depending on the printing
 conditions. In photo shop, grayscale mode uses the range defined by the working
space setting that you have specified in the color settings dialog box.

Lab Mode –In photo shop, Lab mode (the asterisks are dropped from the name)

has a lightness component (L) that can range from 0 to 100. In the color picker ,the
a component (green-red-axis) can range from +128 to -128. In the color palette,
the a component and the component can range from +120 to -120. we can use Lab
mode to work with photo CD images, edit the luminance & the color values in an
image independently, move images between systems & pint to Post Script Level 2
& Level 3 printers. To print Lab images to other color Postscript devices, convert to
CMYK first.

Indexed color mode – Indexed color is a technique to manage digital images colors in
a limited fashion in order to save computer memory & file storage,while speeding up
display refresh & file transfers. When an image is encoded in this way, color
information is not directly carried by the image pixel data, but is stored in a separate
piece of data called a plate: an array of array represents a color indexed by its position
with in the array . This supported a palette of 256 36 bit RGB colors. This mode uses
at most 256 colors.

When converting to indexed color, Photo shop builds a color look up table (CLUT),
which stores & indexes the colors in the image. If a color in the original image does
not appear in the table, the program chooses the closest one or simulate the color
using available colors. By limiting the palette of colors, indexed color can reduce
file size while maintaining visual quality. Limited editing is available in this mode.

Duotone Color Mode- Duotone is a halftone production of an image using the

superimposition of one contrasting color halftone (traditionally black) over another

color halftone. This is most often used to bring out middle tones & highlights of an
image. The mot commonly implemented color are blue,yellow,brown & red.
 This mode create duotone (two-color), tritone (three-color) & quadtone (fourcolor)
grayscale images using two to four custom inks.

4. Bitmap Color Mode- In Bitmap mode,pixels are either 100% black or 100% white
&no layers,filters,or adjustment commands are available. To convert a file to this
mode, we must convert it to gray scale mode first. This mode uses one of two color
(white or black) to represent the pixels in an images. Images in bitmap mode arecalled bit
mapped 1-bit images because they have a bit depth of 1.

5. Multichannel Color Mode- This mode uses 256 levels of gray in each channel.
Multichannel images are useful for specialized printing. These guidelines apply to
converting images to multichannel modes. Channels in the original image become
spot color channels in the converted image.When we convert a color image to
multichannel,the new gray scaleinformation is based on the color values of the pixels
in each channel. Converting a CMYK image to multichannel creates
cyan,magenta,yellow & black spot channels. Converting an RGB image to
multichannel creates cyan, magenta, & yellow spot channels. Deleting a channel from
an RGB, CMYK or Lab image automatically converts the image to multichannel
mode.(Smith,2005)

Color sensations are human sensory perceptions, and color measurement technology must express
them in descriptive and comprehensible quantities. DIN 5033, Part 1, defines color as follows:

"Color is the visual sensation, associated with a part of the field of view that appears to the eye to be
without structure, through which this part can be distinguished from another unstructured
neighbouring area when observed with a single, unmoving eye".

This rather complicated but unambiguous definition of color allows the visual sensation of "color" to
be distinguished from all the other impressions received when seeing. The insertion of the term
"unstructured" into this definition also separates the texture of observed objects from the sensation of
color.

Thus the texture of a textile, for instance, is not included in the color.

The definition also calls for observation with a "single" eye which is "unmoving", conditionally
excluding other factors such as spatial sensation, the perception of the location of objects, their
direction, and even their relative movement from the perception of color. Since single-eyed
observation of an unmoving object with an unmoving eye does not allow for the perception of gloss,
the evaluation of gloss is excluded from the perception of color.
In general, unlike mass, volume or temperature, color is not merely a physical property of an object. It
is, rather, a sensation triggered by radiation of sufficient intensity. This can be the radiation of a self-
emitting light source, or it can be reflected from a surface. This radiation enters the eye, where
receptive cells convert it into nervous stimulation, which is in turn transmitted to the appropriate part
of the brain, where it is experienced as color. The sensation of color depends not only on physical
laws, but also on the physiological processing of the radiation in the sense organs. Visual conditions,
luminance (brightness) and the state of the eye's adaptation are amongst the contributory factors.

Color manifests itself in the form of light from self-emitting light sources, surface colors (of non-self
emitting light sources) and in the intermediate form of the luminescent colors of dyestuffs such as
optical brightening agents and day-glow paints that absorb photons from a short wavelength part of
the spectrum and emit the energy in a part of the spectrum with longer wavelengths.(Scott,
Greenwood,et.al. 1901)

Every spectrumcolour is simple ; but physiologists, after long and laborious research on the structure
and properties of the eye, have been led to the conclusion that all the colours of the spectrum can be
reduced into three elementary or primary sensations.

Red, yellow and blue are called primary colors. These colors cannot be mixed or formed by any
combination of other colors. All other colors are derived from the primary colors.

Primary colors can also be conceptual (not necessarily real), either as additive mathematical elements
of a color space or as irreducible phenomenological categories in domains such as psychology and
philosophy. Color space primaries are precisely defined and empirically rooted in psychophysical
colorimetry experiments which are foundational for understanding color vision. Primaries of some
color spaces are complete (that is, all visible colors are described in terms of their primaries weighted
by nonnegative primary intensity coefficients) but necessarily imaginary(that is, there is no plausible
way that those primary colors could be represented physically, or perceived). Phenomenological
accounts of primary colors, such as the psychological primaries, have been used as the conceptual
basis for practical color applications even though they are not a quantitative description in and of
themselves.

Sets of color space primaries are generally arbitrary, in the sense that there is no one set of primaries
that can be considered the canonical set. Primary pigments or light sources are selected for a given
application on the basis of subjective preferences as well as practical factors such as cost, stability,
availability etc.The concept of primary colors has a long, complex history. The choice of primary
colors has changed over time in different domains that study color. Descriptions of primary colors
come from areas including philosophy, art history, color order systems, and scientific work involving
the physics of light and perception of color.(Steven,Mark,et.al,2008)
 : What these three primary colour sensations are has been a moot point for long, but
scientists are now almost unanimous in selecting Red, Green and Violet as the
fundamental colour sensations, and on these the most reasonable theory of colour has
been established.

A German physicist named Wiinsch, in 1792, was the first to select this triad, and the famous Dr.
Thomas Young, some ten years afterwards, independently adopted the same three primaries, and
enunciated his theory of colour ; which, after lying neglected for many years, was revived, and further
developed, within recent years by Helmholtz, Clerk-Maxwell and others, and forms what is now
termed the Young- Helmholtz theory.

It is conjectured that the retina, which, as we have seen, is an exceedingly complex structure, consists
of a vast assem- blage of minute nerve fibrils of three different kinds — one set very sensitive to the
red light, but not so sensitive to green and violet; a second set very sensitive to the green waves, buit
stimulated only in a small degree by those of red and violet ; and a third set of nerve fibres readily
sensitive to the violet waves and less to the red and green. When all the three nerve fibres are equally
stimulated, the sensation of wliite light is produced ; but if the red or the green set of nerves be more
affected than the violet, then the impression of a red or a green, mixed with a proportion of white, is
the result.

It seems to be proved beyond a doubt that the peculiar set of pointed nerves in the retina termed
“cones ” have the special function of perceiving the colour sensations, while the “rods” determine
only the light and shade .

This theory of colour vision is considered by physiologists to be quite in harmony with the structure
of the retina as revealed by the microscope ; and it also gives a reasonable explanation for the
phenomena of “after-images,” or com- plementary colours, dichromic vision, and other curiosities of
colour-perception.

As dichromic vision, or what is generally termed colour- blindness , is of great interest to the colour-
matcher, it will receive special attention in a subsequent manner.

1.1.1. Secondary colors:

Green, orange and purple are called secondary colors. These colors are formed by mixing of the
primary colors.By mixing these primary colors in various ways, a range of secondary colors can be
produced. The three secondary colors are green, orange, and purple.

Green is created by mixing blue and yellow together. This color is often associated with nature and is
used to evoke feelings of calmness and tranquility. Green can also be used to create a harmonious and
balanced composition. In graphic design, green is often used to evoke a sense of growth and renewal.

Orange is a color that is produced by the mixing of red and yellow. Orange is often considered a
warm color and is associated with energy, excitement, and happiness. This color is often used to
create a cheerful and vibrant composition. In graphic design, orange is sometimes used to draw
attention to specific elements or to create a sense of warmth and comfort.

Purple is a color that is produced by mixing red and blue together. This color is often associated with
creativity, spirituality, and luxury. Purple can be used to create a sophisticated and elegant
composition. In graphic design, purple is often used to evoke feelings of sophistication, elegance, and
luxury.
Yellow-orange, red-orange, red-purple, blue-purple, blue-green and yellow-green are called tertiary
colors. These colors are formed by mixing of primary and secondary colors.Unlike secondary colors,
which are made from the equal mixture of two primary colors, tertiary colors are made from an
unequal mixture of two colors, often one primary color and one secondary color. As a result, tertiary
colors are more nuanced and can be used to create a greater range of hues and shades in a
composition.Tertiary colors are important in color theory because they offer a wider range of options
for color combinations and can help create more complex and interesting visual designs. There are six
tertiary colors: yellow-green, blue-green, blue-purple, red-purple, red-orange, and yellow-orange.
Each of these colors has its own unique properties and can be used to evoke different emotions and
moods.For example, yellow-green can be used to create a fresh and lively composition, while blue-
green can evoke feelings of tranquility and peace. Blue-purple can create a sense of sophistication and
elegance, while red-purple can be used to evoke feelings of passion and intensity. Red-orange can be
used to create a warm and cheerful composition, while yellow-orange can be used to evoke feelings of
happiness and excitement.

There are two types of color mixing namely additive and subtractive mixing.

1.1.2. Additive color mixing:

Additive color mixing occurs when two or more lights are added by focusing them on the white
screen. In additive color mixing, red, green and blue are used as primaries to produce different colors.
The primary colors are selected are independent in the sense that mixture of two primary will not
produce the other primary. In textile dyeing, single dyes are rarely used to obtain the final fabric
shade. Color mixing is an important issue in color control of textile materials. There are two distinct
color-mixing systems.The first mixing system deals with colored light such as is shown in the use of a
computer color monitor or television. Different colors are obtained by mixing just three primary
colors: red, green, and blue. There is no perfect red, green, or blue that will reproduce all the colors
perceived by color normal humans, but modern high resolution computer monitors reproduce
approximately 16 million different colors. This mixing of light is known as the additive color mixing
system. Mixing of red and blue yields magenta, mixing of blue and green yields cyan,and mixing of
red and green yields yellow. The mixed colors magenta, cyan, and yellow are allbrighter than each
primary, because they have greater final radiant energy. White is a mixture of all three primaries, and
true black is the absence of any light.

The combination of different primaries produces different colors like following,

Red + Green → yellow

Green + Blue → cyan (blue-green)

Blue + Red → purple (magenta)

Red + Green + Blue → White

Subtractive color mixing occurs when one or more spectral components are removed from the
incident light. The removal of part of incident energy can occur by process of absorption or scattering.
In absorption process, the light energy is converted into a heat. When the subtraction is made by
absorption only, it said to be simple subtractive mixing. When the light is removed by scattering and
absorption, it said to be complex subtractive color mixing. The subtractive primaries are obtained by
removing blue, green and red light from the white light.The second mixing system deals with
colorants such as dyes and pigments used for textiles. In this system the primary colors are magenta,
cyan, and yellow. However, in practical terms, dye houses use workhorse red, blue, and yellow dyes.
Because of the way dyes absorb and reflect color wavelengths of light, this system is known as the
subtractive color mixing system. Mixing of red and blue yields purple, mixing of red and yellow
yields orange, and mixing of blue and yellow yields green. White is obtained by destroying inherent
color in textiles (bleaching) while black is produced by mixing red, blue, and yellow. Black is
considered a “recovery” color for textile products. Off quality dyeings of any hue can be recovered
into first quality black shades. [Islam& Kiron ,2021]

Light is a form of energy and its propagates in the form of electromagnetic waves. Wavelength is
important characteristic of electromagnetic wave. Therefore the the waves at the different ranges are
identified by different names like gama rays, X rays, UV rays, visible rays, IR rays. Only a small part
of the electromagnetic spectrum produces the sensation of vision. This part of the spectrum is called
visible region. The wavelenghths of the visible region varies from 380 to 750 nm.

The source of the light is characterized by its relative power distribution at different wavelengths. The
light sources may be incandescent lamp, fluorescent lamp and arc lamp. Spectral power distribution of
sources like candle light, sunlight and incandescent lamps are continuous.(Kiron 2021)

The standard sources are recommended by CIE (Commission International de L’Eclairage).This

system quantify the colors interms of mathematical numbers. The sources are called as standard
illuminants A,B and C. CIE illuminant A has color temperature of about 2854 K. its spectral power
distribution is similar to that energy radiated by 100 watt tungston lamp.

CIE illuminant B has color temperature of about 2854 K. its spectral power distribution is similar to
that energy radiated by noon daylight.

CIE illuminant C has color temperature of about 6500 K. its spectral power distribution is similar to
that energy radiated by average daylight.

CIE defines the above illuminants for visible range of wavelength about 380 to 780 nm. But with the
development of fluorescent colors and fluorescent whiting agent, it is necessary to give standard
illuminant for UV region. So that CIE defined the daylight illuminant D65. The color temperature of
the D65 illuminant is 6500 K. The following figure will shows the relative power distribution of the
CIE standard illuminants.(Kiron & S, 2020)

With the development of source technology, variety of efficient fluorescent sources have come into
the market and are widely used in the house and shops for lightings. These are mainly fluorescent
sources having discontinuous spectral power distribution. The manufacturers of garments and textiles,
they would like to asses their color of products under these illuminants. CIE also defines the
fluorescent sources F1, F2 and F3 to enable to calculate matameric indices of any product.

The manufacturers of garments and textiles would like to evaluate their product colors under sources
with discontinuous spectral power distribution. The CIE has defined fluorescent sources F1, F2, and
F3 to calculate the metameric indices of any product. The appearance of an object is determined by its
spectral reflectance curve, with the location of peaks indicating the hue of the color. The object's color
is defined by absorption peaks at specific wavelengths in the spectral reflectance curve, except for
achromatic colors (black and white) which do not show any peaks. The reflectance of an object can be
measured using a spectrophotometer, which provides a reflectance curve or spectrum with values
ranging from 0 to 1. The illuminating radiation can be altered by processes such as transmission,
absorption, reflection, and scattering, depending on the material's characteristics. Transmission occurs
when the emerging light is in the same direction as the incident light. Absorption occurs when the
material absorbs light, except for certain colors, and depends on the concentration of coloring matter.
Scattering can also occur in the material, causing light to travel in multiple directions. If sufficient
scattering takes place, it is referred to as diffuse reflection or transmission. The amount of scattering
depends on the relative refractive index and particle size of the colorants. When light hits the surface,
some of it may be reflected, with a direct reflection referred to as specular reflection and varied angle
reflection referred to as diffuse reflection. The amount of reflection depends on the colorants in the
material and the texture of the surface. The corresponding reflection percentage lies between 0 to 100.
The reflectance of any object can be determined by using the instrument called spectrophotometer. It
gives a reflectance curve( spectrum ) of an any object. The reflectance value varies from 0 to 1. The
corresponding reflection percentage lies between 0 to 100.

The reflection of an object is expressed as a percentage with a range of 0 to 100. The way light and
color is perceived is through the eye, nervous system, and brain. Light is focused onto the retina
through the eye, and the photosensitive cells there, rods and cones, detect light and color. Rods only
detect light and do not distinguish color, while cones are responsible for color detection and come in
three types: red-sensitive, green-sensitive, and blue-sensitive. The perception of color depends on the
stimulation of these three cones, and if all three cones are equally stimulated, it leads to a perception
of grey to white, based on the level of stimulation. The CIE recommends data for standard observer
for color calculation, but defining a standard observer that represents the normal color vision of the
average population is difficult, so CIE has defined a standard observer for color calculation. standard
observer data The standard observer data is divided into two categories, 2º and 10º observer data. The
2º observer data was created by using the fovea region of the human eye, but in actual color
assessment, a larger area of the retina is used. Since the structure of the fovea and the surrounding
retina are different, the CIE established another set of data called the 10º observer data, which is
determined by using a 10º field of view. (Gevers & Smeulders 1999) The ISO 3664 is the global
standard for color viewing in the graphic technology and photography fields. To enhance the quality
and uniformity of light sources and color viewing, ISO 3664 establishes the basic requirements for all
color viewing systems to comply with. The latest version of the international color viewing standard,
ISO 3664:2009, has been updated to include stricter quality control guidelines to minimize mistakes
and misunderstandings in color reproduction. When designing light sources, there are specific criteria
to be met as outlined in the ISO 3664:2009 standard.
The quality of color is an important aspect in graphic technology and photography. There are two
standard observer data types, 2º and 10º, with 2º data being prepared using the fovea region of the
human eye. In reality, a larger area of the retina is used for visual assessment of color. Because the
structure of the fovea and the retina's surroundings are different, CIE established another set of data
known as 10º observer data, which is defined using a 10º field of view (Gevers & Smeulders 1999).

ISO 3664 sets the international standard for color viewing in the graphic technology and photography
industries. It outlines the minimum criteria necessary to ensure quality and consistency in light
sources and color viewing. ISO 3664:2009 is the latest version of the standard, updated to include
stricter quality control guidelines to minimize miscommunications and other errors in color
reproduction. There are certain conditions that must be met when designing light sources according to
ISO 3664:2009. The ISO 3664 standard is the international standard for color viewing in the graphic
technology and photography industries. It outlines the minimum criteria for all color viewing systems
to ensure consistency and quality of light sources and color viewing. The newest version of the
standard is ISO 3664:2009, which has tighter quality control guidelines to prevent errors in color
reproduction. D50 light, which represents natural daylight, is used as the benchmark for compliance
with the standard, and only ISO 3664:2009 compliant lamps should be used. The standard specifies
requirements for chromaticity, color temperature, spectral power distribution, UV energy, and more.
The chromaticity of a light source should be within a 0.005 radius of the D50 chromaticity
coordinates, and the color temperature should be relative to natural daylight with a correlated color
temperature of around 5000K. The spectral power distribution of a light source should be as close to
CIE illuminant D50 as possible, and the color rendering index (CRI) should be 90 or greater. The
2009 standard requires that a light source have a more accurate simulation of the CIE D50 Illuminant
in the UV range, with a metamerism index (MI) less than 1.5. According to the ISO 3664:2009
standard, the color temperature of a light source must be similar to a phase of natural daylight, with a
correlated color temperature of approximately 5000K. The relative spectral power distribution of the
light source should be as close as possible to CIE illuminant D50, and the general color rendering
index (CRI) should be 90 or higher, with a CRI value of at least 80 for each individual color sample
used. For consistent image rendition, the light intensity must be stable and fall between 1750 and
2250 lux, with 2000 lux being the optimal value. The standard also requires that the light source
simulate the CIE D50 Illuminant more accurately in the UV range, with a metamerism index of less
than 1.5, which is a significant difference from the less stringent requirement of less than 4 in the
2000 standard. The importance of consistent light intensity in achieving accurate image representation
is emphasized. The standard sets a target intensity to allow clear visibility of shadow details without
overexposure of highlights. Tone reproduction evaluation requires a lower light intensity of 500 lux as
specified in Part 2 "practical appraisal." It is recommended that color decisions be made under
lighting between 1750 and 2250 lux, with 2000 lux being ideal. Even light distribution across the
image is crucial to correctly interpret print/reproduction quality, and this can be ensured by measuring
illuminance at multiple points on the viewing surface. Prints and proofs should have an intensity of at
least 1200 lux (60% or more of 2000) at all points on the viewing surface, and transparencies should
have an intensity of at least 953 cd/m2 (75% of 1270) at all points.
 The paragraph discusses the importance of the surround in affecting color appearance.
According to the ISO 3664:2009 standard, the surround and backing should be neutral and
matte for consistent color and tonal range. GTI Graphic Technology, Inc uses Munsell
N8/neutral gray paint. The luminous reflectance for prints and proofs should be between 10%
and 60%, while transparencies should have a luminance level of 5% to 10% with a 50mm
space on all sides.

a. Geometry:
The positioning of the light source, image, and observer's eyes should minimize specular
reflectance (glare) as it can be distracting and potentially cause errors. The standard does not
specify the lighting geometry, but it should be minimized according to GTI's testing. The
Spectral Power Distribution for Daylight is defined by the ISO 3664 standard as CIE D65
average North Sky Daylight. Previously, the standard source in the US was D75, but in the
graphic arts and photography industries, D50 is the standardized source. The spectral power
distribution of a light source plays a crucial role in determining how it renders color. The
closer a light source's spectral power distribution is to the CIE standard, the more consistent
and accurate it is. Tests such as CRI and CIE51 are used to ensure that the light source
approximates D65. Each daylight source has a target point and allowed deviation specified in
the CIE color space.The CIE Publication 51 Rating (BC) assesses how well a light source
mimics daylight. For critical color matching purposes, a minimum BC rating is required. The
rating is divided into two parts, where the first letter represents the visible aspect of the light
source and the second letter represents its ultraviolet aspect. A rating of "A" shows that the
difference between metameric pairs listed in the CIE publication is less than a ¼ Delta E. A
"B" rating indicates a difference of between a ½ and ¼ Delta E, a "C" rating shows a
difference of between 1 and ½ Delta E, and so on. The lowest rating is "E". All of GTI's color
matching products have a minimum rating of BC.

The paragraph describes two aspects of lighting used in color evaluation: Color Temperature and
Light Intensity. Color temperature is a measure of the correlation between the color emitted by a black
body radiator at a certain temperature and is expressed in the Kelvin scale. 6500K (D65) is one
commonly used color temperature and other common temperatures include 7500K, 500K, and 2856K.
Light Intensity refers to how consistent the light is and how it affects the visibility of colors in an
image. The standard sets target light intensities to allow for full tonal visibility of both light and dark
samples. The light intensity for different materials varies from as low as 540 lux to as high as 2150
lux. Most light booths maintain an intensity of 1210 lux, and to view samples at higher light
intensities, they are brought closer to the light source. The paragraph is about Light Evenness. The
standard requires the light intensity to be at least 968 lux (20% of 1210) and not more than 1462 lux at
all points on the viewing surface in order to ensure consistent interpretation of color quality. The color
of an object is influenced by the light source and the surrounding environment in which it is viewed.
To ensure consistency in color evaluation, international standards have been developed for color
viewing. The two primary standards are ISO 3664:2009, used in the graphic arts and photographic
industries and specifies D50 daylight viewing, and ASTM D1729-2016, used in industrial color
applications such as plastics, paints, textiles, and automotive and specifies D65 as the primary
daylight viewing condition. Other standards, such as SAE J361 and BS-950 Part 2, are used in
specific applications. Evaluating colors under different light sources is important to avoid the issue of
metamerism, where two colors match under one lighting condition but not another. The color
temperature of a light source affects its appearance, with lower temperatures appearing warmer and
higher temperatures appearing cooler. Common color temperatures and their associated colors are
listed.

Color Temperature Name Color

7500K (D75) North Sky Daylight Moderate to Deep Blue

6500K (D65) Average Daylight Moderate Blue
5000K (D50) Noon 5000K (D50) Noon Sky Daylight 5000K (D50) Noon Sky
Sky Daylight White White Daylight White
4100K Various 4100K Various Fluorescent & LED 4100K Various Fluorescent &
Fluorescent & LED Sources Green LED Sources Green
Sources Green
3500K Various 3500K Various Fluorescent & LED 3500K Various Fluorescent &
Fluorescent & LED Sources Redder / Yellow LED Sources Redder / Yellow
Sources Redder /
Yellow
3000K Various 3000K Various Fluorescent & LED 3000K Various Fluorescent &
Fluorescent & LED Sources Red / Yellow LED Sources Red / Yellow
Sources Red / Yellow
2856K Illuminant A / 2856K Illuminant A / Incandescent / 2856K Illuminant A /
Incandescent / Tungsten Halogen Yellow / Red Incandescent / Tungsten
Tungsten Halogen Halogen Yellow / Red
Yellow / Red
2300K Horizon Red 2300K Horizon Red 2300K Horizon Red

he D75 light source, with a color temperature of 7500K, is a blue-tinted light

that has been mostly replaced by D65. This light emphasizes blue tones while
reducing green and red. It is known as "North Sky Daylight" and is based on the
light from a north-facing window in the northern hemisphere at noon on
different days of the year. On the other hand, the D65 light source, with a color
temperature of 6500K, is a light blue light used in color matching for products
like paints, plastics, textiles, inks, and automobiles. It also accentuates blue and
downplays green and red tones. D65 is widely used as a primary light source in
color measurement instruments and is the specified daylight source for ASTM
D1729-2016 and SAE J361 in automotive applications. D50 (5000K) is a light
source that is nearly white and is used for evaluating visual aspects in various
industries such as printing, packaging, photography, and graphic arts. It is the
designated light source as per ISO 3664:2009 and is ideal for evaluating press
sheets and original images as it doesn't enhance or diminish any colors present
in the product.
Ultra Violet (UV) light is not visible to the human eye but is present in natural
daylight. It has the ability to activate optical brightening agents and fluorescent
dyes in a sample, causing them to emit light in the visible spectrum, usually in
the blue region. These substances are used to make colors brighter, especially
whites, and it's crucial to include the correct amount of near UV energy in a
color matching system to accurately simulate natural daylight. The paragraph
describes two types of fluorescent lighting sources commonly used in North
America, Cool White Fluorescent (CWF) and Warm White Fluorescent
(WWF). CWF simulates the CIE standard illuminant F2 and is used in
commercial lighting applications. It emits high amounts of green and little red
energy, has a color temperature of around 4150K, and a CRI of around 62. Due
to energy regulations, F2 CWF lamps are only available in lengths less than four
feet. WWF simulates the CIE standard illuminant F4 and is used in commercial
lighting applications in North America. It emits high amounts of yellow and red
energy, with a color temperature of around 3000K, and a CRI of around 53.
TL84 - A narrow band tri-phosphor fluorescent light source that imitates the
CIE standard illuminant F11. Initially created for commercial lighting purposes
outside North America, it is known for emitting high amounts of green light
with a color temperature of around 4100K and a CRI of approximately 86.

TL830 - A narrow band tri-phosphor fluorescent light source that mimics the
CIE standard illuminant F12. Originally intended for commercial lighting
applications outside North America, it is characterized by emitting high
amounts of yellowish-red light with a color temperature of approximately
3000K and a CRI of approximately 86.

TL835 - A narrow band tri-phosphor fluorescent light source that was initially
created for commercial lighting applications outside North America. It emits
high amounts of reddish-yellow light, with a color temperature of around 3500K
and a CRI of approximately 86. This source has very similar color rendering to
SPX35. SPX35 - A narrow band tri-phosphor fluorescent light source designed
for use in commercial lighting in North America. Known for emitting high
levels of reddish-yellow energy, it has a color temperature of approximately
3500K and a CRI of around 85. Its color rendition is similar to that of TL835
and is often used instead of U35.
Color Name Color Application
Temperature
2856K Illuminant A Illuminant A Standardized source and illuminant
Yellow / Red for color matching
2300K Horizon Reddish Source described in some
specifications and used for color
matching applications in select
industries such as automotive
Ultralume 30 & 35 (U30 or 30U, U35 or 35U) - (DISCONTINUED) A narrow
band tri-phosphor fluorescent light source that was originally used in
commercial lighting applications in North America where energy efficiency was
a priority. It emitted high levels of yellowish-red energy and had a color
temperature of either 3000K or 3500K, with a CRI of approximately 85.
Reworded: With the growing adoption of LED lighting in retail, office, and
residential settings, it is imperative to assess color under LED lighting
conditions. LED lamps are highly favored due to their energy efficiency.
However, the LED technology is continuously evolving, making it challenging
to maintain consistent color temperature from lamp to lamp, batch to batch, and
manufacturer to manufacturer. Currently, there is no standardized LED lighting
system for color matching. Hence, LED lamps are most effectively used as a
reference source to gauge a product's appearance under similar LED lighting.
(Yuk & John, 2001)
The use of compact fluorescents and LED lamps in homes has become more prevalent
today. Quartz halogen lamps, which are a type of tungsten incandescent lamp, have a
more consistent output over their lifespan. These lamps are often used in color matching
applications where a yellowish to red light source is needed. Tungsten filament sources
are most commonly used in photography, film, and video industries for when a white
light source with continuous output is needed, but not for color matching applications.
Illuminant A is a standardized light source used in homes or stores to recreate typical
accent lighting. It is specified in the international standard CIE Publication 15.2004 and
designated for use in color matching applications according to ASTM D1729-2016. This
source is utilized when a yellowish-red light is needed, and it is the most commonly used
source and luminant for both instrumental and visual color matching applications. For
instrumental color matching, another source called Horizon, which is an incandescent
lighting with a low color temperature, is used. A tungsten light rated at 2300K is referred
to as Horizon, which gives off a reddish light that resembles dawn or sunset. This light
source is widely used in the automotive industry. The voltage has a significant impact on
the light output and color temperature of a tungsten lamp, and even a slight change in
voltage can cause noticeable changes in these attributes. To maintain stability in the color
temperature, voltage stabilizationizing circuits are required in color matching systems that
use tungsten lights. However, it is still a challenging task to maintain consistent light
output and color temperature for a sufficient amount of time, even with these circuits.
 Furthermore, the hue of a tungsten lamp changes as it heats up. The ability of a dye to
color other materials is indicated by its color strength, which can be quantified as a color
strength value based on its absorption in the visible spectrum (Werener et al., 1987).
When evaluating the depth of color in dyed fabric, the most important factor to consider
is the color strength (K/S). The color strength of a dye or pigment is linked to its
absorption property. Instead of measuring absorbance, we measure reflectance, which has
an inverse relationship with absorbance, i.e., as reflectance increases, absorbance
decreases and vice versa. The relationship between reflectance and absorbance is
described by the Kubelka-Munk theory as follows: K/S = [{(1-R)^2 / 2R}]. The variable
R represents reflectance, K represents absorption, and S represents scattering. Every
colorant has a unique K/S versus wavelength curve.

Color strength is calculated as follows: [(K/S) Batch / (K/S) Standard] x 100.

There are several methods to determine color strength, including:

R Min (Absorbance Maxima)

At a specified wavelength, based on Tristimulus Values (X, Y, and Z). This includes X &
Y (Average) and Z & Y (Average) and integrated wavelengths.

The K/S values of the sample and the standard can be determined to calculate the strength and find the
lowest value of R (which represents the highest absorbance). This method is widely accepted and
aligns with visual observations. Most color software products can perform this calculation
automatically. The result of this calculation is illustrated in Figure 1.

When comparing two different dyes or pigments that may have varying R minima, it is best to
calculate the strength using the R Min wavelength of the standard. This provides a precise
representation of the strength. If the standard is produced by one company and the incoming dye batch
is produced by another, this method is especially useful. This method of determining the strength of
two different dyes or pigments is chosen when they have different R Minima values. In such cases, it's
important to calculate the strength using the R Min wavelength of the standard, as it will provide a
more accurate representation of the strength. This is known as strength at a specific wavelength.
When using a colorimeter with three filters for measurement, this method involves using the ratio of
X Tristimulus value for red and green colorants, the ratio of Z Tristimulus value for yellow and blue
colorants, and the average of X and Y or Z and Y Tristimulus values to account for lighting and
darkness. The ratio of the Y Tristimulus value is used when comparing black and white colorants,
although it does not offer significant benefits for dye applications. This method, however, is useful in
pigment applications. The computation of color strength can be done using an integrated wavelength
approach by some laboratory and color software programs. This method calculates the strength at
each wavelength and takes the average to represent the actual strength of the colorant. This approach
is becoming increasingly popular, but it may not always accurately represent the colorant's strength
due to varying reflectance values at different wavelengths. However, the strength calculated at R Min
is considered to be the proper representation and is particularly useful for mixed dyes such as brown,
black, orange, and olive. The choice of calculation method depends on the user's experience and the
desired perception of depth equality, which must be determined visually with great care. Caution must
be exercised when evaluating the data. In order to understand, measure, and match colors, it's
important to know three key elements. The first element is the light source that illuminates the object
or scene. The color characteristics of the light source, which determine the amount of energy emitted
at different wavelengths, are defined by its spectral power distribution. The most commonly used
standard illuminant that resembles normal daylight is CIE D65 and is used as a reference for color
matching in many industries. The second element is the observation of color alterations and hue (hue
angle - h). Lastly, the dominant wavelength and purity can be determined using the CIE Diagram (x,
y). If the dominant wavelength does not change, the hue of the compared dyes will not vary. There are
two standard illuminants commonly used in color matching:

a. CIE A, which mimics incandescent light and is utilized to simulate indoor lighting situations.

b. CIE D50, which resembles daylight with a correlated color temperature of 5000K and is commonly
used in the graphic arts industry. The use of standardized lighting conditions is critical in color
matching for textiles. This involves viewing the objects or samples being compared under the same
lighting parameters, which eliminates any variations caused by different lighting sources. This is
significant because our perception of color is greatly influenced by the lighting conditions in which it
is viewed. For example, the color of a fabric may appear differently under natural light compared to
artificial light. These standardized light parameters are defined by the CIE 1931 and CIE 1964 color
spaces and play a crucial role in color matching and color management.

The use of standard light parameters is crucial in color matching for textiles. By doing so, textile
companies, designers, and quality control teams can make sure that the fabric colors they produce
match the desired color and remain consistent. This is significant in maintaining customer satisfaction
and preserving a uniform brand image. Industry organizations generally set these standard light
parameters, which are used to assess textile color by taking into account specific lighting conditions,
such as light type, intensity, and viewing angle. By following these standard light parameters, textile
manufacturers can ensure that their products adhere to the required color specifications and maintain
consistency across different production batches. To record the colors reflected by a textile using an
observer or detector, the following steps are followed:

Setting up the observer or detector: The observer or detector should be positioned in a way that it can
accurately capture the textile's colors and be calibrated to the relevant color parameters.

Illumination of the textile: The textile should be illuminated with a consistent and accurate light
source, which should be controlled to maintain consistent color parameters throughout the
measurement process.

Recording of the color data: The observer or detector is used to capture the textile's color data, which
should include the color coordinates (e.g. Lab*, RGB, or CMYK) and spectral data.

Analysis of the color data: The collected color data is analyzed to determine the textile's color
parameters, such as color fastness, uniformity, and consistency.

Documentation of the results: The results of the color measurement, including the color parameters
and any observations or notes, are documented. This information can be used to maintain consistency
in future productions or to identify any problems with the textile. The Munsell color theory is a
method for categorizing and classifying colors based on their hue, value, and chroma. Another
commonly used color measurement method involves the X, Y, and Z stimulus values and the CIE L*,
a*, and b* values in the CIE Theory of Color. It is crucial to ensure that the observer or detector used
in the color measurement process is properly calibrated and regularly maintained to produce accurate
and consistent results. The textile being measured should also be inspected for any defects or
inconsistencies that could affect the readings. (Sule, 1996). The Munsell color theory is a system for
categorizing colors based on their hue, value, and chroma. The hue refers to the dominant wavelength
of light that makes up a color, like red, blue, or yellow. Value measures the lightness or darkness of a
color on a scale from 0 (darkest) to 10 (lightest). Chroma, on the other hand, describes the saturation
or degree of purity of a color, ranging from grey to bright and vivid. This system can be used in the
fashion industry to match the hue, value, and chroma of different textiles and threads used in a design.
The Munsell color theory is utilized in the textile industry to match the hue, value, and chroma of
different fabrics or threads in a design, which is crucial in the fashion sector. In interior design, it
helps coordinate various materials and patterns, allowing designers to modify and compare colors
using the Munsell system to achieve a unified and visually pleasing outcome. The CIE (International
Commission on Illumination) theory of color is a widely used method for measuring and analyzing
color in many industries, including textiles. It uses three primary color coordinates, referred to as X,
Y, and Z, to compute the CIE L*, a*, and b* values that represent a given color. The human eye's
sensitivity to different light wavelengths is used to calculate the X, Y, and Z tristimulus values, which
represent the color's reaction to red light (X value), green light (Y value), and blue light (Z value).
These values are then used to determine the CIE L*, a*, and b* values, which describe the color's
properties. The paragraph mentions that the CIE L* value is a measure of a color's lightness or
brightness, with L* = 0 being the darkest and L* = 100 being the lightest. The CIE a* value indicates
the location of a color on the red-green axis, with neutral a* = 0, red a* > 0, and green a* < 0. These
values are used in textile color matching to match colors between different textile samples or
materials, ensuring product consistency and precise color matching in textile design and
manufacturing.

In measuring colorimetric values, the chromaticity coordinates of the light source and the sample's
colorimetric values are represented by xn and yn, and x, y, and Y respectively, under the illuminant
D65. A surface of magnesium sulphate in a saturated paste is like a perfect white diffuser with a WI
value of 100. The ASTM-E313/1973 yellowness indices can be expressed as YIASTM: E313/1973:
1001-B/G: 0.8477YE25, where L* represents the lightness or darkness, b* represents the blueness or
yellowness, B is equal to 0.847 Z, G is equal to Y and Y is equal to L2/100, and X, Y, and Z are the
sample's CIE tristimulus values. The ISO-2469/2470-1977 method can be used to calculate the
brightness index (BI) using the formula: Sample Reflectance Value at 457 nm. The reflectance value
of a standard white diffuser tile at 457 nm is 100E26. Additionally, the yellowness indices of the
ASTM-E313/1973 can be represented as Yellowness IndexYIASTM E313/1973 B/G 1001 0.8477
YE25, with L* representing lightness/darkness, b* representing blueness/yellowness, X, Y, and Z
being the sample's CIE tri-stimulus values, and B = Z/1.181 = 0.847 Z and G = Y = L2/100. The
formula to calculate the brightness index (BI) according to ISO-2469/2470-1977 method [13] is:

Brightness Index = Reflectance Value of the Sample at 457 nm

The reflectance value of standard white diffuser tiles at 457 nm is 100E26.

Humans have trichromatic colour vision (Jose A. Diaz et al 1998) and the CIE colour matching
method works similarly to the human visual system. Changes in lighting, viewing angles, and
instrumentation can cause metamerism, where two colours that match under one set of circumstances
may not match under another. For example, a pair of textile samples may match under one illuminant
but not under another.
This phenomenon is referred to as "Illuminant Metamerism," where two specimens A and B's
reflectance spectrums are different, even though their tri-stimulus values are the same under one
illumination. Humans have trichromatic color vision (Jose A. Diaz et al 1998), and the CIE color
matching method operates similarly to how the human visual system works. Variations in lighting
conditions, viewing angles, and instrumentation are just a few of the factors that contribute to
metamerism. Essentially, metamerism means that two colors can match in one set of circumstances,
but won't match when those conditions change (Shahram Peyvandi 2012). For example, a pair of
textile samples may match under one illuminant, but may not match under another. This is called
"Illuminant Metamerism." The reflectance spectrums of the two samples, A and B, are not the same,
even though their tristimulus values are identical under a single light source. It is uncertain that a
recipe using two color combinations will produce a non-metameric match. This highlights the
significance of metamerism. For instance, when a part of a car was repaired and painted after an
accident, only the damaged part was painted during the day with a paint that matched the surrounding
color, but the colors appeared different when viewed at night under a tungsten light bulb. The same
situation can occur with textile materials. For example, when selecting a blouse or shawl to match an
outfit, they may appear different when viewed under different lighting conditions. In the textile
industry, metamerism plays a critical role in determining the quality of a product. The manufactured
sample should align with the customer-specified illuminants. Although a color computer may offer
various color recipes, the one that has the required combination of illuminants and the least amount of
metamerism should be selected. It can be challenging to keep metamerism at an acceptable minimal
level when color matching is desired among various garment components. For example, it may be
necessary to coordinate the color of the dress's belt and buttons. When different colorants are used in
various substrates, it can be difficult to minimize metamerism. Leather and fabric are different, and
different garment components, such as sleeves and pockets made from cloth colored with various
formulas or batches, may produce an unpleasant appearance and be rejected by the customer, leading
to their clearance sale. The levels of illuminant metamerism and the maximum CIELAB76 color
difference have been determined by Moradian and Rigg using various light sources, such as A, C,
D65, and F11. The CIE E2000 can be used to calculate the difference between the target color and the
match color under D65/10° illumination and observation.

Apart from the textile industry, efforts have been made to achieve color matching in other fields as
well. For example, attempts were made to match interior colors in cars using pigments on synthetic
polymer materials. Color matching is also crucial in several other industries, such as the paper
industry, ink and pigment production, food processing, medicine, and the manufacture of plastics and
polymers. Illuminant metamerism is a factor that cannot be avoided completely, but should be
reduced or eliminated as much as possible. It can be divided into four categories: illuminant, observer,
geometric, and field size. The tri-stimulus values of two metameric specimens can be calculated using
multiple illuminants, which is the most crucial type of calculation. Although the tri-stimulus values
for two colored samples may be equal or close, the appearance of the colors may vary depending on
the lighting. For example, two colored samples may match under the CIE standard illuminant D65,
but not under illuminant TL84. To achieve color consistency, it's important to have indistinguishable
spectral reflectance curvesimpossible.
The match of a pair of colored samples can only be accurately determined
under artificial lights due to the differences in relative spectral distributions
between natural and artificial lights. Observer metamerism occurs when a
pair of colored samples viewed by one person appears to match, but does not
match when viewed by another person. For instance, two red colored samples
may appear brick red to one observer and tomato red to another. Changes in
viewing geometry can also affect color matching. For example, a green
sample may appear green at a 45° angle, but appear darker at a 75° angle if
the viewing angle is changed. The accuracy of a color match can change
depending on the distance between the observer and the colored samples.
When viewed from a distance, a metameric pair may match, but if viewed up
close, the match may no longer be exact. This is known as metamerism due
to field size. Measuring the degree of metamerism can be difficult, as the
variations between reflectance curves are often pronounced. The differences
between the visible spectrum regions are not always equally significant,
making it challenging to assess the degree of metamerism. To detect
metamerism, three illuminants are commonly used in color matching
applications: one that resembles daytime lighting, another that resembles
tungsten lighting, and a third that resembles a high-efficiency fluorescent
tube like the TL84 lamp. By using different illuminants to vary the tri-
stimulus values, the differences can sometimes be determined using a color
difference formula. This means that the degree of metamerism can be
detected even before dyeing the samples. The importance of the type of light
used in color perception cannot be overstated. The hue of colors being
compared can be greatly affected by even a small amount of color taint.
Regular daylight is far from ideal for color analysis due to its variability in
whiteness and quality, often appearing reddish or orange on some days and
blue or violet on others. In scientific experiments, the standard of daylight
must be replaced with the more uniform light of the electric arc, although this
has its own limitations. For practical purposes, such as in dyeing, color
mixing, and printing, common sunlight is still considered the appropriate
standard despite its variable nature. It is important to carefully observe the
changes in daylight and take necessary actions.A color space is a
mathematical representation of all possible color mixtures and can effectively
convey different lighting stages. One example is the Daylight Locus, which
categorizes colors into warm, cold, and neutral hues. This measures the range
of colors that can be seen in the sky, from a bright blue sky in the morning to
a distinctive hue in the evening. orange-red sunset. It is numerically described
in terms of correlated colour temperature, with high colour temperatures
corresponding to a blue tint and lower colour temperatures to a reddish tint.
The colour pattern of the sky will inevitably vary from day to day based on
geographical and meteorological factors. But in a clear sky, the chromaticity
range of daylight is much widertranslates to relatively high colour
temperatures in the mornings and low colour temperatures in the evenings.
(1961; Giles, Rahman, and Smith)
 1.1.5. : The appearance of an object's color is influenced by various factors such as
the spectral energy distribution of light, viewing conditions, and the object's spectral
properties related to absorption, reflection, transmission, and the sensitivity of the
human eye. The absorption of transmitted light in an absorbing medium can be
explained by Beer's law. Billmeyer (1991) states that color is a result of the
interaction between the light source, the object, and the observer. The visible range of
electromagnetic energy or light that the human eye can detect is 380 nm to 720 nm,
and color refers to the reflected electromagnetic radiation within this range.

The tristimulus colorimeter and spectrophotometer are two widely used color measurement tools.
Karbasi et al. (2008) described the spectrophotometric and colorimetric techniques for color
matching. Both techniques were employed to describe color, with the spectrophotometric technique
aiming to match the reflectance curve, while the colorimetric technique seeks to match color using
tristimulus values. The difference between the target and match color is zero if their spectral curves
are equal, which is only possible if the colorants and environmental conditions are identical.
According to McGinns, the spectrophotometric matches are nearly non-metameric when the least
square technique is used, while tri-stimulus matching provides natural metameric color matching. The
use of these instruments has increased in nearly all textile sectors where coloring occurs, with more
than 10 instruments available in 1954 and now used extensively. A basic colorimeter measures color
in terms of visual perception, with illumination at a 45-degree angle to the perpendicular line to the
sample plane. (Dan Randall – datacolour)that was mounted as a sample. The three filters (x, y, and z)
that the conventional observer uses to excite colour matching functions. As a result, the device
measures the tri-stimulus values for the particular illuminant.)))))))

Color measurement is an important aspect of various industries and it is often done using colorimetry
and spectrophotometry. Colorimetry deals with the prediction of metameric matches, while advanced
colorimetry takes into account real-life conditions. The additivity laws are considered a critical
component of colorimetry, and failure to adhere to these laws can result in a breakdown of the
method. A tristimulus colorimeter measures color by directly detecting the reflected light after passing
through R, G, B filters, and converting the values to a standard color space. However, the results are
only meaningful under the specific illuminant used for the machine. In contrast, a spectrophotometer
measures light across the visible spectrum and forms a reflectance curve, which is processed to give
tri-stimulus values and chromaticity for any illumination.

The spectrophotometer measures the reflectance, absorption, or transmittance of light at various

wavelengths in the visible spectrum. This information is used to determine the color's "metamerism"
under different lighting conditions and the effects of temperature and humidity, known as
"thermochromic" and "hydrochromic" changes, respectively. Modern spectrophotometers often
integrate with computer systems for data handling and computation, measuring reflectance at
bandwidths of 5 to 20 nm intervals. To standardize the objective measurement of colors, several
systems exist, including the Commission International de l'Eclairage (CIE), Deutche Institut fur
Normung, Natural Color System (NCS), Ostwald's, and Munssel's systems. CIE and DIN are
scientifically recognized as the basis for numerical evaluation of colors and calculation of differences
between them.

According to Balsam, diffuse-reflected spectrophotometry is one of the most objective methods for
measuring color. This method involves collecting normalized reflected light in an integrating sphere
and calibrating it with a pure white standard (100%) and a black box (zero reflection) across the full
range of the visible spectrum (380-720nm). The diffuse illumination of the object is typically viewed
at an 8º angle to its normal surface, which meets the requirement for diffuse illumination and a 0º
viewing angle (CIE 1986) and the 8º viewing angle (DIN 1980, ISO 1984). The instrument can also
be designed to include or exclude the specular component (SCI or SCE), with SCI being useful for
color mixing and SCE for comparisons with laboratory data based solely on diffuse light.

A spectrophotometer is an instrument used to measure color and provide output in numerical form
(Shah & Gandhi 1990). When light is passed into an object, it undergoes transmission, reflection, and
in some cases, refraction (for certain materials). In the case of textiles, the light undergoes reflection,
internal reflection, and absorption, and a spectrophotometer is necessary to measure the color because
textiles are opaque in nature. The color and appearance of an object depend on its reflectance and
absorbance in combination with its chemical and structural properties. When light strikes an opaque
object, it undergoes both reflection and absorbance, leading to quantitative measurement. The color of
the object is related to the shape of the curve produced, providing an indication of the object's color
(Furferi & Carfagni 2010, Emel & Yalcin 2011).

The spectrophotometer and computer system are the primary components of a color measuring
instrument (Michael 1968). The spectrophotometer measures the spectral reflectance of samples at 16
wavelengths in the visible spectrum (400nm-700nm) and the computer software calculates the color in
numerical form from the spectral reflectance data. The spectrophotometer uses a holographic net with
a diode cell as a monochromator and a xenon flash bulb as the illuminant (Sule 1996). Two sensors
are utilized, with light reflected from the surface of the specimen at an 8° angle to the normal entering
the first spectral sensor through an optical fiber cable, and light inside the integration sphere
illuminating the specimen entering the second spectral sensor. The light from each optical fiber cable
is divided by wavelength with a 10 or 20 nm pitch (400nm-700nm) before reaching the segments of
the silicon photodiode array in the spectral sensors. These sensors convert the light into electrical
currents proportional to the intensity of the light, which are then passed to the analog control circuits
and converted into digital signals (Peter Blum 1997). The measurements taken generally include
reflectance spectra, CIELAB coordinates, tristimulus values, and whiteness indices (by CIE and
Berger's systems). The CIELAB coordinates are used to calculate color differences, including the total
color difference (DE), difference of lightness (DL), and differences on the red-green (Da) and blue-
yellow (Db) coordinates.

A colour space is derived to improve the reflection behavior in digital images. In order to make small
changes to the current rendering system, new multiplication and division operators were defined for
colours. The measurement results can be recorded in various forms, including graphically as spectral
reflectance or colour difference, or as numerical values for colour spaces like XYZ, Yxy, Lab*, LCHº,
Hunter Lab, or Luv*. Additionally, other metrics such as metamerism index, Munsell notation, CMC
(2:1) or (1:1), FMC-2, whiteness index, and yellowness index can also be calculated (Karbasi et al
2008, Peter Blum 1997).

When comparing colours with an instrument, it's important to provide the following information
(Hunter Lab, 2000):

• The type of colour scale or index being reported

• The illuminant

• The observer
• The type of instrument, its geometry and mode of operation

• The instrument's calibration

• The preparation of the sample

Without this information, comparisons between samples using instruments may be meaningless.

A color matching system requires a reliable and repeatable spectrophotometer as its key component.
The spectrophotometer consists of a light source, optics, monochromator, and detection system.
Tristimulus values are used to specify the visual responses to reflected color precisely. If the color
matches are considered satisfactory, their tristimulus values must be close to each other. Color
appraisal can be used for aesthetic purposes, matching to a standard, quality control during
production, or matching accessories. Proper illumination is important for accurate color matching.
Observer differences, just like differences in illuminant color temperature, can also affect color
appraisal (Daniel, 1962).

Revised long paragraph: The light source is the most crucial component of a spectrophotometer, as all
other functions depend on its production of light and subsequent measurement. Pulsed xenon-arc
lamps and quartz-tungsten halide are two common sources of light. For color measurements, it is
recommended to use the CIE standard illuminant D 65, which resembles natural daylight at 6500 K,
or the standard illuminant A, which represents the light of a tungsten lamp with a temperature of
2856ºK. The standard illuminant is chosen based on the International Standard and the colorimetric
determination of a special metamerism index.

The optics system in a spectrophotometer plays a crucial role in the functioning of the instrument. The
system is designed to direct the light produced by the light source, the light reflected from the sample,
and the light that is being measured, to the monochromator and detection device. There are two types
of optics systems: normal and reverse. The normal system monochromates the light, reflects it off the
sample, and then detects it. In contrast, the reverse system reflects the light first, then monochromates
it before finally detecting it. The majority of spectrophotometers utilize the reverse optics system.

A monochromator is an essential component of a spectrophotometer that helps to separate

polychromatic light into small, single-color bands for analysis. There are three types of
monochromators: prisms, wedge types, and gratings. The degree of monochromaticity is expressed as
the bandwidth, which should be as narrow as possible to provide more accurate analysis but not so
narrow that diffraction occurs. For color analysis in textile materials, a bandwidth of 5-15 nm is
considered adequate.

The final stage of color measurement in a spectrophotometer involves the use of a photodetection
system. This system converts light into an electric signal using photosensitive tubes. There are various
types of photodetection devices, including photomultiplier tubes, photovoltaic cells, phototubes,
silicon photodiodes, and photoconductivity detectors. Among these, photomultiplier tubes and silicon
photodiodes are the most commonly used. Photomultiplier tubes are highly sensitive, but are bulkier
than silicon photodiodes. Silicon photodiodes are compact, but less sensitive than photomultiplier
tubes. When light hits the photodetection device, it causes electrons to be abstracted and multiplied,
producing a current that is read by a computer.
 The use of portable spectrophotometers has increased significantly in recent
years, particularly among garment and fabric exporters for shade monitoring and
sorting. Leading manufacturers of these devices include Minolta in Japan and X-
Rite in the USA. These portable spectrophotometers are rechargeable and weigh
between 1 to 2.5 kg, but their accuracy and long-term reproducibility and
repeatability are not as good as those of table models. On-line color measurement
is used in Sturdy telespectrophotometer, which was developed for continuous and
on-line color measurement of shades during the padding and semi-drying process,
so that corrective actions can be taken in the middle of the production process.
These spectrophotometers measure the color from edge to edge from a distance of
1-6 meters and are based on pulsed xenon arc lamps.

The "Colour Mixture Computer" (COMIC) is a device that measures reflected light from a sample of
colored material at various wavelengths. It uses the CIE standard source "A" as the source for six
primary colors, which are filtered through blue, blue-green, green, yellow, orange, and red glass
filters. The light passes through the filters and into an integrating sphere, the walls of which are coated
with magnesium oxide. The test colors are then transformed into chromaticity coordinates x, y (NPG
Colour Procedure Manual, March 2001). A table can be created to showcase the features of various
spectrophotometers.

Spectrophotomete Beam Source Monochromator Photodetector Wavelength

r range (nm)
Spectrosensor II Single QTH Wedge SPD 400-700 IR
(ACS) up to 1100
GS-5/Spectrogard Duel QTH Grating SPD 380-720
(Pretema)
Colourquest Single QTH Grating SPDA 400-710
(Hunterlab)
Colour Eye Duel PXA Grating SPDA 360-750
(Macbeth)
Colour Scan II Duel QTH Grating PMT 380-780
(Milton Roy)
Data flash 100 Duel PXA Grating SPDA 400-700
(Datacolour)

PXA = Pulsed Xenon Arc QTH = Quartz Tungstan Halide

SPD = Silicon Photo Diode SPDA = Silicon Photo Diode Arrey

PMT = Photomultiplier Tube

Note: All spectrophotometer have d/8º viewing geometry

In the past, color quality control software packages had limited options, including a maximum of four
illuminants, color difference formulae, indices, and limited graphics display capabilities. However,
with the increased storage capacity of computers, the software now provides more options and
features.
The programs commonly available today include color specification, color difference, pass-fail
analysis, shade sorting using the 555 system, dye strength evaluation, residual tone analysis,
whiteness and yellowness indices, and various plots such as absorbance vs. wavelength, reflectance
vs. wavelength, and normalized k/s vs. dye concentration. The software also includes statistical
methods for data analysis. (Sule 1996).

The study of color in relation to illumination environment and surface

reflectance is important. The chromatic properties of objects are governed by
their surface reflectance, which depends on the spectral power distribution of
ambient light. To understand the constant appearance of an object's color
despite changes in illumination, researchers have used algorithms and statistical
models to separate illumination and surface reflectance. This concept, known as
color constancy, is crucial for vision.
Reference standards for color measurements include MgO, MgCO3, BaSO4,
and white vitrolite. However, these standards have disadvantages such as
yellowing over time, with BaSO4 being the slowest to yellow among them.
The lack of proper color management procedures and instruments in some textile industries has led to
problems in color approvals and delays. This can be studied through a case example where the
physical samples (swatches) or color pallets are received from the supply chain and the industry is
asked to produce Lab-Dips to show how the sample will look on a selected textile substrate,
considering factors such as color/shade, metamerism, color fastness properties, cost of dyes, and the
coloring method. The aim is to ensure that the set matches on a D65 light source and also on other
light sources such as TL84.

The process of producing lab-dips in the textile industry can be a time-consuming task. It starts with a
colorist trying to match the desired color with a given swatch or color palette. Due to the subjective
nature of color matching, it can often take several attempts and up to an hour per attempt to produce a
lab-dip that meets the customer's requirements. Once produced, the lab-dip must then be sent to the
customer for approval, which can also be a time-consuming process and can lead to disagreements
and confusion. In order to ensure accuracy and avoid disputes, it is important to quantify the color of
the lab-dips to establish clear and precise standards. The entire process can take several days,
depending on various factors such as the colorist's experience and the type of shade being produced.

There are several challenges in the process of producing lab-dips in the textile industry.
Firstly, it is a time-consuming task, which requires multiple attempts and is heavily
dependent on the colorist's experience. The process starts with matching the color with the
given swatch or palette, which can take up to 30 to 60 minutes per attempt. On average, it
may take 3 to 4 attempts for an experienced colorist to produce a lab-dip that is as close to
the standard as possible. The produced lab-dips then need to be sent to the customer for
approval, which adds to the time taken for the process.

Additionally, there is always the risk of errors and mismatches in lab-dips, leading to
rejection. The main factors that contribute to such errors include the colorist's experience,
dye selection criteria, and viewing conditions such as the observer's angle, light source, and
 sample position in the light box. The size of the lab-dips may also play a role if they are
larger than the standard swatch size. These challenges add to the already time-consuming
process, and in the case of rejection, another 3 to 4 weeks may need to be added to the
timeline.

Effective color management during the color approval stage can be improved by using instruments
instead of relying solely on visual methods. The selected colors can be set by an authority using color
pallets or through numerical values determined by instruments. There are multiple options available in
the color approval process, including the use of instruments to ensure accurate and consistent results.

The color approval process in textile industries often lacks formal procedures and instrument systems,
leading to errors and delays. The traditional method of producing lab-dips relies on the experience of
the colorist and can take several trials to produce a color that matches the customer's standard. This
method is also time-consuming and leaves room for misinterpretation during customer approval.

To avoid these issues, retailers are turning towards instrumental color management practices during
the color approval stage. The use of spectrophotometers and calibrated monitors can reduce human
error and save time. The color can be quantified using numerical values such as ΔE, ΔL, ΔC and ΔH.
Other options such as recipe prediction systems and on-screen metamerism prediction can further
enhance color accuracy. This long-term investment can bring significant savings and can expect to
pay back within a year.

Creating lab-dips is a time-consuming process that depends on the colorist's experience in matching
colors with a given swatch or palette. The colorist may require multiple attempts, ranging from 3 to 6,
to produce a lab-dip that closely matches the standard. The lab-dips are then sent to the customer for
approval, but physical submissions can lead to disagreements and technical battles over color
accuracy.

To minimize errors, retailers are increasingly turning to instrumental methods for color management
during the approval stage, such as using spectrophotometers and calibrated monitors. These methods
save time and improve accuracy by minimizing human intervention. The use of instruments also
allows for the quantification of color values, such as ΔE, ΔL, ΔC, and ΔH.

In the production stage, when textiles are dyed or printed in large quantities, the margin of error is
small, and any rejections can lead to significant costs, wasted time and effort, and loss of customers.
The right first time (RFT) approach, which involves using color measuring instruments for color
communication and control, can reduce the risk of mistakes and save time by avoiding the need for
additional trials. The use of dye recipes for lab-dips can also save time, but the recipe cannot
guarantee an exact match with the standard, which is why instruments are still necessary._))))_

Simply spectrophotometer is used to determine colour, it generates colour quantified values ΔE, ΔL,
ΔC and ΔH. The customer standard is fed in to the spectrophotometer and considered all ΔE, ΔL, ΔC
and ΔH at 0.0. The samples are drawn during the production run and measured in spectrophotometer
against the standard. The deviated values may be for example:
ΔE= 0.66, ΔL= 0.45, ΔC=0.82 and ΔH= 0.24

The spectrophotometer computes by using equation 1 discussed in section 2 and provide dyers a
valuable guidance whether colour/ shade is passed or fail against standard. Another advantage of
using instruments is that the data of each dye can be stored and recipe can be predicted prior

to bulk run. The predicted recipe formulation further guide the cost analysis, Metamerism, coloration
methodology and the trend of each dye behavior in both reflectance as well as colour strength modes.
Figure 4 shows the reflectance pattern of each dye over the visible spectrum 350-750 nm.(McDonald
(ed.), 1987)

Figure 5 shows colour strength (K/S) values of each dye concentration over visible spectrum form
350-750 nm. Each dye can be managed and control instrumentally by using both reflectance data and
K/S values. Managing colour during coloration process can save lot of time. Dyers sometime careless
to follow colour matching instrumentally and feel botheration to use technology as a result they
attempt and believe their experience and guess that may result into a perfect match or go beyond the
limit. The dyer should adhere himself to the following important points to avoid any discrepancy
while colour matching and can save colour matching time:

i. Proper record in spectrophotometer

ii. Must follow same spectrophotometer parameter as set when standard was measured and saved

iii. Proper conditioning prior to reading in spectrophotometer

iv. Check setting parameter of spectrophotometer

v. Learn to master in reading spectrophotometer

vi. Educated guess based on report for further dye additions to the dye bath if needed

vii. Keep record of history of all dye addition

viii. Keep all trial in consistency order and number properly

ix. Keep the commercial factor as lower as possible to keep room for improvement in further
processing stages, the commercial factor may be set between 0.8 and 1.0
x. It is also advised to target ΔC and ΔH for more perfection.(Safer, Klaus & Roger,2021)

Another problematic color sensation variable is color fatigue. When an individual views a

potential color match, because of the process of color vision, the nerve light receptors in the eye

begin to fatigue. The result is that color matches begin to appear closer over time, usually after

15-20 seconds of viewing. Also viewing bright colors just before viewing deep colors can affect

color judgment without enough time allowed for visual rest and recovery. Many have suggested

that at least 1-2 minutes are required for color vision to recover between viewing divergent

colors. As mentioned earlier, color monitors only have three primary color stimuli. The

condition known as a color fusion allows for perception of smooth solid colors rather than

specky or uneven color on monitors, color photos, color paper printing, and certain textile

materials. Another color sensation variable, which often creates problems for textile producers

and buyers, is the influence of the surround or background on the color being judged. To

minimize this effect, shade booths normally have standard gray interior color. However, this

variable (simultaneous contrast) is a definite factor when judging individual colors within pattern

fabrics such as textile prints or yarn dyes.

8.2. Because of the importance and widespread use of visual assessment of color and the fact that

numerous variables exist in this process, AATCC has published an evaluation procedure entitled

“Visual Assessment of Color Difference of Textiles.” The procedure provides information and a

systematic method for standardized visual color evaluation. It also describes important color

matching variables such as illumination type, illumination level, viewing environment, viewing

geometry, and reporting procedures. This method is highly recommended as a guide for textile

materials. It does not give definite pass/fail tolerances for shade matching, but does indicate

some important considerations. (Chrisment & Alain,1997)

Once textile materials have been dyed or printed, several other issues concerning shade quality

and evaluation should be considered. Shade sorting is a color quality control system, which

works well when high volumes of the same shade on the same fabric constructions are sold to

numerous fabric buyers. Once shade tolerances are set, then fabrics that fall within those

tolerance limits, yet are somewhat dissimilar from each other due to cast or shade depth, are

sorted and grouped in the finished goods warehouse, so each fabric buyer receives as consistent a

fabric shade as possible. For example, each roll of cotton twill khaki fabric will be color
evaluated, then color grouped such as slightly red, slightly yellow, slightly blue, slightly deep,

and slightly light. Once grouped, the slightly green khaki is shipped to buyer #1, the slightly red

khaki is shipped to buyer #2, and so forth. However, this system does not work so well for low

volumes of wide shade ranges to multiple buyers. There are a number of these types of color

control systems available, but any system used should be adapted to the specific needs of the

supplier and buyer.

Not only is the initial acceptable shade important for textile product quality, but also the

retention of shade by the textile after exposure to various end use conditions. AATCC has

published three visual color evaluation procedures employing scales to help standardize the

judgment of shade quality of textiles. These procedures are the “Gray Scale for Color Change,”

the “Gray Scale for Staining,” and the “AATCC 9-Step Chromatic Transference Scale.” All

three scales require consideration of key issues such as illuminant choice, viewing conditions,

and the color normalcy and skill of the observer. Each scale is designed for specificcircumstances.

The Gray Scale for Color Change is used for visual evaluation of changes in color of the textiles

resulting from colorfastness tests such as washing in home or commercial laundries, dry

cleaning, and exposure to light, or exposure to chlorinated pool water. The scale allows for a

rating of 1-5 with half-step grades intermediate between each whole step pair. Grade 5 is the

highest grade and is considered as no noticeable color change after testing between the original

and tested fabric samples.(Brockes,1990)

The AATCC 9-Step Chromatic Transference Scale is used in the evaluation of staining of

undyed textiles in colorfastness tests, especially crockfastness. The purpose of this scale is

similar to that of the Gray Scale for Staining. It differs in that it consists of 60 color chips in five

hues: red, yellow, green, blue, purple, and neutral gray, corresponding to the Gray Scale for

Staining. Many manufacturers have found these chromatic scales somewhat easier to use than

the gray scale. However, for critical evaluations or in the case of legal arbitration or litigation,

the Gray Scale for Staining should be used.(Scott & Tinsley,2002)

In summary, although the perception of color is as normal to human beings as sight itself,
thecomplexities of color make color perception difficult at best. These complications of colorvision
include different light sources, differences of fibers, yarns, and fabrics as well ascomplications caused
by color sensation variations and communication. The color professionalshould always take steps to
control as many variables as possible when judging the color andcolor quality of textile products.
Consideration of factors such as illuminants, textile productcontent, and constructions and observer
issues are all important to the accurate and consistentevaluation of the color of textiles.Computer
Aided Colour Measuring and Match Prediction System (CACMPS), now a days, become an essential
tools for each textile dye houses to match colours or shade as per panton shade nos. or as per given
samples, to reduce export rejection for colours. Moreover, to judge colour fastness grading more
accurately from measurement of colour difference values after corresponding fading by wash or light
or rubbing etc., than subjective/comparative judging by grey scale rating purpose is more scientific
and advantegios. Quality control activity and batch to batch pass /fail checking of shades developed
from shift to shift needs to be implemented in all dye houses for quality assurance on colour matching
which is an integral demand of today’s apparel and fashion industry. Hence learning of colorimetric
principles of UV VIS reflectance spectrophotometer and proper utilisation of this instrument carefully
for deriving all round benefits out of it, for surface colour measuring and matching of textiles for
customer satisfaction is also helps in brand building by quality assurance on colour matching of
textiles.

Achromatic colors: are colors that are neutral and do not belong to any specific color group. They are
shades of gray, white, and black. These colors are often used as neutral backgrounds or to create a
sense of calm and simplicity. They can also be used to create a sense of depth and shadow in textiles,
as well as to balance brighter colors. Achromatic colors are considered to be timeless and versatile,
and can be used in any design scheme.

Admixture: refers to the process of adding one or more substances to a base material to enhance or
modify its properties. In textiles, admixture is often used to improve the performance and durability of
fibers, such as adding fire retardants or UV inhibitors.

The additive color system: is a color mixing system that is used in light-based technologies such as
televisions, computer monitors, and projectors. In this system, colors are created by mixing different
intensities of red, green, and blue light. When all three colors are combined at their maximum
intensity, white light is produced. When different intensities of red, green, and blue light are
combined, a wide range of colors can be produced.
Analogous colors:are colors that are next to each other on the color wheel and have a harmonious
relationship. They create a sense of unity and flow in a design and are often used to create a
harmonious and cohesive look in textiles. Analogous colors are usually comprised of three to five
colors that are close together on the color wheel.

Balance: in color refers to the distribution of colors in a textile design that creates a sense of stability
and harmony. Color balance is achieved by using different color values and intensities in a design, so
that the eye perceives an equal distribution of color throughout the composition.

Chroma: refers to the intensity or saturation of a color. It is a measure of the purity of a color, with
higher chroma colors being more pure and intense, and lower chroma colors being more muted or
grayed.

The CMYK color model: also known as the four-color process, is a subtractive color model used in
color printing and the production of textiles, inks, and dyes. The CMYK model stands for cyan,
magenta, yellow, and black (K), which are the four colors used to create a wide range of colors in
printing.

Color: is a visual sensation that is perceived by the human eye and is the result of the reflection,
transmission, or emission of light. It is an essential aspect of the visual arts, including textiles, and can
be used to create mood, convey meaning, and enhance visual interest.

A color palette is a selection of colors that are used in a specific design, including textiles. A color
palette can consist of a few colors or many, and is used to create a cohesive and harmonious look in
the design.
A color scheme is a selection of colors used in a design that work together to create a harmonious and
cohesive look. There are various color schemes that can be used in textile design, including
complementary, analogous, monochromatic, and triadic.
Color temperature is a characteristic of light that is measured in degrees Kelvin and describes the
warmth or coolness of a particular color. It refers to the hue of a neutral (gray) color when it is lit by a
specific light source.
The color wheel is a visual representation of the relationships between different colors. It is a circular
diagram that shows the basic colors and the relationships between them.
Complementary colors are colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel. When placed next
to each other, they create a high contrast and visual interest. Complementary colors can also be used
to neutralize each other and create a harmonious balance.
Contrast in textiles refers to the difference in visual properties, such as lightness, darkness, and
saturation, between two or more colors. High contrast between colors can create a bold and dynamic
look, while low contrast can result in a more harmonious and subdued look.
Cool colors are colors that are associated with a sense of calm, tranquility, and freshness. They are
typically blue, green, and purple and are located on the cool side of the color wheel.
Deutan or Proton color vision is a type of color blindness that affects an individual's ability to see
certain colors. Deutan color blindness, also known as green-weak color blindness, is a type of color
vision deficiency in which individuals have difficulty distinguishing between greens and reds.
A diad is a pair of colors that are located next to each other on the color wheel. Diads are often used
in textile design to create a harmonious and balanced look.
Discordant colors are colors that are not typically found together in nature and have a high degree of
visual tension when placed next to each other. They are often used in textile design to create a bold
and eye-catching look.
A double compliment is a group of four colors that are arranged in a rectangle shape on the color
wheel. The four colors are complementary pairs, meaning that they are located opposite each other on
the color wheel.
Earth tones are colors that are inspired by the natural environment and are typically brown, green,
and beige. They are considered warm and grounding colors and are often used in textile design to
create a sense of stability and comfort.
Fad is a temporary trend or craze, often related to fashion or style. In the textile industry, fads can
refer to a current popular color, pattern, or design that is in high demand.
Film color refers to the colors and tones that are present in a motion picture or video. Film color can
have a significant impact on the mood and atmosphere of a film, and is carefully controlled by the
cinematographer and color grader.
Gray is a neutral color that is a mixture of black and white. It is often considered calming and
understated, and can be used to create a sense of balance and sophistication in textile design.
Grayscale refers to a range of shades of gray, from white to black, that are used to represent different
levels of brightness and darkness in images and printing. Grayscale is often used in photography,
digital imaging, and printing to represent images in black and white, or to adjust the tonal.
Harmony color refers to the use of colors in a deliberate and balanced way to create a pleasing and
cohesive look. In textile design, color harmony can be achieved through the use of complementary
colors, analogous colors, monochromatic colors.
Hue refers to the basic attribute of a color that determines its position on the color wheel. Hues are the
purest form of a color and are not mixed with any other colors.
Intensity, also known as saturation or chroma, refers to the purity and strength of a color.
Intermediate colors are colors that are between two primary or secondary colors on the color wheel.
Light natural colors are colors that are found in nature and are characterized by their light and airy
tones.
Luminosity refers to the brightness or lightness of a color. In color theory, luminosity is measured on
a scale from black (0%) to white (100%) and determines the overall lightness or darkness of a color.
Metamerism refers to a phenomenon in color perception where two colors appear to match under one
light source but appear different under another.
Monochromatic refers to the use of a single color in various shades and tints to create a cohesive
color scheme. A monochromatic color scheme consists of one hue, but can include a range of values
(lightness and darkness) and intensities (purity and strength).
Monotone refers to the use of a single color in a design, without any variation in hue, value or
intensity.
Neutral colors are colors that are considered to be neither warm nor cool, and are often used as a base
or background color in textile design
Optical mixing is a process in which two or more light sources are combined to form a single,
composite light output. This is typically achieved by overlapping the light beams in a medium that
allows light to pass through and mix.
Photoreceptors are specialized cells in the retina of the eye that are responsible for detecting light
and transmitting the resulting electrical signals to the brain. There are two main types of
photoreceptors: rods and cones.
Primary colors are a set of colors that can be combined in varying amounts to produce a gamut of
different colors. There are different color models that use different sets of primary colors, the two
most common being RGB (Red Green Blue) and CMYK (Cyan Magenta Yellow Key/Black).
RGB (Red Green Blue) color is a color model used in digital imaging and computer graphics. In this
color model, colors are created by combining red, green, and blue light in various intensities.
Saturation is a color attribute that describes the intensity or purity of a color. It refers to how much
white or gray is mixed with a hue to produce a certain shade. Saturation can be thought of as the
amount of color in a hue.
A spectrum is a range of continuous wave frequencies or energies. It is used to describe the
distribution of light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation according to its frequency or
wavelength.
Subtractive color is a color model used in printing and painting, in which color is created by
subtracting or absorbing certain wavelengths of light.
Tertiary colors are colors formed by the combination of a primary color and a secondary color in a
color wheel.
Texture refers to the surface quality of an object or material, including its roughness, smoothness,
bumpiness, or other physical attributes. Texture can be used to describe the physical appearance of
objects, but also the way they feel to the touch or interact with light.
A tint is a variation of a color produced by mixing it with white. Tints are created by increasing the
lightness of a color, which makes it appear lighter and closer to white.
Triadic is a term used in color theory to describe a color scheme that uses three colors that are equally
spaced from each other on the color wheel.
In color theory, value refers to the lightness or darkness of a color. It is a measure of the amount of
white or black that is mixed with a color to produce a specific shade or hue.
The visible spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by the human
eye. It is the range of wavelengths of light that are visible to the human eye, and it encompasses a
range of colors from violet to red.
Warm colors are colors that are associated with warmth, energy, and excitement. These colors are
typically thought of as being on the red, orange, and yellow side of the color wheel.
Wavelength is a measure of the distance between two successive peaks or troughs of a wave. In the
context of light and color, wavelength refers to the distance between two consecutive peaks of an
electromagnetic wave, which determines the color of the light.
White is a color that is characterized by the complete absence of color or the reflection of all colors of
light. It is the color of sunlight, snow, and most clouds. White light is actually made up of all the
colors of the visible spectrum combined, and it is this combination of colors that gives the perception
of white.
In summary, although the perception of color is as normal to human beings as sight itself,
thecomplexities of color make color perception difficult at best. These complications of colorvision
include different light sources, differences of fibers, yarns, and fabrics as well ascomplications caused
by color sensation variations and communication. The color professionalshould always take steps to
control as many variables as possible when judging the color andcolor quality of textile products.
Consideration of factors such as illuminants, textile productcontent, and constructions and observer
issues are all important to the accurate and consistentevaluation of the color of textiles.Computer
Aided Colour Measuring and Match Prediction System (CACMPS), now a days, become an essential
tools for each textile dye houses to match colours or shade as per panton shade nos. or as per given
samples, to reduce export rejection for colours. Moreover, to judge colour fastness grading more
accurately from measurement of colour difference values after corresponding fading by wash or light
or rubbing etc., than subjective/comparative judging by grey scale rating purpose is more scientific
and advantegios. Quality control activity and batch to batch pass /fail checking of shades developed
from shift to shift needs to be implemented in all dye houses for quality assurance on colour matching
which is an integral demand of today’s apparel and fashion industry. Hence learning of colorimetric
principles of UV VIS reflectance spectrophotometer and proper utilisation of this instrument carefully
for deriving all round benefits out of it, for surface colour measuring and matching of textiles for
customer satisfaction is also helps in brand building by quality assurance on colour matching of
textiles.