Unit

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
6

Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Describe the different Gestalt principles;

2. List ways of applying Gestalt Psychology in the learning process;
3. Describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing, and retrieving knowledge;
4. Discuss the implication of the theory on information processing;
5. Describe the development of the child’s ability to represent knowledge;
6. Make simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using Gagne’s instruction events; and
7. Discuss Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory.

Activating Your Prior Knowledge

Examine the pictures below. What does each picture suggest?

What was your experience in this activity? How did you identify each picture? What helped you
perceived the pictures?

Expanding Your Knowledge

7.1 Gestalt Psychology
 Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It served as the foundation
of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external and mechanistic focus of behaviorism. It
considered the mental processes and products of perception.
Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of
sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception. Gestalt means “forms” or “configuration.”
Psychologists Max Wertheimer; Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka studied perception and concluded
that perceivers (learners) are not passive, but rather active. They suggested that learners do not just collect
information as is but they actively process and restructure data in order to understand it. This is the
perceptual process. Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past experiences, needs,
attitudes, and one’s present situation can affect their perception.
One may have difficulty perceiving both the words “you” and “me” in the first picture in the
activity if one is trying to forget an ex-sweetheart who caused pain; or simply because he was looking on
the foreground and not the background.
According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are guided by certain
principles or laws.

Gestalt Principles.

1. Law of Proximity. Elements that are closer together will be perceived as a coherent object.
2. Law of Similarity. Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form. There seems
to be a triangle in the square. We link similar elements together.
3. Law of Closure. We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we perceive. We enclose a space by
completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure.
4. Law of Good Continuation (continuity). Individuals have the tendency to continue contours
whenever the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction. People tend to draw a good
continuous line.
5. Law of Good Pragnanz. The stimulus will be organized into as good a figure as possible. In this
example, good refers to symmetry, simplicity, and regularity. The figure is perceived as a square
overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several complicated shapes. Based on our experiences with
perception, we “expect” certain patterns and therefore perceive that expected pattern.
6. Law of Figure/Ground. We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first. A
stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground.
Insightful Learning

The idea was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he described experiments with apes
where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems. In the box problem, a banana is
attached to the top of a chimpanzee’s cage. The banana is out of reach but can be reached by climbing on
and jumping from a box. Only one of Kohler’s apes (Sultan) could solve this problem. A much more
difficult problem which involved the stacking of boxes was introduced by kohler. This problem required
the apes to stack one box on another, and master gravitational problems by building a stable stack. Kohler
also gave the apes sticks which they used to rake food into the cage. Sultan, kohler’s very intelligent ape,
was able to master a two-stick problem by inserting one stick into the end of the other in order to reach
the food. In each of these problems, the important aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but the
coordination of thinking to create new organizations (of materials). Kohler referred this behavior as
insight or discovery learning.
Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process

The six gestalt principles not only influence perception but they also impact on learning. Other
psychologists like Kurt Lewin expounded on gestalt psychology. His theory focusing on “life space”
adhered to gestalt psychology. He said that an individual has inner and outer forces that affect his
perceptions and also his learning. Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes, and feelings. Outer
forces may include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmates. All these forces interact and
impact on the person’s learning. Mario Polito, an Italian psychologist, writes about the relevance of
gestalt psychology to education.
Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here and now. It
considers with interest the life space of teachers as well as students. It takes interest in the complexity of
experience, without neglecting anything, but accepting and amplifying all that emerges. It stimulates
learning as experience and the experience as a source of learning.

7.2 Information Processing Theory

Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge

enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory.
Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is learned.
They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change (as behaviorist
theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store, and retrieve information. They believe
that how a person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shape what s/he will learn. Information
Processing Theory describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment through
the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information will continue to pass
through the sensory register, then the short term memory and the long term memory. Certain factors
would also determine whether the information will be retrieved or “remembered” when the learner needs
it.

Types of Knowledge
1. General vs. Specific. This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks or only in one.
2. Declarative. This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. They may
be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition
of IPT, or even the face of somebody.
3. Procedural. This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a lesson plan,
baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator.
4. Episodic. This includes memories of life events like your high school graduation.
5. Conditional. This is about “knowing when and why” to apply declarative or procedural strategies.

Three Primary Stages in Information Processing Theory

The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the memory system and
brought back (recalled) when needed.
1. Encoding – Information is sensed, perceived, and attended to.
2. Storage – the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon the
processes following encoding.
3. Retrieval – the information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for use on a current
task, the true measure of effective memory.

Sensory Register – the first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very brief time.
Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what our minds
can hold or perceive.
Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief period – in the
order of 1 to 3 seconds.
There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more persistent than visual.

The Role of Attention – before information is perceived, it is known as “precategorical” information.

This means that until that point, the learner has not established a determination of the categorical
membership of the information. To this point, the information is coming in as uninterpreted patterns of
stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can categorize, judge, interpret and place meaning to the stimuli.
Therefore, attention occur. If we fail to perceive, we have no means by which to recognize that the
stimulus was never encountered.
Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the material; when there is
conscious control over attention or when information involves novelty, surprise, salience, and
distinctiveness.

Short-term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

Capacity: Hold 5 to 9 “chunks” of information. It is called working memory because it is where
new information is temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STN maintains information for a
limited time, until learner has adequate resources to process the information or until information is
forgotten.
 Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.
To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance rehearsal. It is using
repetition to keep the information active in STM, like when you repeat a phone number just given over
and over.

Long-term Memory (LTM) The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information.
It holds the stored information until needed again.
Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.
Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite.
Executive Control Processes – involve the executive processor or what is referred to as metacognitive
skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system, help the learner make informed
decisions about how to categorize, organize, or interpret information. Example of processes are attention,
rehearsals, and organization.

Forgetting - the inability to retrieve or access information when needed. There are two ways in which
forgetting likely occurs:
1. Decay – information is not attended to and eventually “fades” away. Very prevalent in working
memory.
2. Interference – new or old information “blocks” access to the information in question.

Methods for increasing retrieval of information

1. Rehearsal – repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
2. Meaningful learning – making connections between new information and prior knowledge.
3. Organization – making connections among various pieces of information. Info that is organized
efficiently should be recalled.
4. Elaboration – adding additional ideas to new information based on what one already knows. It is
connecting new info with old to gain meaning.
5. Visual imagery – picture of the information.
6. Generation – things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear.
7. Context – remembering the situation helps recover information.
8. Personalization – making the information relevant to the individual.
9. Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) – remember the beginning and end of a list more
readily.
10. Part Learning – break up the list or chunk information to increase memorization.
11. Distributed Practice – break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once
(Massed Practice)
12. Mnemonic Aids – includes loci technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and
association techniques, among others.

7.3 Gagne’s Conditions of Learning

Gagne’s theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the focus of the theory is on
intellectual skills. The theory has been utilized to design instruction in all domains. In the earlier version,
special attention was given to military training settings. Later, Gagne also looked into the role of
instructional technology in learning.

GAGNE’S PRINCIPLES

I. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Gagne’s theory asserts that there are
several different types or levels of learning. Furthermore, the theory implies that each different type of
learning calls for different types of instruction. He named five categories for learning: verbal
information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills, and attitudes. Distinct internal and
external conditions are required for each type of learning.
Five Categories of Learning
A. Intellectual Skills
Intellectual skills, formerly known as procedural skills, is the most clear-cut way to identify the learner’s
preparedness. They include concepts, rules and procedures (Gagné, 1984). Rules and concepts are
typically derived from simpler rules and concepts. In simpler rules and concepts lie the essential
prerequisites for learning new intellectual, more complex skills. Intellectual skills are involved in the
application of real-world scenarios (Gagné, 1984); it is knowing how to do something.
B. Verbal Information
Verbal information, or declarative knowledge, is seen when the learner is able to declare or state what he
or she has learned. Declarative knowledge is made up of organized and meaningful categories that can be
recalled in a variety of ways by the learner (Gagné, 1984). In this category, previously learned
information aids the learning of new information (Gagne, 1980); it is the organized body of knowledge
that we acquire.
C. Cognitive Strategies
Gagné defines cognitive strategies as enabling learners to “exercise some degree of control over the
processes involved in attending, perceiving, encoding, remembering, and thinking” (Gagné, 1984). In
other words, the student employs personal ways to learn, think, guide, and act. Instructional design which
promotes internal and external learning activities is the core of Gagné’s cognitive perspective (Richey,
2000).

D. Motor Skills
Simply put, this learning involves seeing how the learner is able to carry out steps of a motor
performance, or procedure, in proper order; it is the combining of part-skills (Billings & Halstead, 2012;
Gagne, 1980), or hands on nursing skills. When gradual improvements in the smoothness and timing of
the movement are gained through practice then the skill is defined as a motor skill (Gagné, 1984).
E. Attitude
Attitudes are inferred internal states that cannot be observed directly and sometimes described as having
emotional and cognitive components; they influence behavior (Gagné, 1984). It is the attitude, or bias,
that affects the learner’s action toward something or someone.

II. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction. He
suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to
complexity. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be
completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a
learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.

Eight Conditions of Learning Hierarchy

1. Signal learning- the simplest form of learning known as classical conditioning. The learner is
conditioned to produce a desired (involuntary) response as a result of a stimulus that would not normally
produce that response i.e a salivation (condition) at the sound of a bell (stimulus) (Maheshwari, 2013).
2. Stimulus-response learning- this is a voluntary response to learning that may be used in acquiring
verbal skills as well as physical movements (Maheshwari, 2013). This type of learning can occur when
the instructor praises the learner for deeper thinking or provides constructive criticism during reflection or
debriefing.
3. Chain learning- occurs when the learner is able to connect two or more previously learned stimulus-
response bond into a linked order; more complexed psychomotor skills are learned, but they tend to occur
naturally (Maheshwari, 2013) i.e. learning how to tie shoestrings or buttoning a shirt.
4. Verbal association- occurs when the learner makes associations using verbal connections (Specht,
2008); it is the key process in language skill development (Maheshwari, 2013). For example a student
nurse being able to define medical terminology and apply it to clinical situation.
5. Discrimination learning- is seen when the learner is able to perform different responses to a series of
similar stimuli that may differ in a systematic way. Discrimination learning is made more difficult when
the learner comes across road blocks or interference that inhibits continual learning (Maheshwari, 2013).
For example a patient complaining of abdominal pain after abdominal surgery. The student must learn
how to differentiate this pain from that of gas, intrabdominal bleeding, incisional pain or infection.
Interference may present itself when the student can not see other key factors that may contribute to the
pain; therefore not allowing the student to fully address or manage the patient’s pain appropriately.
6. Concept learning- involves the ability to make consistent responses to different stimuli (Maheshwari,
2013); it is the process in which the learner learns how to organize learning in a systematic structure and
foster deeper learning. The student’s behavior is controlled by the abstract properties of each stimulus
(Maheshwari, 2013). The student nurse must realize interventions, or behaviors, appropriate for one
patient, or stimulus, may not be appropriate for the next patient.
7. Rule learning- this involves being able to learn relationships between two or more concepts and apply
them in different situations, new or old; it is the basis of learning general rules or procedures
(Maheshwari, 2013). This can be seen when the student can apply advocacy and confidentiality to a
patient situation.
8. Problem solving- involves developing the ability to invent a complex rule or procedure for the purpose
of solving one particular problem and other problems of a similar nature (Maheshwari, 2013); this can be
accomplished through case studies and reflection. Nursing students can improve on problem solving
through the nursing process: assessing, formulating a nursing diagnosis, analyzing data specific to the
problem, formulating a plan of action, implementing the plan, and evaluating the effectiveness of the
plan.

III. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning. These
events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing
instruction and selecting appropriate media.

The theory includes nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes.
1. Gaining attention- do something that peaks the learner's interest i.e. simulation, comedy, video, open
discussion about a topic, case studies (University of Florida, Center for Instructional Technology and
Training, 2014). Provide shocking pictures of an infected IV site from not properly cleaning or assessing
site (Thomas, 2012).
2. Informing the learner of the objectives- discuss, either verbally or through documentation: what will
be taught (Alutu, 2006), what will the learner take away from the lesson and/or how can they can transfer
their new knowledge to existing knowledge (University of Florida, Center for Instructional Technology
and Training, 2014).
3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning- ask higher learning question to engage information recall
i.e. pretests (Specht, 2008).
4. Presenting the stimulus- teach the lesson and emphasize important topics for learning; utilize teaching
tools like YouTube, Podcasts, etc (University of Florida, Center for Instructional Technology and
Training, 2014) to provide example of IV insertion.
5. Providing learner guidance- allow students time to practice (Specht, 2008), ask higher learner
questions to engage in critical thinking and information recall, be present during simulation or role
playing for guidance and assistance (Thomas, 2012).
6. Eliciting the performance- have the learner to perform task or verbally recite the task that was taught
(Specht, 2008).
7. Providing performance feedback- debrief the learner and let him/her know how they did correctly or
incorrectly (University of Florida, Center for Instructional Technology and Training, 2014), provide
constructive criticism, support learner to make suggestions for improvement, incorporate reflection or
collaborative thinking and encourage application to new situations.
8. Assess performance- evaluate learner on what they learned and what was taught; activate retrieval
(Alutu, 2006).
9. Enhance performance- provide cues/strategies for retrieval (Alutu, 2006); help learners remember
what was taught, provide further practice of skills in a clinical setting (Thomas, 2012).

These nine events can be performed by the instructor in order to stimulate or facilitate new learning and
build upon old learning.

Since Gagné expresses different types of learning, instructional decisions may need to vary according to
each learner and learning type(s). Richey (2000) provided some questions instructors should ask
themselves when constructing a design or learning activity:
* What and how much should the learner learn? (What does the learner already know and how should you
build upon that knowledge? Keeping in mind not to oversaturate the learner.)
* When and where should the learner learn? (Should learning be in the classroom, a simulated
environment or clinical setting?)
* What resources should be used in the design? (Should the learning activity involve case studies, video,
virtual reality, or guest lecturer who specializes in the topic being covered?)
* How will I know when learning has occurred or if the design requires a redesign and reimplementation?
(Will there be a pretest/posttest, role-playing, or a skills checkoff?)
(Richey, 2000)

7.4 Ausabel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/Subsumption Theory

David Ausubel’s idea are contained in his theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning. The main theme of
Ausubel’s theory is that knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new information is meaningful to the
extent that it can be related (attached, anchored) to what is already known. It is about how individuals
learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting. He
proposed the use of advance organizers as a tool for learning.

Focus of Ausubel’s Theory

1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity, and organization of the learner’s
present knowledge. This present knowledge consists of facts, concepts, propositions, theories, and raw
perceptual data that the learner has available to him/her at any point in time. This comprises his/her
cognitive structure.

2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible way to ideas
that the learner already possesses. Ausubel believed that before new material can be presented
effectively, the student’s cognitive structure should be strengthened. When this is done, acquisition and
retention of new information is facilitated. The way to strengthen the student’s cognitive structure is by
using advance organizers that allow students to already have a bird’s eye view or to see the big picture of
the topic to be learned even before going to the details.

Ausubel belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the principle of subsumption. He thought
that the primary way of learning was “Subsumption”; a process by which new material is related to
relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure. Likewise, he pointed out, that what is learned is based
on what is already known. This signifies that one’s own prior knowledge and biases limit and affect what
is learned. Also, retention of new knowledge is greater because it is based on prior concrete concepts.

Four Processes for Meaningful Learning to take place

A. Derivative Subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new information you learn is an
example of a concept that you have already learned. Let’s say you have acquired a basic concept such as
“Bird”. You know that a bird has a feathers, a beak, and lays egg. Now you learn about a kind of bird that
you have never seen before, let’s say a blue jay, that conforms to your previous understanding of bird.
Your new knowledge of blue jays is attached to your concept of bird, without substantially altering that
concept in any way. So, in Ausubel’s theory, you had learned about blue jays through the process of
derivative subsumption.

B. Correlative Subsumption. Examine this example. Let’s say you see a new kind of bird that has a
really big body and long strong legs. It doesn’t fly but it can run fast. In order to accommodate this new
information, you have to change or expand your concept of bird to include the possibility of being big and
having long legs. You now include your concept of an ostrich to your previous concept of what a bird is.
You have learned about this new kind of bird through the process of correlative subsumption. In a sense,
you might say that this is more “valuable” learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches
the higher-level concept.

C. Superordinate Learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted with banana, mango, dalandan,
guava etc., but the child did not know, until she was taught, that these were all examples of fruits. In this
case, the child already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but did not know the concept itself until it
was taught to her. This is superordinate learning.

D. Combinatorial Learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to
enrich the understanding of both concepts. The first three learning processes all included new information
that relates to a hierarchy at a level that is either below or above previously acquired knowledge.
Combinatorial learning is different; it describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another
idea that is neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but at the same level (in a different, but related,
“branch”). It is a lot like as learning by analogy. For example, to teach someone about how plants
“breath” you might relate it to previously acquired knowledge of human respiration where man inhales
oxygen and exhales carbon dioxide.

Advance Organizers
Major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel. The advance organizer, gives you two benefits: (1)
you will find it easier to connect new information with what you already know about the topic, and (2)
you can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are related to each other. As you go learning about
the topic and go through the four learning processes, the advance organizer helps you link the new
learning to your existing scheme. As such, advance organizers facilitate learning by helping you organize
and strengthen your cognitive structure.
He stressed that advance organizers are not the same with overviews and summaries which simply
emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the
material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Types of advance Organizers

1. Expository – describes the new content.
2. Narrative – presents the new information in the form of a story to students.
3. Skimming – is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview.
4. Graphic Organizer – visuals to set up or outline the new information. This may include pictographs,
descriptive patterns, concept patterns, concept maps.

Application of Principles
1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in
terms of detail and specificity. He called this Progressive Differentiation. According to Ausubel, the
purpose of progressive differentiation is to increase the stability and clarity of anchoring ideas. The basic
idea here is that, if you’re teaching three related topics A, B, and C, rather than teaching all of topic A,
then going on to B, etc., you would take a spiral approach. That is, in your first pass through the material,
you would teach the “big” ideas (i.e., those highest in the hierarchy) in all three topics, then on successive
passes you would point out principles that the three topics had in common and things that differentiated
them.

2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information
through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

7.5 Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A major thee in the theory of Bruner is
that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their
current /past knowledge. He gave us concepts in development of representations, the spiral curriculum,
and discovery learning. These concepts are all in line with the constructivist approach.

Bruner’s Main Concepts

A. Representation – Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge in three stages. These three
stages also become the three ways to represent knowledge.
1. Enactive Representation – at the earliest ages, children learn about the world through actions
on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions. Children represent objects in terms of their
immediate sensation to them. They are represented in the muscles and involve motor responses, or ways
to manipulate the environment (i.e., riding a bicycle and tying a knot, tasting the apple).
2. Iconic Representation – this second stage is when learning can be obtained through using
models and pictures. The learner can now use mental images to stand for certain objects or events. Iconic
representation allows one to recognize objects when they are changed in minor ways (e.g. mountains with
and without snow at the top).
3. Symbolic Representation – in this third stage, the learner has developed the ability to think in
abstract terms. This uses symbol system to encode knowledge. The most common symbol systems are
language and mathematical notation.

Bruner advised that teachers utilize and bring together concrete, pictorial then symbolic activities
to facilitate learning. Before children can comprehend abstract mathematical operations, teachers can first
have the numbers represented enactively (with blocks) and then, iconically (in pictures). Children can
later on handle number concepts without concrete objects and only with numbers and number signs
(symbolic).

B. Spiral Curriculum – Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting cognitive
development. Students will not understand the concept if teachers plan to teach it using only the teacher’s
level of understanding the task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format
appropriate to the learner’s current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral
manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned. In a spiral curriculum,
teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in different ways depending on
students’ developmental levels.

Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able
to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the
information given).

C. Discovery Learning – refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. The teacher plans and arranges
activities in such a way that students search, manipulate, explore, and investigate. Students learn new
knowledge relevant to the domain and such general problem-solving skills as formulating rules, testing,
and gathering information. Most discovery does not happen by chance. Students require background
preparation. Once students possess prerequisite knowledge, careful structuring of material allows them to
discover important principles.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:
1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for learning”. Bruner believed that any
subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fits the child’s cognitive abilities. This
feature specifically states the experiences which move the learner toward a love of learning in general, or
of learning something in particular. Motivational, cultural, and personal factors contribute to this. Part of
the task of the teacher is to maintain and direct a child’s spontaneous explorations.
2. Structure of knowledge. This refers to the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so
that it can be most readily grasped by the learner. Bruner emphasized the role of structure in learning and
how it may be made central in teaching. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and
techniques.
3. Effective Sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, the lesson can be
presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing or lack of it can make learning easier and more difficult.
Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon them and
elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery.
4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishment should be selected and paced appropriately. He investigated
motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the best stimulus for learning.
Bruner did not like external competitive goals such as grades or class ranking.

D. Categorization – Bruner believed that perception, conceptualization, learning, decision making, and
making inferences all involved categorization. Categories are “rules” that specify objects.

Kinds of Categories
1. Identity Categories – categories include objects based on their attributes or features.
2. Equivalent Categories (provide rules for combining categories). Equivalence can be determined by
affective criteria, which render objects equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on
related functions (for example, “car”, “truck”, “van” could all be combined in an inclusive category called
“motor vehicle”), or by formal criteria for example by science, law, cultural agreement. For example, an
apple is still an apple whether it is green, ripe, dried, etc (Identity). It is food (functional), and it is a
member of a botanical classification group (formal).
3. Coding Systems. Categories that serve to recognize sensory input. They are major organizational
variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate sensory data involves making
inferences on the basis of related categories. Related categories form a “coding system”. These are
hierarchical arrangements of related categories.

The principles of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret the world mostly in terms of
similarities and differences. This is valuable contribution how individuals construct their own models or
view of the world.

References:
Lucas, et al; 2014, Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process. Lorimar Publishing Incorporated.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/perspective.html
https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-319-28099-8_966
https://www.verywellmind.com/cognitive-psychology-4157181
https://www.google.com/search?q=picture+illusions&tbm

Synthesizing Your Knowledge

A. MENTAL TASK – KNOWLEDGE AND COMPREHENSION

1. What is gestalt?
a. The brain organizes a simple, whole perception before realizing the sum of it parts
b. The brain cycles through more data than we actually need so it simplifies it
c. The brain never stops perceiving except during REM sleep
d. The brain cannot find deeper meaning from stimuli

2. Why are motifs in music an example of Gestalt?

a. When notes are grouped together in a pattern, the whole piece of music takes on greater perceptual
meaning
b. When notes follow a smooth pattern, it is easier for the brain to comprehend
c. When notes do not follow a set rhythm the mind cannot wrap its head around it
d. When notes take different shape on the staff, it is hard for the mind to make sense of them

3. Which of the following statements is consistent with the Gestalt theory of perception?
a. Perception develops largely through learning
b. Perception is the product of heredity
c. The mind organizes sensations into meaningful perceptions
d. Perception results directly from sensation

4.While singing to you on your birthday, your friends leave off the very last word of the song, “Happy
birthday to you, Happy birthday to you, Happy birthday dear David, Happy birthday to….” Your
tendency to mentally fill in the last word best reflects which of the following Gestalt principles of
organization?
a. continuity
b. proximity
c. connectedness
d. closure
e. figure and ground

5. According to gestalt school of thoughts

a. An individual perceives things as a whole
b. Reinforcement and rewards can change behavior
c. An individual learns from experience
d. None of these

6. Educational psychology studies the behavior of the learner in relation to his/her

a. Educational environment
b. Home environment
c. Peer gathering
d. Isolation

7. According to Piaget when children develop socialized speech

a. When they hear some elders talking
b. When some elder person guides them
c. When they have disagreement with peers
d. All of these

8. How many events/conditions does Gagne's event of instructions have?

a. 5
b. 2
c. 9
d. 7

9. What are the examples of Gaining attention from events of Gagne's instruction?
a. Speaks loudly
b. sit silently
c. Start the class without any introduction

10. What is the last event of Gagne's nine?

a. Present stimulus material
b. Enhance retention and transfer
c. Assess performance

B. MENTAL TASK – UNDERSTANDING AND APPLICATION

1. What is the difference between Gestalt psychology and Gestalt therapy?