Site Investigation 3.1 _ PRINCIPLES OF SITE INVESTIGATION ‘Site investigation should be regarded as an integral ofthe mine design procst and should not be viewed a6 am exercise only to be carried out after problems have accursed. The basi ofthis approach is the information ofan engiering model. Although this could be physical model more usally ii numerical one, describing accurately the mine site conditions. This model may then the "tested" to determine the response to the various engineering problems, eg. excavation of slopes, construction of foundations, evvatering, etc. The value of any model is determined by ts accuracy and representaiveness of field ‘conditions andi thus very dependent on both the quality and quantity of avaiable site investgntion data 3.1.1. Aims of Site Investigation ‘The basic objectives of any Site investigation are; 4) to.sess the suitability ofa site for the propoted mine development; ') to enable the preparation ofan adequate and economic design; ©) to ete and provide aginst geo-tecniccl problems during and ater operation; and 4) toinvestae any subsequent changesin conditions othe posbly of any fares during operation. However, underlying these aims isthe restraint thatthe cos of site investigation must be minimised and which in practice, tends tobe less than one percent of the total project cost for civil projects and is significantly less for mining operations. 3.4.2 Organisation of Site Investigations ‘The usual pattern of any soissite investigation comprises office and fel studies as follows: Phase I~ Preliminary Investigation which involve desk study of available literature, maps, reports and other data including satellite imageries aerial photographic analysis. on a regional scale Phase II - Field Investigation which include drilling and boring, excavation of tral pits, penetration testing, sampling, geophysical surveys and measurements of the ‘groundwater regime, Phase HI - Laboratory Testing and evolution of basic geological data. Phase IV ~ Field Testing that inchdein situ tests prior to and during excavation and perfermance tests on selected or critical structurevareas ofthe mine. ee BS‘Ste ivesigaon ‘The data obtained sh 7 sete asinine egsing ot nyt other techniques. One real min, site plans, three-dimensional projections and a variety of fsa ‘Problem with large site investigations is how to handle the large volume of ae — ore importany, how to reduce this daa to sensible engineering parameters omogenciyoh es 2 BuFetween geologis and engineers, with geologists recording he i tae ee ‘and engineers requiring single design parameters. Clearly, careful evolution actual sol conditions w aa ‘essential and any engineering model must firstly be representative of the Pane i cenilton and secondly, be manageable in terms of enginering analyse. The value of ata ‘case histories cannot be: over emphasised here, One particular problem of site investigations for mi their cost and a clear ance oak Faia problem of se invsgtons fo mining operons teres anda eae Perper au of inverts, the rng and el availability of particular techni 3.2 REVIEW OF SITE INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES Site investigation techniques may be considered in two categories—Direct and Remote investigations. Both these categories can contribute significant data to the engineering model and often are ‘complementary to each other. The following features show the context of various standard site ‘investigation techniques: Geological Aspects + compilation of existing data + serial photograph and satelite imagery analysis + eld mapping and visual inspection + microscopic analysis of soil samples «sample description Field Investigations « rotary borehole drilling « trai pit excavations ‘+ sampling (disturbed and undiscurbeg) « groundwater measurement (including automatic readouts) « cone penetration test + geophysical surveys — seismic « electrical + magnetic «© Standard penetration test © dynamic probing (mackintosh probe) 3.2.1 Field Studies—Direct Investigation Methods Visual Inspection One ofthe eases and cheapest way to investigate ast sa "walk over survey” by an Engineer/ Geologist ‘The sole of visual inspections particularly in low cost investigations, should not be underestimated. Gmina‘elcaten Rack Mechs Stee on Undead ig ‘The inspection should be carried out! wm ‘engin yineering geologist and field dat reornds Thon eared anempesnsd ego enenng goal at ded formats for recording feld-data, either in sketch engineering ‘geological maps or on standard report forms. 1g field-data either in sketch engineering doeaten fandard format allows the recording of bask fld-ata sacha slope angle, lope heights ie aT ee sas, material type, size & location of minar slips and perhaps more 8 + the recording of change. Within a mine, changing faces, levels of extractic iel mae 8 of change. Within a mine, changing faces, levels of extraction and field the features that make site investigations and slope design in mines very diferent to normal civil engineering practice. se pe eee ae Boring and Driling ‘The boring and drilling of boreholes for site investigation is very common practice and usully involves the production of small diameter holes penetrating through the geological formation. Boreholes allow direct access to the ground and samples (either distributed or undistributed) to be obtained. Boring Methods cend only to be suitable for soft soils and rocks and result in disturbed samples. However, cable percussion and rotary percussive boring are popular techniques. Holes are sunk by using a clay cutter in dry cohesive sols or a shell in granular strata or below the water table. Casing can bbe driven down to support the side wal ofthe borehole. The disturbed samples produced are suitable for identification ofthe strata and for classification tests. [Fmore sophisticated tests are carried out, the ‘extent of sample disturbance on measured parameters should be astessed, Rotary Drilling for the recovery of cored samples is probably the commonest form of site investigation. Holes are drilled either vertically or with an inclination up to 45* and a wide variety of rigs and ancillary equipment are used for this purpose. Rotary drilling is usually carried out with a ushing ‘medium which can be water, air, air-foam or mud. The flushing medium has several uses, including the removal of chips of broken material, lubrication and provision of support to the borehole walls. Ieis important to select the correct type of core barrel for sampling as adoption of the wrong type ‘can cause disturbance or damage to cores 8) Asingle-tube core barrel rotates against the core which is not protected from the drilling, ‘tuid—core recovery i seldom satisfactory and it should not be used for ste investigation. ) A double-tube core bare! hasan inner tube mounted on bearings co thet it does not revolve ‘with the il strings—itis mormally used at sites that have fresh wo moderately weathered rocks, ) _Triple-tube core barrels may be used where other methods have been found ineffective and good core recovery is required. Triple-tube barrels have detachable liners within an inner ‘arte that pitiably protect the core from drilling uid and from damage during extrusion and subsequent transit. Records of drilling and boring behavior are an important source of information about site conditions and drillers should be trained to record factual data about: + Therate of eiling, + The nature of flushing medium, colour consistency, nature of fragments, ‘+ Lessor percentage retum of fushing fluid during dling, + Groundwater levels at start and end of drilling + Equipment used‘Ste nesigaion ‘The major advantage of drilling and boring is that in stu tests com be carried out in the borehole: Sandard ence eld perms esting (sing aig, lingo com ed ethods), and down ole gop natn, ding ing, and penton ts Ewe a useful guide sess ground consistency. More specialised tests for soil deformation may also be carried our. deco TH mat scan of si iraigaon with brett ie volume of ground investigated iss ery smalleompared tote tse, Asborenessmple aero point samples” plan and are vertically drawn, they do not always give a continuous profile Vertical boreholes 25° relatively easy to drill, and whilst they are ideal for horizontal strata, the use of inclined boreholes in Gipping sata can also be useful The exeroplation of data from borehole is therefore a dic 9 skilled operation, requiring careful interpretation and 2 knowledge of the limitation of the technique ued. The ure of Trail Excavations and Larger Field Excavations prtculaly in operating mine 9869 Slows the persistence of gclogia fears to be better exested. However, tail excnvains tend 96 limited in depth, particularly in soft ground, and at times will require installation of tempera ‘support. Enising sive fies are an excellent soure of information and borehole dita should always be ‘correlated against field exposures. 3.2.2 Groundwater Measurements Groundwater levels, and more specifically pore pressut taken in the field, having a significant influence on the engineering be wre measurements, re important measurements haviour of soils, slopes and related excavations. “The simplest measurements rein cased boreholes where the water level gives a dest ication of the groundwater pressure atthe base of the casing, For ong term applications. piezometers are Spetalel in specified sealed horizons. n ganar deposits an open standpipe is usualy sufficient but in Clays and low permeability deposits closed system devies are required 3.2.3 Sam ‘The drilling of a borehole is realy only the first samples for testing san important aspect of this techniqu Continuous sampling isthe best method of defining dl However, interval sampling is more usually carried out, expecially pre-existing sip surfaces. ‘When designing site investigations, relation to the nature of geotechnical laboratory tests that are to be Fequirement asthe nature ofthe ground influences the size of 3m ‘Samples will be required 25 compared to coarse gramular materials ‘The type of sample is another erica factor fr deciding on the reliability of est dat Samples may be defined asundistured or distrbed. The degree of diturbance depends toa args went of the (ily ofthe drilin equipment, the nature ofthe ground andthe experience of he dsill crew. Even Jeanie undisturbed samples can show signs of significant disturbance auch as distortion of layers at ‘rape edge and compression of soft horizons. This disturbance des nt precude laboratory testing if results are asseseed against the knowledge of the extent of sample disruption. Tkshould also be borne in mind tht the behaviour ofa sil mass is often ditated by the presence ofconcsones of ess weathered material, weaknesses and dscontinuties—the very things that tend to eeeitin poor orno amples. Thusispessfbleoobcan an intact sample af the soll materi which may be unrepresentative of the entire soil mass. age in a site investigation and the production of the range and thickness of materials present. ‘but significant horizons can be missed, itis important to specify the size of samples required in. ‘carried out. There is no fixed size ple required. In fine soils, smaller TSS‘Ste nestgaton and side resistance measured. The ratio ofthese two parameters is used as an indicator ofthe soil tyPe and empirical correlations established over many years allow direct calculation of engineering parameters, such as, the undrained shear strength of cohesive sols. ‘There are ewo main cone types—mechanical cones, where penetration resistance is measured bY pressure in the hydraulic jacks and electric cones, where direct readings on the tp are measured BY ‘means of strain gauges. ‘To enable testing tobe carried out ina variety of lls (and soft rocks, addicional tools and technigues have been developed. These inchu 4) Pore water pressure measurements (piezocone) Dy In situ permeability measurements using the piezocone ©) Soil temperature measurements 4) Inclusion of an inelinometer to check the vertcality of the probe hole ©) Resistivity measurements to determine the in stu density of and deposits. 3.2.6 Dynamic Probing “The Mackintesh Probe is» handprobe which can be used down to depths of 10-15 m in soft ground. ‘The probe point is 3 mm in diameter. Blow counts foreach 100 mm penetration are recorded and plotted. For investigation ofan existing slope, a large numberof probes are put down initially to obcain ‘a gener indication ofthe subsurface profil. This information suse to assist in the location of subsequent trial pits and drillholes. The probe can also be used for indicating the state of compaction of buried fll and the thickness of fill ayers. A weight correction should be applied for depths greater than 5 m. 3.2.7 Remote Techniques “These techniques ae essentially geophysical and depend on subjecting the soil to some form of disturbance ‘and measuring the ground response, These “indirect” tests have the advantage that a larger volume of ground may be tested, but suffer from a number of limiting criteria, The interpretation of geophysical data is very specialised which relys onthe assessment of differences of measurable properties, to derive ‘by inference the changes in substratum conditions, Interpretation is best attempted with correlatory boreholes or CPT profiles and by an experienced geophysicst. The emphasis in recent years on large scale geophysical surveys for oil exploration has resulted in an abundance of geophysical correlations. and data, which have not always been fully utilised in the civil and mining engineering industries. 3.2.8 Seismic Testing ‘The use of seismic refraction tests is well-established in site investigation practice. The technique depends on the assumption that seismic waves have a characteristic velocity dependent on the density and elastic properties for different materials. Seismic refraction will only work for layers showing {nereasing density with depth, and seismic waves are refracied across the boundary. ‘Waves are generated by either a percussion (hammer) source or an explosive source and comprise a numberof wave types. Cofnpresson P-waves are the commonest, and more significantly, the easiest to recognise. However, beneath the water table they travel with the characteristic velocity ofthe ‘groundwater, resulting in less accurate measurements. Shear S-waves are particularly useful and are senstve to variations in the geological profile, Direct correlations with the shear modulus of the soll are available and may be used to assess the degree of compaction of granular deposits,seplcaton ct Rock Mechanics in Sue and Undergond Ning Once the sample has been obtained, that it was recovered from the soil structure and it is common tive layer(s) of sealing wax. itis important that it is retained and protected in the state Ground. Of particular significance could be the in situ water content and Practice to wrap samples in aluminium foi and to coat them with aprotec- Correct labelling of samples with their borehole designati inclinatic s with their borehole designation, depth, inclination is also important and if not carried out, can result in valueless samples and meaningless data. 3.2.4 Standard Penetration Test (SPT) This testis most commonly used to give a rough relative measure of the density of granular soils. The Procedure is described in BS 1377 (1975) and involves driving a tool with specified standard dimensions into the ground with a standard hammer (usuélly 63.3 kg). The results can be significantly affected by the testing technique, so while carrying out the test and interpreting the results, the following points should be noted: 4) The borehole casing should be ahead of the borehole, and water balance should be maintained ‘if carrying out the test below the water table. ») Large diameter rods (BW or equivalent) or smaller rods with rod supports should be used to reduce energy dissipation. (©) An automatic trip hammer should be used to drive the sampler, the accuracy of a monkey and slip wrench is too dependent on the skill of the operator. ‘The'N value is defined as the number of blows required to drive a standard split spoon sampler to a distance of 300 mm. The sampler is initially driven 150 mm to penetrate the disturbed material at the bottom of the borehole before the testis carried out. The operator, having noted the number of blows required for each 75 mm advance ofthe seating, then notes the number of blows required for each ‘75 mm advance of the test drive. I should be noted thatthe empirical relationship developed for transported soils between N value ‘and foundation design indices relative density and shear strength are not valid for weathered rocks and residual soils, Corestones, for eample, can give misleadingly high values that are unrepresentative of the mass. Further problems may also occur in thinly bedded materials where it is not possible to sample 300 ‘mm of the same material. In cohesive soils, the test is less reliable than in granular materials due to the development of high pore presrures around the tip of the instrument, These problems are partially overcome by providing a continuous test a discussed in the next Section, 3.2.5 Cone Penetration Testing (CPT) ‘This technique isone that has found much success in sot ground conditions, for both non-echesive and cohesive sil. ‘The principal reasons for this success reflect che accuracy and detailed nature of CPT data and the relative speed and economy with which tests canbe carried out, compared to conventional drilling and boring, Another major advantage is that a continuous ground profile can be obtained, which, when correlated with borehole data, can be used to compile 2 more comprehensive site model. The more accurate knowledge of soil layering so obtained is essential to stability studies where thin layers that right otherwise be missed, can influence lope behaviour significantly. ‘The principle of performing acone testis essentially very simple—a standardised probe, witha tip area of 10 em’ is pushed by hyraulic jacks into the ground ata constant rate of penetration, and the tip