B.SC Electronics - Semiconductor Devices (.PDF) - Course Syllabus & Material - All Units (Bharathiar University)

SRI VASAVI COLLEGE, ERODE
(SELF FINANCE WING)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS
Prepared By
Dr. S. KUMAR M.Sc., M.Phil., PGDCA., Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor of Electronics,
Sri Vasavi College (SF Wing),
Erode - 638 316.
SYLLABUS
SEMICONDUCTR DEVICES
Course code SEMICONDUCTR DEVICES L T P C

Core/Elective/Supportive Core 5 0 0 4
Syllabus
Pre-requisite Higher Secondary Physics 2021-22
Version
Course Objectives:
The main objectives of this course are to:
 To enable the students to understand and gain the knowledge on semiconductor devices.
 To acquaint the students with construction, theory and characteristics of theelectronic
Expected Course Outcomes:

On the successful completion of the course, student will be able to:
1 Explain the structure of the basic electronic devices K1
2 Understand the characteristics and operations of special diodes K2
3 Understand the characteristics and operations of transistors K2
4 Understand the characteristics and operations of FET and UJT. K2
5 Use the special diodes for various applications K3
K1 - Remember; K2 - Understand; K3 - Apply; K4 - Analyze; K5 - Evaluate; K6 - Create
Unit:1 PN JUNCTION DIODE 15 hours

Energy Band Structure and Conduction in Insulator - Semiconductor, Conductor - Intrinsic and
Extrinsic Semiconductor – Doping – P Type – N Type Semiconductor - Formation of PN
Junction Diode - Forward Bias - Reverse Bias Condition – Characteristics - Clipping and
Clamping.
Unit:2 SPECIAL DIODES 15 hours
Zener Diode - VI Characteristics – Breakdown - Backward Diode – Varactor Diode – Step Recovery
Diode - Point Contact Diode - Shcottkey Diode - Tunnel Diode - Gunn Diode – Impatt Diode - PIN Diode
- PNPN Diode
Unit:3 BJT 15 hours

Introduction To Bipolar Junction Transistor – Construction - Transistor Biasing - Operation of NPN and
PNP Transistor - CB, CE &CC Configuration - Bias Stability - Load Line - Method of Biasing: Fixed
Bias - Collector to Base Bias - Voltage Divider Bias – Bias Compensation – Thermal Runaway -
HeatSink
Unit:4 FET AND UJT 15 hours
Introduction to FET - Construction and Operation of N-Channel JFET - Drain Characteristics-
Comparison of JFET &BJT - Introduction to MOSFET - Enhancement MOSFET – Depletion MOSFET
- FET as a Voltage Variable Resistor(VVR) - Introduction to UJT – Characteristics – UJT as Relaxation
Oscillator - Introduction to PUT – SCR – TRIAC -DIAC
Unit:5 OPTOELECTROIC DEVICES 15 hours

Principles, Operation And Characteristics Of Opto Electronic Devices: LDR – Photo Diode – Photo
Transistor – Photo Voltaic Cell – Solar Cell – Photo Emissive Sensors – Vacuum Photo Tube– Gap
Filled Photo Tube – Photo Multiplexer – LED – IR Emitter – LCD – Optocouplers
Total Lecture Hours 75 hours

Text Book(s)
1 S. Salivahanan, N. Suresh Kumar, A. Vallavaraj, “ELECTRONICS DEVICES AND
CIRCUITS”, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 8th edition.
2 B. L. Theraja, “BASIC ELECTRONICS - SOLID STATE DEVICES”, S.Chand &
Company Ltd. 2000
Reference Books
1 S.L. Kakani, K. C. BhanDai - A TEXT BOOK OF ELECTRONICS
2 Bernard Grob “BASIC ELECTRONICS” - Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited
Related Online Contents [MOOC, SWAYAM, NPTEL, Websites etc.]

1 https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/108/108108122/
Course Designed By: K.Manikantan, Assistant Professor, Government Arts College, Ooty &
Dr.N Om Muruga, Assistant Professor, Government Arts College,Ooty.
Mapping with Programme Outcomes

COs PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10
CO1 S S L M L M M M S M
CO2 L L L L L M M M L L
CO3 L M L L S M L L M M
CO4 L M M L L S M L M S
CO5 M L L M L M M L M M
*S-Strong; M-Medium; L-Low
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES Dr. S. KUMAR
UNIT - I
PN JUNCTION DIODE
Energy Band Structure and Conduction in Insulator:

Energy Bands Structure
In an isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit possess definite energy. But, in the case
of solids, the energy level of the outermost orbit electrons are affected by the neighbouring
atoms.When two isolated charges are brought close to each other, the electrons in the
outermost orbit experiences an attractive force from the nearest or neighbouring atomic
nucleus. Due to this reason, the energies of the electrons will not be at the same level, the
energy levels of electrons are changed to a value which is higher or lower than that of the
original energy level of the electron. The electrons in the same orbit exhibit different energy
levels. The grouping of this different energy levels is known as energy band. However, the
energy of the inner orbit electrons are not much affected by the presence of neighbouring
atoms.
Classification of Energy Bands
Energy Band Theory
According to Bohr‟s theory, every shell of an atom contains a discrete amount of energy
at different levels. Energy band theory explains the interaction of electrons between the
outermost shell and the innermost shell. Based on the energy band theory, there are three
different energy bands:
 Valence band
 Conduction band
 Forbidden energy gap
Valence Band
The electrons in the outermost shell are known as valence electrons. These valence
electrons contain a series of energy levels and form an energy band known as valence band.
The valence band has the highest occupied energy.
Conduction Band
The valence electrons are not tightly held to the nucleus due to which a few of these
valence electrons leave the outermost orbit even at room temperature and become free
electrons. The free electrons conduct current in conductors and are therefore known as
conduction electrons. The conduction band is one that contains conduction electrons and has
the lowest occupied energy levels.
[Dr.S.KUMAR, Assistant Professor of Electronics, Sri Vasavi College (SF Wing), Erode] Page 1
Forbidden Energy Gap
The gap between the valence band and the conduction band is referred to as
forbidden gap. As the name suggests, the forbidden gap doesn‟t have any energy and no
electrons stay in this band. If the forbidden energy gap is greater, then the valence band
electrons are tightly bound or firmly attached to the nucleus. We require some amount of
external energy that is equal to the forbidden energy gap.
The figure below shows the conduction band, valence band and the forbidden energy gap.
Conductors
Gold, Aluminium, Silver, Copper, all these metals allow an electric current to flow
through them. There is no forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band which
results in the overlapping of both the bands. The number of free electrons available at room
temperature is large.
Insulators
Glass and wood are examples of the insulator. These substances do not allow electricity to pass
through them. They have high resistivity and very low conductivity. The energy gap in the
insulator is very high up to 7eV. The material cannot conduct because the movement of the
electrons from the valence band to the conduction band is not possible.
Semiconductors
Germanium and Silicon are the most preferable material whose electrical properties lie
in between semiconductors and insulators. The energy band diagram of semiconductor is
shown where the conduction band is empty and the valence band is completely filled but the
forbidden gap between the two bands is very small that is about 1eV. For Germanium, the
forbidden gap is 0.72eV and for Silicon, it is 1.1eV. Thus, semiconductor requires small
conductivity.
Silicon has 14 electrons, but only the outer most 4 are available as "valence" electrons to
help bond with other atoms.
In its solid form, each silicon atom normally shares one of its four valence electrons in a
covalent bond with each of four neighboring silicon atoms. The solid thus consists of basic
units of five silicon atoms: the original atom plus the four other atoms with which it shares
valence electrons. The image below visually represents this 5 Atom Silicon Crystal:
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor

The semiconductor is divided into two types. One is Intrinsic Semiconductor and
other is an Extrinsic semiconductor. The pure form of the semiconductor is known as the
intrinsic semiconductor and the semiconductor in which intentionally impurities is added for
making it conductive is known as the extrinsic semiconductor. The conductivity of the intrinsic
semiconductor becomes zero at room temperature while the extrinsic semiconductor is very
less conductive at room temperature.
Intrinsic Semiconductor
An extremely pure semiconductor is called Intrinsic Semiconductor. On the basis of
the energy band phenomenon, an intrinsic semiconductor at absolute zero temperature . An
example of intrinsic semiconductors is Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge).
Its valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is completely empty.
When the temperature is raised and some heat energy is supplied to it, some of the valence
electrons are lifted to conduction band leaving behind holes in the valence band. The electrons
reaching at the conduction band move randomly. The holes created in the crystal also free to
move anywhere. This behaviour of the semiconductor shows that they have a negative
temperature coefficient of resistance. This means that with the increase in temperature, the
resistivity of the material decreases and the conductivity increases.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor to which an impurity at a controlled rate is added to make it
conductive is known as an extrinsic semiconductor. An intrinsic semiconductor is capable to
conduct a little current even at room temperature, but it is not useful for the preparation of
various electronic devices. Thus, to make it conducive a small amount of suitable impurity is
added to the material. When a small quantity of Tetravalent or Pentavalent impurity like
Arsenic (As), Aluminium (Al), Phosphorus (P), Galium (Ga), Indium (In), Antimony (Sb)
etc. is added to pure semiconductor , an Extrinsic Semiconductor is obtained.
Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor
Density of electrons is equal to the Density of electrons is not equal to the density of
density of holes holes
Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high
Dependence on temperature only Dependence on temperature as well as on the

amount of impurity
No impurities Trivalent impurity, pentavalent impurity
Doping
The process by which an impurity is added to a semiconductor is known as Doping.
The amount and type of impurity which is to be added to the material have to be closely
controlled during the preparation of extrinsic semiconductor. Depending upon the type of
impurity added the extrinsic semiconductor may be classified as
 n type semiconductor
 p type semiconductor
Why are Semiconductors Doped?
Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that are doped with specific impurities.
The impurity modifies the electrical properties of the semiconductor and makes it more
suitable for electronic devices such as diodes and transistors. While adding impurities, a small
amount of suitable impurity is added to pure material, increasing its conductivity by many
times. Extrinsic semiconductors are also called impurity semiconductors or doped
semiconductors. The process of adding impurities deliberately is termed as doping and the
atoms that are used as an impurity are termed as dopants. The impurity modifies the electrical
properties of the semiconductor and makes it more suitable for electronic devices such as
diodes and transistors.
Semiconductors made of several elements are called compound semiconductors, as

opposed to those made of a single element such as silicon semiconductors. There are
combinations such as Group III and Group V of the periodic table, Group II and Group VI,
Group IV, etc.
*Doping phosphorus (P) of Group V into silicon (Si) of Group IV makes n-type semiconductor.
*Doping boron (B) of Group III into silicon (Si) of Group IV makes p-type semiconductor.
Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be classified as:
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
n-type semiconductors
When a tetravalent atom such as Si or Ge is doped with a pentavalent atom, it occupies

the position of an atom in the crystal lattice of the Si atom. The four of the electrons of the
pentavalent atom bonds with the four neighboring silicon atoms and the fifth one remains
weakly bound to the parent atom. As a result of this, the ionization energy required to set the
fifth electron free is very less and the electrons become free to move in the lattice of the
semiconductor. Such semiconductors are termed as n-type semiconductors.
 Mainly due to Electrons

 Entirely Neutral
 Majority Electrons
 Minority Holes
 Donors
p-type semiconductors
When a tetravalent atom such as Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent impurity such as Al,
B, In, etc., the dopant atom has one less electron than the surrounding atoms of Si or Ge. Thus,
the fourth atom of the tetravalent atom is free and a hole or a vacancy is generated in the
trivalent atom. In such materials, the holes are the charge carriers and such semiconductors are
termed as p-type semiconductors.
 Mainly due to Holes

 Entirely Neutral
 Majority Holes
 Minority Electrons
 Acceptors
Formation of PN Junction Diode

What is P-N Junction?
Definition: A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor
material types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.
if we use different semiconductor materials to make a p-n junction, there will be a grain
boundary that would inhibit the movement of electrons from one side to the other by scattering
the electrons and holes and thus, we use the process of doping. We will understand the process
of doping with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor
sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get
converted to n-type silicon. This sheet will now contain both p-type region and n-type region
and a junction between these two regions. The processes that follow after the formation of a p-
n junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. As we know, there is a difference in the
concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction, the holes from the p-side
diffuse to the n-side and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give rise to a
diffusion current across the junction.
Biasing conditions for the p-n Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in the p-n junction diode:
 P-type
 N-type
There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode and this is based on the voltage applied:
 Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction diode.
 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type while
the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type and the
positive is connected to the n-type.
Forward Bias
The p-n junction is said to be forward-biased when the p-type is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery and the n-type to the negative terminal. The built-in electric
field at the p-n junction and the applied electric field are in opposing directions when the p-n
junction is forward biased.
The resulting electric field is smaller than the built-in electric field when both electric
fields are added together. As a result, the depletion area becomes less resistant and thinner.
When the applied voltage is high, the resistance of the depletion zone becomes insignificant.
At 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion area in silicon becomes absolutely insignificant,
allowing current to flow freely over it.
Reverse Bias Condition
The p-n junction is said to be reverse-biased when the p-type is linked to the negative
terminal of the battery and the n-type is attached to the positive side. The applied electric
field and the built-in electric field are both in the same direction in this situation.
The resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field, resulting
in a more resistive, thicker depletion zone. If the applied voltage is increased, the depletion
area gets more resistant and thicker.
Characteristics
VI characteristics of PN junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current

through the circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is taken along the y-
axis. The above graph is the VI characteristics curve of the PN junction diode. With the help of
the curve we can understand that there are three regions in which the diode works, and they
are:
 Zero bias
 Forward bias
 Reverse bias
When the PN junction diode is under zero bias condition, there is no external voltage
applied and this means that the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of
current. When the PN junction diode is under forward bias condition, the p-type is connected
to the positive terminal while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of the external
voltage. When the diode is arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in the potential barrier.
For silicone diodes, when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when the voltage is
0.3 V, the potential barriers decrease and there is a flow of current.
When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly and the curve obtained
is non-linear as the voltage applied to the diode is overcoming the potential barrier. Once the
potential barrier is overcome by the diode, the diode behaves normally and the curve rises
sharply as the external voltage increases and the curve obtained is linear. When the PN
junction diode is under negative bias condition, the p-type is connected to the negative
terminal while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage. This
results in an increase in the potential barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in the beginning
as minority carriers are present in the junction. When the applied voltage is increased, the
minority charges will have increased kinetic energy which affects the majority charges. This is
the stage when the diode breaks down. This may also destroy the diode.
Clipping and Clamping
Clipper Circuit
A clipper circuit clips off or removes a portion from an AC signal without distorting
or changing the remaining part of the waveform. It limits the voltage from rising above or
below a certain point. Therefore, it is also used for protection against overvoltage. The clipper
circuit can be also known as a clipper, clipping circuit, voltage limiter or slicer, etc.
A clipper circuit is made of a diode, resistor. The diode is used for chopping or clipping
a portion of the signal‟s waveform. A clipper circuit can be either series clipper or shunt
clipper where both types can be used to clip either half of a waveform or clip a portion from
the waveform. The change in the shape of the waveform depends on the type of the clipper
circuit. A clipper circuit does not change the amplitude of the waveform. It only blocks the
amplitude from rising above a certain limit which is why it is also known as a voltage limiter.
A clipper can be either positive or negative. A positive clipper clips the positive half of the AC
waveform & the negative clipper clips the negative half. The circuit can be modified with
another voltage biasing to further modify the signal‟s waveform. Here is a positive series
clipper circuit,
During the positive half, the diode is reverse biased & it does not conduct the signal to
the load resistor. But during the negative half, the diode becomes reverse bias for the input
signal & it conducts. Therefore, the positive half does not appear at the output while the
negative half does. In other words, the positive half has been clipped from the input signal.
Clamper Circuit
A clamper circuit is used for shifting the DC level of the AC signal. It either shifts the
waveform up or down without changing the shape of the waveform. It increases the
amplitude of the signal which is why it is also known as a voltage multiplier circuit.
A clamper circuit is made of a diode, resistor & capacitor where the capacitor is used
for storing the necessary charge to amplify the voltage or amplitude of the signal. It does not
affect the shape of the waveform. A clamper circuit increases the amplitude of the signal
without affecting its shape or frequency. It is used to multiply the voltage of a signal. Here is a
positive clamper circuit,
During the negative input half cycle, the diode is forward biased & it conducts which
charges the capacitor with reverse polarity. The capacitor is discharged during the next positive
half cycle which adds to the amplitude of the input signal shifting up the DC level of the input
signal.
Differences between Clipper and Clamper Circuit

The following table shows featured differences between Clamper and Clipper circuit.
Clipper Circuit Clamper Circuit
A clipper circuit clips or removes a portion of an A clamper circuit shifts the DC level of the
AC signal. waveform.
A clipper circuit is also known as a voltage A clamper is also known as a voltage multiplier
limiter, slicer, etc. or DC level shifter.
It is made of diode and resistor. It is made of a diode, resistor & capacitor.
Clipper does not require an energy-storing It requires an energy-storing component like

component. capacitor.
It changes the shape of the waveform. It does not change the shape of the waveform
It does not change the DC level of the signal. It changes the DC level of the signal.
It does not change the amplitude of the signal. It changes the amplitude of the signal.
It limits the voltage of the signal. It amplifies the voltage of the signal.
The output voltage of the clipper is always less The output voltage of the clamper is always
than its input voltage. greater than the input voltage.
UNIT - II
SPECIAL DIODES
Zener Diode
Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but normally operated in
reverse biased condition. But ordinary PN junction diode connected in reverse biased
condition is not used as Zener diode practically. A Zener diode is a specially designed,
highly doped PN junction diode.
Circuit Symbol of Zener Diode
There are many ways in which a Zener diode is packaged. Some are used for high levels
of power dissipation and the others are contained with surface mount formats. The most
common type of Zener diode is contained within a small glass encapsulation. It has a band
around one end marking the cathode side of the diode.
From the diagram, we can see that the band around the package corresponds to the line
on the diode circuit symbol and this can be an easy way of remembering which end is for
which. The Zener diode circuit symbol places two tags at the end of the bar – one in the
upward direction and the other in the lower direction as shown in the figure. This helps in
distinguishing Zener diodes from other forms of diodes within the circuit.
Working Principle of Zener Diode
When a PN junction diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer becomes wider. If this
reverse biased voltage across the diode is increased continually, the depletion layer becomes
more and more wider. At the same time, there will be a constant reverse saturation current due
to minority carriers. After certain reverse voltage across the junction, the minority carriers get
sufficient kinetic energy due to the strong electric field. Free electrons with sufficient kinetic
energy collide with stationary ions of the depletion layer and knock out more free electrons.
These newly created free electrons also get sufficient kinetic energy due to the same electric
field, and they create more free electrons by collision cumulatively.
Due to this commutative phenomenon, very soon, huge free electrons get created in the
depletion layer, and the entire diode will become conductive. This type of breakdown of the
depletion layer is known as avalanche breakdown, but this breakdown is not quite sharp. There
is another type of breakdown in depletion layer which is sharper compared to avalanche
breakdown, and this is called Zener breakdown. When a PN junction is diode is highly doped,
the concentration of impurity atoms will be high in the crystal. This higher concentration of
impurity atoms causes the higher concentration of ions in the depletion layer hence for same
applied reverse biased voltage, the width of the depletion layer becomes thinner than that in a
normally doped diode.
VI Characteristics
The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two parts as follows:
(i) Forward Characteristics
(ii) Reverse Characteristics
Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode
The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a Zener diode.
From the graph, we understand that it is almost identical to the forward characteristics of any
other P-N junction diode.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode
When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, initially a small reverse saturation
current Io flows across the diode. This current is due to thermally generated minority carriers.
As the reverse voltage is increased, at a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current
increases drastically and sharply. This is an indication that the breakdown has occurred. We
call this voltage breakdown voltage or Zener voltage and it is denoted by Vz. The diagram
given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.
Breakdown
The breakdown is either due to the Zener breakdown effect which occurs below the 5.5
Volt. Or it may impact the ionization which occurs above 5.5 Volt. Both mechanisms result in
the same behaviours and hence do not require different circuitry. But, each mechanism has a
different temperature coefficient. The Zener effect is having the negative temperature
coefficient while the impact effect experiences as a positive coefficient. The two temperature
effects are almost equal and therefore cancel out each other. It makes the Zener diodes the
most stable over a wide range of temperature conditions.
Zener Diode Specifications
Some commonly used specifications for Zener diodes are as follows:
 Zener/Breakdown Voltage – The Zener or the reverse breakdown voltage ranges from
2.4 V to 200 V, sometimes it can go up to 1 kV while the maximum for the surface-
mounted device is 47 V.
 Current Iz (max) – It is the maximum current at the rated Zener Voltage (Vz – 200μA to
200 A)
 Current Iz (min) – It is the minimum value of current required for the diode to
breakdown.
 Power Rating – It denotes the maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate. It is given
by the product of the voltage of the diode and the current flowing through it.
 Temperature Stability – Diodes around 5 V have the best stability
 Voltage Tolerance – It is typically ±5%
 Zener Resistance (Rz) – It is the resistance to the Zener diode exhibits.
Zener Diode Applications
Zener diodes are applicable for the voltage regulation, as the reference elements, as the
surge suppressors, and also in switching applications and clipper circuits. Its detailed
applications are as follows:
 Voltage regulator: The load voltage equals the breakdown voltage Vz of the diode.
The series resistor limits the current value flowing through the diode. It also drops the
excess voltage when the diode is conducting. Thus, it provides the constant voltage
from the fluctuating voltage source to the load. For this purpose, Zener diode is
connected in parallel across the load.
 Zener diode in overvoltage protection: If the input voltage increases to the value
higher than its breakdown voltage. Then, the current flows through the diode and hence
creates a voltage drop across the resistor. This drop will trigger the SCR and as a result,
creates a short circuit to the ground. The short circuit opens up the fuse and hence it
then disconnects the load from the supply. Thus, it is generally in use in the multimeters
also for controlling the movement of the meter against any overloads. So, it is
connected in parallel with the diode. It protects the meter from damage also.
 Zener Diode Clipping Circuits: Zener diodes are in use to modify or shape the AC
waveform clipping circuits. The clipping circuit limits or some parts of one or both of
the half cycles of an AC waveform. It is needed to shape the waveform or provide
protection. Therefore the Zener diode is useful for converting the sine wave into the
square wave. This is possible by placing the two Zener Diodes in series with the
resistance. It is connected back to back and in the opposite direction.
Backward Diode
Definition: A backward diode is a semiconductor device which works in reversed biased
mode. It is designed by providing variation in the design characteristics of Zener diode and
tunnel diode. It is unilateral device because its designing mechanism allows it to operate in
one direction only.
It is designed for specific purpose. It works in the same way in reverse biasing as the
conventional diode operates in forward biasing. The negative resistance characteristics of
tunnel diode are used in the backward diode.
Structure of Backward Diode
The construction of backward diode is similar to that of the tunnel diode. One side of
the junction is lightly doped and another side of the junction is heavily doped. The
characteristics so generated resembles the characteristics of the tunnel diode. The operation of
the diode takes place in reverse biasing mode thus, it is called backward diode.
Circuit Symbol of Backward Diode
The circuit symbol of a backward diode is a slightly modified symbol of a conventional

P-N diode. The anode terminal of the diode is same as conventional diode while the cathode
terminal is slightly modified in order to differentiate diode from conventional P-N diodes.
Working of Backward Diode
The working principle of the backward diode is similar to that of the tunnel diode, the
mechanism of quantum tunnelling plays a crucial role to conduct current in reverse biasing
operation. The working of the backward diode can be understood in detail with the help of
energy band diagram of the backward diode.
The energy band of the semiconductor under no biased condition can be seen in the
above diagram. The band which is at higher energy level is called conduction band and the
band which is at lower energy level is called valence band. When external energy is supplied
to electrons they attain the excited state of energy and enter conduction band. When electrons
leave from valence band to conduction band they leave holes behind them in the valence band.
Characteristics of Backward Diode
The reverse characteristics are similar to the characteristics of the Zener diode. The
forward characteristics can be understood with the help of the below diagram. Initially, current
increases with an increase in voltage, but after a particular time, the magnitude of current
becomes constant. It does not show a significant increase even if the variation in voltage is
large.
Application of Backward Diode
 Detector: It can be used as a detector up to the frequency of 40 GHz. It possesses low

capacitance thus the problem of charge storage is minimized in these diodes. Besides,
it‟s nonlinear characteristics for small signal makes it appropriate for application of
detector.
 Switch: The low capacitance of these diodes imparts an ability to the diode to switch
from On state to off state efficiently. Thus, it is used in switching circuitry.
 Rectifier: It is used for rectification of signal with small peak voltage i.e. about 0.1 V-
0.7 V.
Varactor Diode
Definition: Varactor diode is the one which works on the principle of variation in
capacitance by changing the width of the depletion region of P-N junction. The P-N
Junction diode creates capacitor effect. The capacitance is controlled by applied voltage. It
works on reverse biased mode.
Varacter word is formed from words Variable reactance or variable resistor. Thus, it
provides variable resistance or reactance or capacitance thus it is named as a varactor diode.
The symbol of the varactor diode is same as conventional diode except the symbol of the
capacitor is merged with the symbol of the diode to show the capacitance effect. It is also
called voltage-variable capacitor (VVC) or varicap diode.
Construction of Varactor Diode
It is formed of P-type and N-type semiconductor and reverse biasing is applied to it.
The majority carriers in an N-type semiconductor are electrons and the majority carriers in a P-
type semiconductor are holes. At the junction, the electrons and holes recombine. Due to
which immobile ions accumulate at the junction. And no more current can flow due to majority
carriers.
Thus, the depletion region is formed. The depletion region is called so because it is
depleted of charge carriers i.e. the majority carriers are absent in depletion region. This works
as a dielectric layer and P and N-type semiconductor works as plates of a capacitor.
Characteristics of Varactor Diode
It can be seen in the characteristic curve that as reverse voltage increase from 0 V the
transition capacitance is decreasing exponentially. The relation between the transition
capacitance, VR and Vk .
CT = K/ (Vk + VR)n
Here, CT is junction capacitance, Vk is the knee voltage and VR is the reverse voltage
and the value of n for alloyed junctions is 1/2 and diffused junctions it is 1/3. Thus, the voltage
is inversely proportional to capacitance.
The tuning range of the capacitor varies with the doping level of the diode. For abrupt
doping junction the doping will be uniform, but for the hyper abrupt junction, the doping
profile will be non-uniform.
Advantages of Varactor Diode
 Low Noise: It generates less noise as compared to the other P-N junction diode. Thus,
the power loss due to noise is low in varactor diodes.
 Portability: It is portable due to the small size and lightweight.
 Reliability: It is more reliable than other P-N junction diodes.
 Economical: It is a low-cost diode thus, it is economical to use in various applications.
Disadvantages of Varactor Diode
These are specially designed to work in the reverse biased mode, it possesses the least
significance when operated in forward biasing.
Applications of Varactor Diode
 Television receivers: Varactor diodes are used as tuned capacitors and have replaced
mechanically tuned capacitors in various applications. It is used in television in the
resonant tank circuit.
 Radio receivers: Radio receivers also use this diode for tuning purposes.
 Frequency Multiplier: It is also used as a frequency multiplier in various electronic
circuits.
 Phase Locked Loops: It is used in Phase locked loop for frequency modulation.
Varactor diodes help in achieving frequency modulation. Thus, in communication
devices varactor diodes are significant.
 Voltage controlled oscillators: Voltage control oscillators are used extensively in
transmission and receiving circuits in communication. And varactor diode plays a
significant role in construction of voltage controlled oscillator.
 Parametric Amplifiers: It is used in parametric amplifier as a significant component.
Step Recovery Diode

Step Recovery diode is a semiconductor device with unusual doping; it is also a
voltage-dependent variable capacitor. The doping density is extremely small near junction
area. Thus, the density of charge carriers is also low near the junction. Due to which charge
storage is negligible near the junction, and this leads to fast switching of the diode from ON
state to OFF state.
It is also used as a charge controlled switch in various application due to its fast
switching at low frequencies. Step recovery diode works as an ordinary diode at low frequency
i.e. they conduct when forward biased and acts as an open circuit in reverse biased mode. But
when it is switched from forward biasing to reverse biasing it changes state instantly. At high
frequencies the process of switching takes time. Thus, the forward current continues to flow in
the reverse cycle of input voltage for a short duration. This happens because the charge carriers
are stored near the junction, although their density is low but still at higher frequencies they
take some time to drain away from the junction. The concentration of charge carriers decreases
as they approach the junction, due to this, the phenomenon of reverse snap- off takes place.
Thus the diode is also called Snap-off Diode.
Construction of Step recovery diode
This is constructed in a similar manner to that of an ordinary diode. The major

difference is the doping intensity. The doping profile of the step recovery diode is explained
with the help of below diagram.
It is evident from the above diagram that the doping density decreases at the junction.
This lead to decrease in mobile charge carriers at the junction. This is the requisite effect for
achieving fast switching in step recovery diode.
Working of Step recovery diode
Initially, this diode offers very low impedance about 1 ohm, but gradually its impedance
starts increasing due to charge storage at the junction. Now, when the negative cycle of the
input is applied, the charge carriers take time to completely drain off from the junction or snap-
off from the junction thus, a small amount of current is observed at the beginning of negative
input cycle. The switching time is very small in step recovery diode i.e. about few
nanoseconds. This imparts the ability to generate very sharp pulses which play a significant
role in waveshaping circuits.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Step Recovery Diode
 More Forward Current: It generates forward current more rapidly than a conventional
diode.
 Fast Switching Time: The switching time required is low which leads to rapid
response.
 Sharp Harmonics: It has the ability to generate very sharp pulses which are significant
for the pulse generator.
 Highly Efficient: These diodes possesses high efficiency.
 Not Suitable at Higher Frequencies: The disadvantage of the diode is that the
switching speed decreases with the increase in frequency.
Applications of Step recovery diode
 Step Recovery Diode as Multiplier: They can multiply the frequency of signal up to
20 times. The fast switching time of Step recovery diode imparts them the ability to
generate sharp pulses. During forward biasing they store charge and when reversed
biased they use this charge to generate harmonics.
 Step Recovery Diode as Harmonic Generators: The ability of step recovery diode to
generate sharp pulses makes it appropriate to use as harmonic generators for generating
different pulses.
 It is used in voltage controlled oscillators.
 It is used in a frequency synthesizer.
 Comb Generator: It is used in comb generator for generating multiple harmonics of its
input signal. The output waveforms of this devices give the resemblance of comb teeth.
Thus, the name of this device is Comb Generator.
 Sampling Phase detector: It is used in sample phase detector for detecting the phase in
a communication system.
Point Contact Diode

Definition: Point contact diode is formed by touching a metallic wire with an N-type
semiconductor to form a small area of contact. This form a small point junction. It is widely
used because such a small point junction possesses a small value of junction capacitance.
Thus, the charge storage at the junction is low. Due to this, the switching ability of diode is
much better than a conventional diode.
Construction of Point Contact Diode
It is formed by a contact of an N-type semiconductor substrate and tungsten or phosphor

bronze wire (Cat whisker). The semiconductor used in the construction of point contact diode
can be either silicon or germanium but Germanium is used extensively because it possesses
higher carrier mobility. The dimension of the semiconductor substrate is about 1.25 mm square
and its thickness is 0.5 mm thick. One phase of the semiconductor substrate is soldered to the
metal base by the technique of radio frequency heating.
The cross sectional area of tungsten wire or cat whisker is in few ?m. It is joined to N-
type semiconductor but the phase of the substrate joined to cat whisker should be opposite to
that of metal contact phase. The anode and cathode terminal are connected through metallic
contacts.
Working of Point Contact Diode
When forward bias is applied to point contact diode the current produced in the device
is passed through the cat whisker. Due to this, the tungsten wire gets heated. Due to this
heating, the wire undergoes deformation. Thus, a small gap is deliberately left for the
expansion of wire under the large current. When the wire gets heated, the semiconductor in the
contact with the wire also gets heated. Due to this, it gets melted and atoms from whisker are
passed to semiconductor crystal. Thus, the whisker acts as a P-type semiconductor. Therefore,
a P-N Junction is formed but the area of the junction is very small. It can be assumed as a
pointed junction.
Although the junction cannot be seen clearly because the size of the junction is very
small, it can be considered as point junction. The entire device is enclosed in glass or ceramic
envelope. Besides, the supporting structure is provided to N-type semiconductor and cat
whisker to provide mechanical strength to the device.
Advantage of Point Contact Diode
 Suitable for High Frequency: Due to fast switching, it is suitable for high-frequency
applications.
Disadvantages of Point Contact Diode
 Lower Current Rating: The diode has lower current rating due to which the diode
resistance is large under forward bias.
 Less Reliable: The small area of contact is not very rugged and thus, it is less reliable
than a conventional diode.
Applications of Point Contact Diode
 High-Frequency Circuits: Due to small junction area and low junction capacitance
and diffused capacitance as discussed above, the diode is suitable for high-frequency
applications (about 10 GHz).
 Radio Frequency Mixers: In communication, Mixers play a crucial role in circuitry
and the point contact diode is used extensively in radio frequency mixers.
 Detector Circuits: For detecting high-frequency signal these diodes play a crucial role
in circuitry.
 Video Detector: It also finds application in video detector.
 Envelope detector and detector circuits of radio and television: Point contact diodes
are also used in envelope and television detector circuit because it switches rapidly from
one state to another state.
Schottky Diode
Definition: Schottky diode is a metal-semiconductor junction which does not store charge
carriers at the junction because it has no depletion layer. It finds its application where fast
switching is needed.
Significance of Schottky diode: When a P-N junction diode is forward biased, it starts
conducting, but when it is reverse biased, it stops conduction. But this transition from
conduction to insulation is not instant. Diode takes some time to reach a steady state of no
conduction when it is reverse biased. This happens because during forward biasing charge
carriers move across the junction and when it is suddenly reverse biased, some of the charge
carriers are still at the junction, but they have not recombined yet.
Construction of Schottky Diode
It is formed of metal and semiconductor. The metal such as gold, silver, molybdenum,
tungsten or platinum is used. And N-type semiconductor is used. Usually, Gallium is used as a
semiconductor for the schottky diode. Although Silicon can be used for low frequencies
operation.
Working of Schottky Diode
Metals have electrons as majority carrier, and N-type semiconductor also possesses
electrons as majority charge carrier. Thus, when a metal-semiconductor junction is unbiased,
then current doesn‟t flow in a diode. This is because electrons in N-type region do not possess
sufficient energy to transit from N-type junction to metal. But when the junction is forward
biased then electrons acquire energy to cross the barrier.
Characteristics of Schottky Diode
It can be seen from its V-I characteristics that current starts increasing at very low forward
voltage. While in the case of P-N junction this current starts increasing after providing
sufficiently high forward voltage. Similarly, the reverse voltage at which current starts
increasing is also low in case of Schottky diode. Thus, its reverse breakdown voltage is also
low.
Advantages of Schottky diode
 It possesses high switching speed.

 Due to high switching speed, its reverse recovery time is very less as compared to other
bipolar diodes.
 The value of forward voltage in the case of this diode is also minimal comparatively
other bipolar diodes.
Disadvantages of Schottky Diode
 It possesses a significant value of leakage current.

 The reverse breakdown voltage of these diodes is very small. Thus, even a small
amount of reverse voltage can damage it.
Applications of Schottky Diode
 It is used as Schottky TTL in digital devices as these devices need fast switching.
 A Schottky diode is the most significant component for digital computers, as the
performance of digital computers is determined by switching speed of diodes.
Tunnel Diode
Definition: Tunnel diode is a heavily doped diode which possesses high conductivity due to
the higher concentration of impurity atoms. It is different from a conventional P-N junction
in terms of doping density.
Construction of Tunnel Diode
A tunnel diode is usually constructed with Gallium. The compounds of Gallium such as
Gallium Arsenide and Gallium Antimonide are considered appropriate for tunnel diode. The
reason behind this is the ratio of the peak value of forward current and the value of valley
current. The value of this ratio is high in case of Gallium which is desirable.
In the case of Gallium, this ratio is approximately equivalent to 20 whereas in the case
of Germanium it is comparatively low i.e. 10. But in the case of silicon it is extremely small
(about 3). Thus, Silicon is not preferred for the construction of Tunnel Diode. Germanium,
Gallium Arsenide or Gallium Antimonide is used for the fabrication of Tunnel Diode. It was
invented by Dr Leo Esaki. Thus, it is also called Esaki Diode.
Working Principle of Tunnel Diode
It is similar to typical P-N junction diode, but its high doping density changes its
conductivity up to a large extent. In normal P-N junction diode, the doping concentration is 1
atom in108 atoms. But in the case of Tunnel Diode, it is 1 atom in 103 atoms. Due to the
higher concentration of impurity ions, the width of the depletion layer decreases, and it
becomes about 10-5mm.
Tunneling
The charge carriers can easily cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer has
reduced up to a large extent. Thus, charge carriers do not need any kinetic energy to move
across the junction; they simply punch through the junction. This effect is called Tunneling.
Thus, it is called Tunnel diode.
Characteristics
The volt-ampere characteristics of Tunnel diode is different from the conventional P-N
junction. This is due to negative resistance section in the case of the tunnel diode. When
forward Biased is applied the current starts flowing and attains peak value, Ip. But when
voltage cross peak value of forward voltage Vp(100mV), current starts decreasing. This is
negative resistance region.
Advantages of Tunnel Diode
 It is a low-cost device.
 Tunnel Diode is immune to noise interference.
 It is simple, and it has high speed of operation.
Disadvantages of Tunnel Diode
 It do not provide isolation between input terminals of diode and output terminals of
diode.
 It is a low power device. Thus, it is more prone to be damaged by heat and electricity.
Applications of Tunnel Diode
 It is used as a switch, oscillator, amplifier etc. It can be used as a high-frequency

component because of its fast response, but due to the availability of better devices, it is
not preferred.
Gunn Diode
Definition: Gunn diode is a transferred electronic device, which is composed of only one
type of semiconductor i.e. N-type and utilizes the negative resistance characteristics to
generate current at high frequencies. It is used to generate RF and microwave frequencies.
It is composed of only N-type semiconductor because N-type semiconductor has

electrons as majority carriers. And transferred electronic devices use such materials which
have electrons as majority charge carrier. For such devices, the P-type semiconductor is of no
use because it consists of holes as majority carriers. Therefore, Gunn diode is made up of only
N-type semiconductor, not P-type.
Construction of Gunn Diode
It is made up of three layers of N-type semiconductor. The semiconductors used in

Gunn diodes are Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Nitride (GaN), Cadmium Telluride
(CdTe), Cadmium Sulphide (CdS), Indium Phosphide (InP), Indium Arsenide (InAs), Indium
Antimonide (InSb) and Zinc Selenide (ZnSe).
Among these three layers the top most and the bottom most are heavily doped while the
middle layer is lightly doped in comparison to the extreme layers. The middle layer is an
epitaxial layer grown on the N-type substrate and the top most layer is formed by ion
implantation technique. The metallic contacts are provided on extreme layers to facilitate
biasing. The heat sink is there so that the diode can withstand excessive heat and can be
prevented from damage.
V-I Characteristics of Gunn Diode
The Current in Gunn diode starts increasing initially with the applied DC voltage. At a
particular point, the current starts decreasing this point is called threshold point or peak point.
After crossing threshold point the current starts decreasing and this creates negative resistance
region in the diode. Due to this negative resistance region, the diode acts as amplifier and
oscillator. In this negative resistance region, the Gunn diode is able to amplify the signals.
Advantages of Gunn diode
 Portable and Small Size device.

 The cost of manufacturing of Gunn diode is low.
 It possesses better noise to signal ratio as it is immune from noise disturbance.
 The Gunn diode is reliable and stable at higher frequencies.
 It has a high bandwidth of operation.
Disadvantages of Gunn Diode
 The Gunn diode has poor temperature stability.

 The device operating current is higher and therefore power dissipation is more.
 The efficiency of Gunn Diode is low below 10GHz.
Applications of Gunn Diode
 Gunn Diodes are used as oscillators and Amplifiers.

 They are used in radio communication, military and commercial radar sources.
 Gunn diodes are used as fast controlling equipment in microelectronics for modulation
of laser beams.
 It is used in tachometers.
 Gunn diode is used in sensors for detection in trespass detecting system, in-door
opening system, pedestrian safety systems etc.
 It is also used extensively in microwave relay data link transmitters.
Impatt Diode
IMPATT is an abbreviation used for IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit-Time.
IMPATT diode is a very high power semiconductor device that is utilized for microwave
applications. It is basically used as oscillator and amplifier at microwave frequencies. The
operating range of the IMPATT diode lies in the range of 3 to 100 GHz.
Construction
As we can see that it consists of 4 regions namely P+-N-I-N+. The structure of the
IMPATT diode is somewhat similar to the PIN diode. However, it operates on a very high
voltage gradient of around 400KV/cm, so as to produce avalanche current. Generally,
materials like GaAs, Si, Ge or InP are used for its construction. However, GaAs is preferred
because of its low noise behaviour. Basically, it uses a slightly different structure from a
normal diode. Because we know that a normal PN junction diode breaks down under
avalanche condition. As the generation of a large amount of current causes the generation of
heat inside it. So variation in construction is adopted to produce RF signals at microwave
frequencies.
Advantages
 It provides high operating range.
 It shows compactness in size.
 IMPATT diodes are economical.
 It provides reliable operation at high temperature.
Disadvantages
 The rate of generation of electron-hole pair in the avalanche region causes the
generation of high noise. Thus makes the system noisy.
 It offers a low tuning range.
 It offers high sensitivity to different operating conditions.
Applications
 IMPATT diodes find applications in microwave oscillators, parametric amplifiers and
microwave generators. Along with these, other uses involve presence in intruder alarm
systems, telecommunication transmitters and receivers etc.
PIN Diode
Definition: PIN diode is formed by sandwiching intrinsic layer (high resistivity about 0.1 Ω-
m) between P-type and N-type semiconductor to create an electric field between them. Due
to this large magnitude of the electric field, the electron-hole pair generation will augment
up to a large extent and this, in turn, can process even a weak input signal.
The width of these depletion layers is large due to which capacitance will decrease
because capacitance decreases with the separation between electrodes. Here P-type and N-type
region are acting as anode and cathode respectively.
Construction of PIN Diode
Pin diode consists of two layers of semiconductors and one layer of intrinsic material in
between them. The Semiconductor layer are usually of P-type and n-type. Pin diode can be
constructed in two ways using planar structure and mesa structure. In a planar structure, a very
thin epitaxial layer is fabricated on the P-type substrate. This epitaxial layer consists of P+
regions.
Similarly, an epitaxial layer is fabricated on N-type substrate, and that will be

comprised of N+ region. And in between these semiconductors, a layer of intrinsic material of
width 10-200 microns and resistivity 0.1 Ω-m is introduced. Semiconductor layer provides
ohmic contacts.
Advantages of PIN Diode
 High reverse breakdown voltage: The width of the depletion layer in PIN diode is
large. It imparts it the ability of high reverse breakdown voltage. Thus, it is suitable for
protection of circuits from a large current.
 High Capacitance: The width of intrinsic layer is large due to which capacitance of
diode is low. As the capacitance of a device is inversely proportional to the distance
between the electrodes.
 Photodetection: Due to the large width of the intrinsic layer, the photons striking the
surface will be more. And the generation of the electron-hole pair will also increase.
Due to which more current will flow. Thus, PIN diode helps to achieve improved
photodetection.
Disadvantages of PIN Diode
 High Reverse Recovery Time: The PIN diode has high reverse recovery time due to
which power losses are significant.
Applications of PIN Diode
 As High Voltage Rectifier: PIN diode is used as high voltage rectifier. The large width
of intrinsic layer imparts the ability to the diode to tolerate high reverse voltage without
leading to the breakdown of the diode. Thus, rectification at high voltage can be
implemented with PIN diode.
 As Radio-frequency Switch: PIN diode can be used as RF and microwave switch, but in
this case, the diode needs to be operated in reverse biased region. The width of intrinsic
layer is comparatively more than layers of semiconductor, thus, more the width more
will be the separation between the semiconductor layer and the less will be the
capacitance.
 As Photodiode: PIN diode can also be used as a photodiode. The conversion of electric
current into the light is performed in the intrinsic region of the diode. Thus, the more the
width of the intrinsic region more will be the efficiency of the diode for generating
light.
 As Attenuator and RF protection Circuit: When PIN diode is forward biased, it works as
a variable resistor. Thus, it can be used for protection of RF circuit from high current
which may damage the circuit. When the forward biased is increased the resistance
decreases suddenly, thus, it can be used as an attenuator.
PNPN Diode (or) Shockley Diode

Definition: Shockley diode is a four layer (P-N-P-N) device. It conducts when it is forward
biased and stops conducting when it is reverse biased. The major difference between
conventional diode and Shockley diode is, it starts conducting when the forward voltage
exceeds break-over voltage. It was invented by William Bradford Shockley, and that‟s why it
is named after its inventor.
Shockley Diode is not widely available commercially. Still, it forms the backbone of
devices like Diac, Triac, SCR. It operates in two states either ON or OFF. Thus, it is used as
switching device. It is also called PNPN diode because of its construction architecture. It is a
two terminal device that‟s why it is categorised as diodes.
Construction of Shockley Diode

It is formed by sandwiching four layers of semiconductors P-type, N-type, P-type and
one more N-type. Three junctions are formed due to the merging of four layers together. Its
construction and circuit symbol are described in the below diagram.
The construction of Shockley diode can also be understood by two transistor model.
The four layers constitute internally two transistors T1 and T2 connected together. The emitter-
base junction of Transistor T1 is Junction-1 (J1). The common connected base and collector of
transistor T1 and T2 respectively constitute junction -2 (J2). The base-emitter junction of T2 is
junction-3 (J3).
V-I characteristics of Shockley diode
As discussed above when the Junction J1 and J3 are forward biased, the current in the
diode starts increasing. Thus, it can be seen from the Characteristics curve that above break-
over voltage current is increasing significantly. And when current attains a value equal to
holding current value (IH) the Shockley diode is in ON state.
Advantages of Shockley Diode
 Shockley diode has high switching speed.

 It can do much more than a transistor as its construction architecture itself comprises of
two transistors connected with a common terminal.
Disadvantages of Shockley Diode
 Its construction is complex due to the involvement of four layers of semiconductor

material.
Applications of Shockley Diode
 Shockley Diode as Trigger Switch: It is used to ON the SCR or triggers the SCR. In
the below circuit, the RC network is fed to DC supply and capacitor starts charging.
When the voltage across the capacitor becomes equivalent to the break over voltage of
Shockley diode the capacitor starts discharging. Then, the diode switches to ON state
and turns on the SCR by providing gate current to SCR.
 Shockley Diode as Relaxation Oscillator: In this, the capacitor charges through a

resistor and when the voltage across the capacitor is more than the break-over voltage,
the diode turns on and acts as a short circuit.
UNIT - III
BJT
Introduction To Bipolar Junction Transistor

History
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was invented by William Shockley and John
Bardeen. While the first transistor was invented 70 years ago but till now it changed the world
from mysterious big computers to small smartphones. The invention of transistor changed the
concept of electrical circuits to integrated circuits (IC). Nowadays, the use of BJT is
decreasing because CMOS technology took place in the design of digital ICs.
The word transistor is derived from the words “Transfer” and “Resistor” it describes
the operation of a BJT i.e. the transfer of an input signal from a low resistance circuit to a
high resistance circuit. This type of transistor is made up of semiconductors.
What is a BJT?
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (also known as a BJT or BJT Transistor) is a three-
terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n junctions which are able to amplify or
magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the
base, the collector and the emitter. A BJT is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and
holes as charge carriers.
Construction of Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJT is a semiconductor device that is constructed with 3 doped semiconductor Regions
i.e. Base, Collector & Emitter separated by 2 p-n Junctions. Bipolar transistors are
manufactured in two types, PNP and NPN, and are available as separate components, usually
in large quantities. The prime use or function of this type of transistor is to amplify current.
This makes them useful as switches or amplifiers. They have a wide application in electronic
devices like mobile phones, televisions, radio transmitters, and industrial control. There are
three operating regions of a bipolar junction transistor:
 Active region: The region in which the transistors operate as an amplifier.

 Saturation region: The region in which the transistor is fully on and operates as a
switch such that collector current is equal to the saturation current.
 Cut-off region: The region in which the transistor is fully off and collector current is
equal to zero.
BJTs are of two types namely NPN and PNP based on doping types of the three main
terminals. An NPN transistor consists of two semiconductor junctions that have a thin p-doped
anode region and PNP transistor also consists of two semiconductor junctions that have a thin
n- doped cathode region. The flow of charge in a Bipolar transistor is due to the diffusion of
charge carriers between the two regions belonging to different charge concentrations. Regions
of BJT are known as the base, collector, and emitter. The emitter region is highly doped when
compared to other layers. Both collector and base layers have the same charge carrier
concentrations. Among these junctions, the base-emitter junction is forward biased, and the
base-collector junction is reverse biased. Forward biased means p-doped region has more
potential than the n-doped side.
Operation of NPN and PNP Transistor

Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor
There are two types of bipolar junction transistors:
 PNP bipolar junction transistor
 NPN bipolar junction transistor
Symbols of BJT
PNP BJT
In PNP BJT, the n-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two p-type
semiconductors. The two p-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector respectively while
the n-type semiconductor acts as a base. The current enters the transistor through the emitter
such that the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse
biased. This is shown in the figure below.
NPN BJT
In NPN BJT, p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two n-type
semiconductors. The two n-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector respectively while
the p-type semiconductor acts as a base. Current entering the emitter, base, and collector has
the sign convention of positive while the current that leaves the transistor has the sign
convention of negative. This is shown in the figure below.
Transistor Biasing
Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or
current conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly
by the transistor.
The process of setting these conditions for a transistor circuit is referred to as transistor
biasing. Transistor biasing can be accomplished by various techniques that give rise to
different kinds of biasing circuits. However, all of these circuits are based on the principle of
providing the right amount of base current, IB, and, in turn, the collector current, IC from the
supply voltage, VCC when no signal is present at an input. Moreover, the collector resistor RC
has to be chosen so that the collector-emitter voltage, VCE, remains greater than 0.5V for
transistors made of germanium and greater than 1V for the transistors made of silicon.
CB, CE &CC Configuration

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible
ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the
input and output signals. Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal
within a circuit as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.
 Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

 Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and Voltage Gain.
 Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
Common Base Configuration:

In common base configuration, the base terminal is common between the input and
output signals. The input signal is applied between base and emitter terminal while output is
taken between the base and collector terminal. The output signal at collector side is less than
the input signal at emitter. So, its gain is less than 1. In other words, it “attenuates” the signal.
It has a non-inverting output that means that both input and output signals are in-phase.
This type of configuration is not commonly used because of its high voltage gain. Due
to its very high-frequency response, this configuration is used for single stage amplifier. These
single stage amplifiers can be used as radio frequency amplifier, microphone pre-amplifier.
Common Base Configuration Gains
Voltage Gain
Current Gain Ic/ie
Resistance Gain RL/Rin
Common Emitter Configuration

As its name suggests, in common emitter, the emitter is common between input and
output. The input is applied between base & emitter while output is taken between collector &
emitter. It can be simply recognized by looking at the circuit. If the emitter is grounded while
input and output are taken from the base and collector respectively. This configuration has the
highest current and power gain among all three configurations. The reason is because the input
is at forward bias junction, so its input impedance is very low. While output is taken from
reverse bias junction, so its output impedance is very high.
The emitter current in this configuration is equal to the sum of base and collector
currents. Given in equation as;
Ie= ic + ib
Where ie is the emitter current. This configuration has high current gain which is ic/ib.
The reason for this tremendous current gain is that the load resistance is connected in series
with collector. It can be seen from the equation that minute increase in base current will result
in extremely high current at output side. This configuration acts as an inverting amplifier
where the output signal is completely opposite in polarity to the input signal. Therefore, it
shifts the output signal at 180° with respect to its input signal.
Common Collector Configuration

Common collector configuration known as voltage follower or emitter follower has a
grounded collector. In Common collector configuration, the collector terminal is grounded to
the supply. So the collector terminal is common to both input and output. The output is taken
from the emitter terminal with load connected in series while the input is given to base
terminal directly.
It has high input impedance and low output impedance. This enables it to perform as an
impedance matcher. So, this configuration is very helpful in the impedance matching
technique.
BJT Configurations
Characteristics Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector
Power Gain low Very high medium
Current gain low medium high
Voltage gain High Medium low
Phase angle 0 180 0
Output impedance Very high high low
Input Impedance Low medium high
Applications of BJT
A bipolar junction transistor is used as a switch, as an amplifier, as a filter, and even as

an oscillator. Below is the list of other applications of bipolar junction transistor:
 BJT is used as a detector or also known as a demodulator.

 BJT finds application in clipping circuits so that the waves can be shaped.
 Logic circuits and switching circuits use BJT.
Bias Stability
The process of making the operating point independent of temperature changes or
variations in transistor parameters is known as Stabilization. Once the stabilization is achieved,
the values of IC and VCE become independent of temperature variations or replacement of
transistor. A good biasing circuit helps in the stabilization of operating point.
Need for Stabilization
Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the following reasons.
 Temperature dependence of IC
 Individual variations
 Thermal runaway
Transistor Load Line

Definition: The load line analysis of transistor means for the given value of collector-
emitter voltage we find the value of collector current. This can be done by plotting the output
characteristic and then determine the collector current IC with respect to collector-emitter
voltage VCE. The load line analysis can easily be obtained by determining the output
characteristics of the load line analysis methods.
The DC load represents the desirable combinations of the collector current and the collector-
emitter voltage. It is drawn when no signal is given to the input, and the transistor becomes
bias. Consider a CE NPN transistor circuit shown in the figure below where no signal is
applied to the input side. For this circuit, DC condition will obtain, and the output
characteristic
Method of Biasing
The most commonly preferred methods for biasing of transistors are
 Base Resistor Bias (or) Fixed Bias

 Collector to base
 Biasing with a collector-feedback resistor
 Voltage Divider (or) Potential Divider
Above all the methods follow the same principle to obtain the required amounts of base and
collector currents from VCC in the signal zero conditions.
Base Resistor Bias (or) Fixed Bias

 The terminal base of the transistor is connected with a high value of the base resistor.
 The transistor used in the circuit is of N-P-N type so that the other end of the resistor
will be connected to the positive side of the supply.
 Through VCC required amount of zero signal currents at the base is supplied which will
be flowing through the base resistor.
 This makes the junction base-emitter to be forward biased and the terminal base will be
positive in comparison to the emitter terminal.
 By the selection of the proper values of the base resistor, the required amounts of
currents at the base and collector are made to pass.
The value of the base resistor can be calculated by applying KVL
RB = VCC – VBE/ IB
Due to the fixed value of VCC and selectively used IB the value of RB can be easily
found. Hence, this method can also be referred to as a fixed bias method.
Advantages
 Circuit design and calculation are simple.
 Due to the absence of the resistor at the junction of the base-emitter, there is no chance
of occurrence of the loading effect.
Disadvantages
 Due to the development of heat, the stabilization criterion of the circuit gets degraded.
 As the value of the stability factor gets high results to thermal runaway.
Collector to Base Bias

This circuit consists of a base resistor that is fed back to the terminal collector instead of
VCC. In this way, this circuit is slightly different from the method of the base resistor.
From VCC, the current supplied flows through RL then it reaches the resistor present at
the base. This indicates that voltage is shared among the base and collector terminals. If the
current at the collector tends to increase the voltage at the load resistor gets increased. This
results in an increase in the value of the voltage at the collector-emitter terminal and the
current at the base get reduced.
Advantage
 The change of Q-point is less when compared to the base bias method.
Disadvantages
 If the RL gets short-circuited the value of stability becomes large.
 The negative path of feedback followed makes the voltage gain smaller.
Voltage Divider Bias (or) Potential Divider

Among the existing methods, this type of bias is the widely preferred one. It consists of
two resistorsR1 and R2. This circuit of biasing is beneficial in terms of providing stabilization
due to the resistor present at the emitter. The drop of voltage at the resistor R2 makes the
junction of the base-emitter to operate in forwarding bias.
Let us assume the value of current flows through the resistor R1 is I1. As the current at
the base is small the current flow through the resistor R2 is the same as that of R1 that is I1.
Advantage
 More than one type of voltage divider circuit can be incorporated by making use of this
bias.
Disadvantages
 The signals tend to get mixed while using this bias in the circuits.
Bias Compensation
Bias compensation • Compensation techniques are used to reduce the drift (change) of
the operating point. Compensation techniques Temperature sensitive devices such as diodes,
transistors are used which provide compensating voltages and currents to maintain the
operating point constant. There are other compensation techniques which refer to the use of
temperature sensitive devices such as diodes, transistors, thermistors, Sensistors, etc. to
compensate for the variation in currents. There are two popular types of circuits in this method,
one using a thermistor and the other using a Sensistor.
Thermistor Compensation
Thermistor is a temperature sensitive device. It has negative temperature coefficient.

The resistance of a thermistor increases when the temperature decreases and it decreases when
the temperature increases. The below figure shows a self-bias amplifier with thermistor
compensation.
In an amplifier circuit, the changes that occur in ICO, VBE and β with temperature,
increases the collector current. Thermistor is employed to minimize the increase in collector
current. As the temperature increases, the resistance RT of thermistor decreases, which
increases the current through it and the resistor RE. Now, the voltage developed across RE
increases, which reverse biases the emitter junction. This reverse bias is so high that the effect
of resistors R1 and R2 providing forward bias also gets reduced. This action reduces the rise in
collector current.Thus the temperature sensitivity of thermistor compensates the increase in
collector current, occurred due to temperature.
Sensistor Compensation
A Sensistor is a heavily doped semiconductor that has positive temperature coefficient.

The resistance of a Sensistor increases with the increase in temperature and decreases with the
decrease in temperature. The figure below shows a self-bias amplifier with Sensistor
compensation.
In the above figure, the Sensistor may be placed in parallel with R1 or in parallel with
RE. As the temperature increases, the resistance of the parallel combination, thermistor and R1
increases and their voltage drop also increases. This decreases the voltage drop across R2. Due
to the decrease of this voltage, the net forward emitter bias decreases. As a result of this, IC
decreases. Hence by employing the Sensistor, the rise in the collector current which is caused
by the increase of ICO, VBE and β due to temperature, gets controlled.
Thermal Runaway
As the expression for collector current IC is
IC=βIB+ICEO
=βIB+(β+1)ICBO
The flow of collector current and also the collector leakage current causes heat
dissipation. If the operating point is not stabilized, there occurs a cumulative effect which
increases this heat dissipation. The self-destruction of such an unstabilized transistor is known
as Thermal run away. In order to avoid thermal runaway and the destruction of transistor, it is
necessary to stabilize the operating point, i.e., to keep IC constant.
HeatSink
Heat sink is an electronic component or a device of an electronic circuit which disperses
heat from other components (mainly from the power transistors) of a circuit into the
surrounding medium and cools them for improving their performance, reliability and also
avoids the premature failure of the components. For the cooling purpose,it incorporates a fan
or cooling device.
Heat Sink Principle
Fourier‟s law of heat conduction states that if temperature gradient is present in a body,
then the heat will transfer from a high-temperature region to allow- temperature region.And,
this can be achieved in three different ways,such as convention, radiation and conduction.
Whenever two objects with different temperature come in contact with each
other,conduction occurs causing the fast-moving molecules of the high-heat object to collide
with the slow-moving molecules of the cooler objects, and thus, transfers thermal energy to the
cooler object, and this is termed as thermal conductivity. Similarly, heat sink transfers the heat
or thermal energy from a high-temperature component to a low-temperature medium like air,
water, oil, etc.Usually air is used as a low-temperature medium; and, if water is used as
medium, then it is termed as cold plate.
UNIT - IV
FET AND UJT
Introduction to FET
What is FET?
A Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three-terminal Active semiconductor device,

where the output current is controlled by an electric field generated by the input voltage.
The FET transistors are voltage controlled devices, where as the BJT transistors are
current controlled devices. The FET transistors have basically three terminals, such as Drain
(D), Source (S) and Gate (G) which are equivalent to the collector, emitter and base terminals
in the corresponding BJT transistor. In BJT transistors the output current is controlled by the
input current which is applied to the base, but in the FET transistors the output current is
controlled by the input voltage applied to the gate terminal.
History of FET Transistor
Julius Edgar filed the first patent for a field-effect transistor in 1926 and then Oskar
Heil too did the same in 1934. The junction gate field-effect transistor was created when
William Shockley of the Bell Labs observed and elucidated the transistor effect in 1947. More
developments were made to the device in later years of the 20th century.
Types of FETs:
There are two types of Field Effect Transistors:
 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

 Metal oxide semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
Construction and Operation of N-Channel JFET

Construction of N-Channel JFET
As we have already discussed here that a JFET is classified as n channel and p channel
according to the fabrication. So, in this section, we will discuss the constructional details of n
channel JFET. For constructing n-channel JFET, an n-type semiconductor substrate (usually
silicon is used) is taken. Over the n-type bar, 2 small p-type silicon bars are diffused. But it is
to be noted here that, these small bars are to be diffused on the two opposite sides of the
substrate.
After the diffusion of the p-type material over the n-type material, the leftover region in
n substrate is called as a channel through which majority charge carriers (i.e., electrons) flow.
Once the channel is formed, then metallization of both the ends of the channel is performed in
order to form the source and drain terminals. Also, the two diffused silicon bars that form the
pn junctions in the channel are connected together so as to form the gate terminal of the
structure.
Operation of N-channel FET

Before going into the operation of the FET one should understand how the depletion
layers are formed. For this, let us suppose that the voltage at gate terminal say VGG is reverse
biased while the voltage at drain terminal say VDD is not applied. Let this be the case 1.
 In case 1, When VGG is reverse biased and VDD is not applied, the depletion regions
between P and N layers tend to expand. This happens as the negative voltage applied,
attracts the holes from the p-type layer towards the gate terminal.
 In case 2, When VDD is applied positiveterminaltodrainandnegativeterminaltosource

and VGG is not applied, the electrons flow from source to drain which constitute the
drain current ID.
Let us now consider the following figure, to understand what happens when both the
supplies are given.
The supply at gate terminal makes the depletion layer grow and the voltage at drain
terminal allows the drain current from source to drain terminal. Suppose the point at source
terminal is B and the point at drain terminal is A, then the resistance of the channel will be
such that the voltage drop at the terminal A is greater than the voltage drop at the terminal B.
Which means,
VA>VB
Hence the voltage drop is being progressive through the length of the channel. So, the
reverse biasing effect is stronger at drain terminal than at the source terminal. This is why the
depletion layer tends to penetrate more into the channel at point A than at point B, when both
VGG and VDD are applied. The following figure explains this.
Drain Characteristics of JFET
When the voltage between gate and source VGS is zero, or they are shorted, the current
ID from source to drain is also nil as there is no VDS applied. As the voltage between drain
and source VDS is increased, the current flow ID from source to drain increases. This increase
in current is linear up to a certain point A, known as Knee Voltage. The gate terminals will be
under reverse biased condition and as ID increases, the depletion regions tend to constrict. This
constriction is unequal in length making these regions come closer at drain and farther at drain,
which leads to pinch off voltage. The pinch off voltage is defined as the minimum drain to
source voltage where the drain current approaches a constant value saturationvalue. The point
at which this pinch off voltage occurs is called as Pinch off point, denoted as B. As VDS is
further increased, the channel resistance also increases in such a way that ID practically
remains constant. The region BC is known as saturation region or amplifier region. All these
along with the points A, B and C are plotted in the graph below.
The drain characteristics are plotted for drain current ID against drain source voltage
VDS for different values of gate source voltage VGS. The overall drain characteristics for such
various input voltages is as given under. As the negative gate voltage controls the drain
current, FET is called as a Voltage controlled device. The drain characteristics indicate the
performance of a FET. The drain characteristics plotted above are used to obtain the values of
Drain resistance, Transconductance and Amplification Factor.
Comparison of Connections between a JFET and a BJT

Bipolar Transistor (BJT) Field Effect Transistor (FET)
Emitter – (E) >> Source – (S)
Base – (B) >> Gate – (G)
Collector – (C) >> Drain – (D)
The JFET differs from an ordinary BJT in the following ways:
 In a JFET, there is only one type of carrier,i.e. holes in p-type channel and electrons in
n-type channel. For this reason it is also called unipolar transistor.However, in an
ordinary BJT, both electrons and holes play role in conduction. Therefore, it is called as
bipolar transistor.
 As the input circuit of a JFET is reverse biased, therefore, it has a high input impedance.
However, the input circuit of a BJT is forward biased and hence has low input
impedance.
 The primary functional difference between the JFET and BJT is that no current enters
the gate of JFET. However, in typical BJT base current might be a few µA.
 A BJT uses the current into its base to control a large current between collector and
emitter. Whereas a JFET uses voltage on the gate terminal to control the current
between drain and source.
 In JFET, there is no junction. Therefore, noise level in JFET is very small.
Introduction to MOSFET
What is a MOSFET?
Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistors commonly known as MOSFETs are
electronic devices used to switch or amplify voltages in circuits. The Insulated-Gate Field-
Effect Transistor (IGFET), also known as the (MOSFET), is a derivative of the field effect
transistor (FET). It is a current controlled device and is constructed by three terminals. The
terminals of MOSFET are named as follows:
 Source
 Gate
 Drain
 Body
MOSFET Construction
The construction of a MOSFET is a bit similar to the FET. An oxide layer is deposited
on the substrate to which the gate terminal is connected. This oxide layer acts as an insulator
(sio2 insulates from the substrate), and hence the MOSFET has another name as IGFET. In the
construction of MOSFET, a lightly doped substrate, is diffused with a heavily doped region.
Depending upon the substrate used, they are called as P-type and N-type MOSFETs. The
voltage at gate controls the operation of the MOSFET. In this case, both positive and negative
voltages can be applied on the gate as it is insulated from the channel. With negative gate bias
voltage, it acts as depletion MOSFET while with positive gate bias voltage it acts as an
Enhancement MOSFET.
MOSFET Types
The classification of MOSFET based on the construction and the material used is given
below in the flowchart.
MOSFET Applications
 Radiofrequency applications use MOSFET amplifiers extensively.

 MOSFET behaves as a passive circuit element.
 Power MOSFETs can be used to regulate DC motors.
 MOSFETs are used in the design of the chopper circuit.
Advantages of MOSFET
 MOSFETs operate at greater efficiency at lower voltages.

 Absence of gate current results in high input impedance producing high switching
speed.
Disadvantages of MOSFET
 MOSFETs are vulnerable to damage by electrostatic charges due to the thin oxide layer.
 Overload voltages make MOSFETs unstable.
Enhancement MOSFET
The Enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to “Normally Open” switch and these
types of transistors require a gate-source voltage to switch ON the device. The symbols of both
N-channel and P-channel enhancement mode MOSFETs are shown below. Here, we can
observe that a broken line is connected between the source and drain, which represents the
enhancement mode type. In enhancement mode MOSFETs, the conductivity increases by
increasing the oxide layer, which adds the carriers to the channel. Generally, this oxide layer is
called as „Inversion layer‟. The channel is formed between the drain and source in the opposite
type to the substrate, such as N-channel is made with a P-type substrate and P-channel is made
with an N-type substrate. The conductivity of the channel due to electrons or holes depends on
N-type or P-type channel respectively.
The Enhancement mode MOSFET is commonly used type of transistor. This type of
MOSFET is equivalent to normally-open switch because it does not conduct when the gate
voltage is zero. If the positive voltage (+VGS) is applied to the N-channel gate terminal, then
the channel conducts and the drain current flows through the channel. If this bias voltage
increases to more positive then channel width and drain current through the channel increases
to some more. But if the bias voltage is zero or negative (-VGS) then the transistor may switch
OFF and the channel is in non-conductive state. So now we can say that the gate voltage of
enhancement mode MOSFET enhances the channel.
Enhancement mode MOSFET transistors are mostly used as switches in electronic

circuits because of their low ON resistance and high OFF resistance and also because of their
high gate resistance. These transistors are used to make logic gates and in power switching
circuits, such as CMOS gates, which have both NMOS and PMOS Transistors. The V-I
characteristics of enhancement mode MOSFET are shown above which gives the relationship
between the drain current (ID) and the drain-source voltage (VDS). From the above figure we
observed the behavior of an enhancement MOSFET in different regions, such as ohmic,
saturation and cut-off regions. MOSFET transistors are made with different semiconductor
materials. These MOSFETs have the ability to operate in both conductive and non-conductive
modes depending on the bias voltage at the input. This ability of MOSFET makes it to use in
switching and amplification.
Depletion MOSFET
The depletion type MOSFET transistor is equivalent to a “normally closed” switch. The
depletion type of transistors requires gate – source voltage (VGS) to switch OFF the device.
The symbols for depletion mode of MOSFETs in both N-channel and P-channel types
are shown above. In the above symbols, we can observe that the fourth terminal (substrate) is
connected to the ground, but in discrete MOSFETs it is connected to source terminal. The
continuous thick line connected between the drain and source terminal represents the depletion
type. The arrow symbol indicates the type of channel, such as N-channel or P-channel. In this
type of MOSFETs a thin layer of silicon is deposited below the gate terminal. The depletion
mode MOSFET transistors are generally ON at zero gate-source voltage (VGS). The
conductivity of the channel in depletion MOSFETs is less compared to the enhancement type
of MOSFETs.
The depletion mode MOSFETs are generally known as „Switched ON‟ devices, because
these transistors are generally closed when there is no bias voltage at the gate terminal. If the
gate voltage increases in positive, then the channel width increases in depletion mode. As a
result the drain current ID through the channel increases. If the applied gate voltage more
negative, then the channel width is very less and MOSFET may enter into the cutoff region.
The depletion mode MOSFET is a rarely used type of transistor in the electronic circuits. The
following graph shows the Characteristic Curve of Depletion Mode MOSFET.
The V-I characteristics of the depletion mode MOSFET transistor are given above. This
characteristic mainly gives the relationship between drain- source voltage (VDS) and drain
current (ID). The small voltage at the gate controls the current flow through the channel. The
channel between drain and source acts as a good conductor with zero bias voltage at gate
terminal. The channel width and drain current increases if the gate voltage is positive and these
two (channel width and drain current) decreases if the gate voltage is negative.
FET as a Voltage Variable Resistor(VVR)

We consider the use of a n-channel FET as a voltage controlled resistor where the
resistance between the drain and source is controlled by the gate-source voltage. There are two
distinct regions. In the Ohmic region1, the drain-to-source current, IDS, depends on the gate-
to-source voltage, VGS, as well as the drain-to-source voltage VDS. For small values of drain-
to-source voltage, IDS VDS and the FET functions as a resistor, with a conductance that
depends on VGS. In the active region, to be discussed next, the drain-to-source current is
almost entirely independent of the drain-to-source voltage and the FET functions as a current
source with the value of the current set by VGS . The equation of the curve that separates the
two regions is VDS = VGS - VGS(off), where VGS < 0 for JFETs and VGS > 0 for
MOSFETS.
The source is grounded so that the gate voltage, VG, is VG = VGS and thus VG acts as
the control voltage. However, this scheme remains a bit imperfect since the resistance is sub-
linear from the presence of the negative VDS term.
Introduction to UJT
What is Unijunction Transistor(UJT)?
UJT stands for UniJunction Transistor. It is a three terminal semiconductor

switching device. The Unijunction Transistor is a simple device that consists of a bar of n-
type silicon material with a non-rectifying contact at either end (base 1 and base 2), and with
a rectifying contact (emitter) alloyed into the bar part way along its length, to form the only
junction within the device (hence the name „Unijunction‟). The Unijunction Transistor is
also known as Double Base Diode.
The unique switching characteristics of UJT makes it different from conventional BJT‟s
and FET‟s by acting as switching transistor instead of amplifying the signals. It exhibits
negative resistance in its characteristics which employs it as relaxation oscillators in variety of
applications.
Symbol of UJT
Construction of UJT
The channel is formed of N type which is lightly doped and P type material is infused
on it and the doping concentration of P type is very high. Thus it forms single PN junction and
this is the reason for the name Unijunction. The terminals Base2 (B2) ,Base1 (B1) are taken
from the N channel through the Ohmic contacts and Emitter taken from the heavily doped P
type material. The Emitter terminal is closer to the Base2 terminal than the Base1 terminal.
The complementary type UJT is made up of P type lightly doped channel and heavily doped N
type material infused on it. The terminals Base2 (B2), Base1 (B1) are taken from P channel
and Emitter terminal from N type material.
Characteristics
The characteristics of Unijunction Transistor (UJT) can be explained by three
parameters:
 Cutoff
 Negative Resistance Region
 Saturation
Cutoff
Cutoff region is the area where the Unijunction Transistor (UJT) doesn‟t get sufficient
voltage to turn on. The applied voltage hasn‟t reached the triggering voltage, thus making
transistor to be in off state.
Negative Resistance Region

When the transistor reaches the triggering voltage, VTRIG, Unijunction Transistor
(UJT) will turn on. After a certain time, if the applied voltage increases to the emitter lead, it
will reach out at VPEAK. The voltage drops from VPEAK to Valley Point even though the
current increases (negative resistance).
Saturation
Saturation region is the area where the current and voltage raises, if the applied voltage
to emitter terminal increases.
Advantages:
 Low cost and low power absorbing device
 UJT is good at blocking the reverse current
 Stable triggering voltage
 It provides very good switching response
Disadvantages:
 It cannot be used for high frequency.
 Because of its negative impedance property, it cannot be used in all circuits.
 It does not provide amplification.
Applications of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

 Switching Device
 Triggering Device for Triacs and SCR‟s
 Timing Circuits
 For phase control
 In sawtooth generators
 In simple relaxation oscillators
UJT as Relaxation Oscillator

An oscillator is a device that produces a waveform by its own, without any input.
Though some dc voltage is applied for the device to work, it will not produce any waveform as
input. A relaxation oscillator is a device that produces a non-sinusoidal waveform on its own.
This waveform depends generally upon the charging and discharging time constants of a
capacitor in the circuit.
Construction and Working
The emitter of UJT is connected with a resistor and capacitor as shown. The RC time
constant determines the timings of the output waveform of the relaxation oscillator. Both the
bases are connected with a resistor each. The dc voltage supply VBB is given. The following
figure shows how to use a UJT as a relaxation oscillator.
Initially, the voltage across the capacitor is zero.
Vc=0
The UJT is in OFF condition. The resistor R provides a path for the capacitor C to
charge through the voltage applied. The capacitor charges according to the voltage
V=V0(1−e−t/RC)
The capacitor usually starts charging and continues to charge until the maximum
voltage VBB. But in this circuit, when the voltage across capacitor reaches a value, which
enables the UJT to turn ON (the peak voltage) then the capacitor stops to charge and starts
discharging through UJT. Now, this discharging continues until the minimum voltage which
turns the UJT OFF (the valley voltage). This process continues and the voltage across the
capacitor, when indicated on a graph, the following waveform is observed.
So, the charge and discharge of capacitor produces the sweep waveform as shown
above. The charging time produces increasing sweep and the discharging time produces
decreasing sweep. The repetition of this cycle, forms a continuous sweep output waveform. As
the output is a non-sinusoidal waveform, this circuit is said to be working as a relaxation
oscillator.
Applications
The UJT relaxation oscillator applications are Relaxation oscillator stays in rest position
for some time and produces AC signals. These oscillators produce low-frequency signals. UJT
Relaxation Oscillator is used in function generator to produce sweep signals, Electronic
Beepers, SMPS, blinking lights, Voltage-controlled oscillators, inverters, etc..
Introduction to PUT (Programmable Unijunction Transistor)

Programmable unijunction transistors (PUT) are three-terminal thyristors that are
triggered into conduction when the voltage at the anode exceeds the voltage at the gate. The
PUT is similar to the unijunction transistor (UJT), but its intrinsic standoff ratio can be set by
two external resistors. Hence, the name "programmable" is used. A PUT is a more advanced
version of a UJT. In a PUT, operating characteristics such as base-to-base resistance, intrinsic
standoff voltage, valley current, and peak current can be programmed by setting the values of
two external resistors. The internal block diagram and circuit symbol of PUT are shown below.
From the above figure, you can see that the PUT has a four layered construction.
Topmost P-layer is called the anode (A). The N-layer next to the anode is called the gate (G).
The P-layer next to the gate is left alone. The bottom most N-layer is called cathode (K).
Ohmic contacts are made on the anode, cathode and gate layers for external connection.
Applications
 thyristor triggers
 oscillators
 pulse
 timing circuits with frequencies up to 10 kHz
 An integrated circuit can include not only an integrated circuit chip, but also a circuit
transistor such as a PUT.
SCR (Thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier)

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a unidirectional semiconductor device made of
silicon. This device is the solid state equivalent of thyratron and hence it is also referred to as
thyristor or thyroid transistor. In fact, SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) is a trade name given
to the thyristor by General Electric Company. Basically, SCR is a three-terminal, four-layer
semiconductor device consisting of alternate layers of p-type and n-type material.
Hence it has three pn junctions J1, J2 and J3. The figure below shows an SCR with the
layers p-n-p-n. The device has terminals Anode(A), Cathode(K) and the Gate(G). The Gate
terminal(G) is attached to the p-layer nearer to the Cathode(K) terminal. An SCR can be
considered as two inter-connected transistors as shown below.
It is seen that a single SCR is the combination of one pnp transistor (Q1) and one npn
transistor (Q2). Here, the emitter of Q1 acts as the anode terminal of the SCR while the emitter
of Q2 is its cathode. Further, the base of Q1 is connected to the collector of Q2 and the
collector of Q1 is connected to the base of Q2. The gate terminal of the SCR is connected to
the base of Q2, too.
The working of SCR can be understood by analyzing its behavior in the following modes:
Reverse Blocking Mode of SCR
In this mode, the SCR is reverse biased by connecting its anode terminal (A) to negative
end and the cathode terminal (K) to the positive end of the battery. This leads to the reverse
biasing of the junctions J1 and J3, which in turn prohibits the flow of current through the
device, in spite of the fact that the junction J2 remains in forward biased condition.
In this state, the SCR behaves as a typical diode. In this reverse biased condition, only
reverse saturation current flows through the device as in the case of the reverse biased diode
which is shown in the characteristic curve by blue line. The device also exhibits the reverse
breakdown phenomenon beyond a reverse safe voltage limit just like a diode.
Forward Blocking Mode of SCR
Here a positive bias is applied to the SCR by connecting anode terminal (A) to the
positive and cathode terminal (K) to the negative terminal of the battery, as shown in the figure
below. Under this condition, the junction J1 and J3 get forward biased while junction J2 gets
reverse biased.
Here also current cannot pass through the thyristor except the tiny current flowing as
saturation current as shown by the blue curve in the characteristics curve below. Here also
current cannot pass through the thyristor except the tiny current flowing as saturation current
as shown by the blue curve in the characteristics curve below.
Forward Conduction Mode of SCR
The SCR can be made to conduct either
 By increasing the positive voltage applied at anode terminal (A) beyond the
Break Over Voltage, VB or
 By applying positive voltage at the gate terminal (G) as shown in the figure
below.
In the first case, the increase in the applied bias causes the initially reverse biased
junction J2 to break down at the point corresponding to forward Break Over Voltage, VB. This
results in the sudden increase in the current flowing through the SCR as shown by the pink
curve in the characteristic curve, although the gate terminal of the SCR remains unbiased.
Applications
 Power switching circuits (for both AC and DC)

 Zero-voltage switching circuits
 Over voltage protection circuits
 Controlled Rectifiers
 Inverters
 AC Power Control (including lights, motors, etc.)
 Pulse Circuits
 Battery Charging Regulator
 Latching Relays
 Computer Logic Circuits
 Remote Switching Units
 Phase Angle Triggered Controllers
 Timing Circuits
 IC Triggering Circuits
 Welding Machine Control
 Temperature Control Systems
TRIAC
What is a Triac?
A Triac is defined as a three terminal AC switch which is different from the other
silicon controlled rectifiers in the sense that it can conduct in both the directions that is
whether the applied gate signal is positive or negative, it will conduct. Thus, this device can
be used for AC systems as a switch.
This is a three terminal, four layer, bi-directional semiconductor device that controls AC
power. The triac of maximum rating of 16 kw is available in the market.
Construction of Triac
Two SCRs are connected in inverse parallel with gate terminal as common. Gate
terminals is connected to both the N and P regions due to which gate signal may be applied
which is irrespective of the polarity of the signal. Here, we do not have anode and cathode
since it works for both the polarities which means that device is bilateral. It consists of three
terminals namely, main terminal 1(MT1), main terminal 2(MT2), and gate terminal G.
V-I Characteristic of TRIAC
The following characteristic curve shows the relationship between the applied voltage
and the current flowing through the TRIAC. It operates in only the 1st and 3rd quadrants. Its
operation is the same as SCR but it can also operate in the 3rd quadrant.
The triac is able to conduct in a number of ways - more than the thyristor. It can
conduct current irrespective of the voltage polarity of terminals MT1 and MT2. It can also be
triggered by either positive or negative gate currents, irrespective of the polarity of the MT2
current. This means that there are four triggering modes or quadrants:
 I+ Mode MT2 current is +ve, gate current is +ve

 I- Mode MT2 current is +ve, gate current is -ve
 III+ Mode: MT2 current is -ve, gate current is +ve
 III- Mode: MT2 current is -ve, gate current is -ve
It is found that the triac trigger current sensitivity is greatest when the MT2 and gate
currents are both of the same polarity, i.e. both positive or both negative. If the gate and MT2
currents are of the opposite polarity then the sensitivity is typically about half the value of
when they are the same. The typical IV characteristic of a triac can be seen in the diagram
below with the four different quadrants labelled.
Advantages
 It can conduct and regulate both halves of an AC waveform.

 It is compact and requires a smaller heat sink as opposed to using two SCR.
 It requires only one fuse for protection.
 Positive as well as negative gate pulse can be used to trigger TRAIC.
 It does not require a diode in parallel for reverse protection as in SCR.
Disadvantages
 Its switching is asymmetrical for both halves of AC.

 Asymmetrical switching creates harmonics in the system causing numerous problems.
 Its power rating is lower as compared to SCR.
 It is less reliable than SCR.
 It has a lower switching speed.
 Requires caution while triggering as it can be triggered in either direction.
 Its dv/dt rating is lower than SCR.
Applications of Triac
 They are used in control circuits.

 It is used in High power lamp switching.
 It is used in AC power control.
DIAC
What is DIAC?
DIAC is an acronym that stands for “Diode for Alternating Current”. It is a two-
terminal bidirectional switch that conducts in both directions when the applied voltage
exceeds its break over voltage. It cannot amplify or offer controlled switching.
It belongs to the family of thyristors but It is an uncontrolled switch because it does not
have a control or gate terminal. Its name implies that it is a diode that can conduct AC in both
directions. It is mainly used for triggering other devices such as TRIAC due to its symmetrical
switching characteristics.
Symbol of DIAC
Construction of DIAC
DIAC is a five layer device from the combination of two antiparallel SCR without the
gate terminals. It has only two terminals MT1 and MT2. It has symmetrical structure from both
terminals having equal width of the regions as well as its doping percentage. DIAC can be
constructed in 3-layer and 5-layer symmetrical structure. The 3-layer structure is mostly used
which is made by either sandwiching N or P between its alternating layers forming PNP or
NPN structure. The break over voltage of such DIAC lies around 30 volts. The 5-layer DAIC
construction resembles the combination of two SCR without the gate terminal. It has a
symmetrical structure made of 2 P-layer and 3 N-layers. The terminal‟s regions are made of
both P and N layer. The doping and width of all layers are equal. The symmetrical structure
provides symmetrical switching capabilities in both forward as well as reverse polarity.
V-I Characteristics of DIAC
The following characteristic curve shows the relation between the main voltage and
main current of a DIAC. As you can see, the DIAC only operate in 1st and 3rd quadrant. It is a
symmetrical device; therefore, the graph is symmetrical in both quadrants forming the shape of
letter “Z”.
In 1st quadrant, the voltage and current are positive. As you can see, when the voltage is
below the break over voltage VBO, the DIAC blocks the current except for the leakage
current. The device remains in OFF-state. Once the voltage increases, the DIAC triggers into
ON-state and the current rises. The voltage across the device starts to reduce to steady ON-
state voltage. The device operates similarly in the 3rd quadrant. The only difference between
the 1st and 3rd quadrant is that the voltage and current are reverse. That is it.
Advantages
 The DIAC offer symmetrical switching characteristics.

 Symmetrical switching helps in reducing the harmonics in a system.
 It has low on-state voltage drop.
 The voltage drop increases with the voltage
 It can be easily switches by increasing or decreasing the applied voltage.
 It offers smooth power control when used for triggering other thyristor and TRIAC
Disadvantages
 It is a low power device

 It only conducts when voltage increases above 30 volts.
 It cannot block high voltages.
Applications
 The main application of DIAC is to trigger TRIAC. TRIAC has asymmetrical triggering
due to difference in both halves of its structure. Due to this asymmetry, it does not
trigger at the same voltage for forward and reverse current. The asymmetrical switching
generates harmonics in the system. Greater the asymmetry, greater the harmonics.
Harmonics causes numerous problems in a system and must be reduced.
 The DIAC is connected in series to the gate of the TRAIC. Since the DIAC has equal
forward and reverse break over voltage, it switches on when the voltage exceeds VBO
in either direction. It triggers the TRIAC for both half of the AC cycle at equal voltage
level offering symmetrical triggering.
 It is a low power device and it is not suitable to regulate power on its own but with the
combination of TRAIC, it can regulate high power circuit such as in motor speed
control, heat control, dimmer etc.
UNIT - V
OPTOELECTROIC DEVICES
Principles, Operation and Characteristics of Opto Electronic Devices:

LDR (Light Dependent Resistor):
A Light Dependent Resistor (also known as a photoresistor or LDR) is a device whose
resistivity is a function of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are light
sensitive devices. They are also called as photoconductors, photoconductive cells or simply
photocells. They are made up of semiconductor materials that have high resistance. There are
many different symbols used to indicate a photoresistor or LDR, one of the most commonly
used symbol is shown in the figure below. The arrow indicates light falling on it.
Working Principle of Photoresistor (LDR)

Photoresistors work based off of the principle of photoconductivity. Photoconductivity
is an optical phenomenon in which the material‟s conductivity is increased when light is
absorbed by the material. When light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the device, the
electrons in the valence band of the semiconductor material are excited to the conduction band.
These photons in the incident light should have energy greater than the bandgap of the
semiconductor material to make the electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction
band. Hence when light having enough energy strikes on the device, more and more electrons
are excited to the conduction band which results in a large number of charge carriers. The
result of this process is more and more current starts flowing through the device when the
circuit is closed and hence it is said that the resistance of the device has been decreased. This is
the most common working principle of LDR.
Characteristics of Photoresistor (LDR)

Photoresistor LDR‟s are light-dependent devices whose resistance is decreased when
light falls on them and that is increased in the dark. When a light dependent resistor is kept in
dark, its resistance is very high. This resistance is called as dark resistance. It can be as high as
1012 Ω and if the device is allowed to absorb light its resistance will be decreased drastically.
If a constant voltage is applied to it and the intensity of light is increased the current starts
increasing. The figure below shows the resistance vs. illumination curve for a particular LDR.
Photocells or LDR‟s are nonlinear devices. Their sensitivity varies with the wavelength
of light incident on them. Some photocells might not at all response to a certain range of
wavelengths. Based on the material used different cells have different spectral response curves.
When light is incident on a photocell it usually takes about 8 to 12 ms for the change in
resistance to take place, while it takes one or more seconds for the resistance to rise back again
to its initial value after removal of light. This phenomenon is called a resistance recovery rate.
This property is used in audio compressors. Also, LDR‟s are less sensitive than photodiodes
and phototransistors. (A photo diode and a photocell (LDR) are not the same, a photo-diode is
a pn junction semiconductor device that converts light to electricity, whereas a photocell is a
passive device, there is no pn junction in this nor it “converts” light to electricity).
Types of Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs or Photoresistors)

Photoresistors (LDRs) can be categorized into two types depending on the materials
used to construct them. The two types of photoresistors include:
 Intrinsic photoresistors (Undoped semiconductor): These are made of pure

semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium. Electrons get excited from
valance band to conduction band when photons of enough energy fall on it and the
number charge carriers are increased.
 Extrinsic photoresistors: These are semiconductor materials doped with impurities
which are called dopants. These dopants create new energy bands above the valence
band which is filled with electrons. Hence this reduces the bandgap and less energy is
required in exciting them. Extrinsic photo resistors are generally used for long
wavelengths.
Construction of a Photocell
The structure of a light-dependent resistor consists of a light-sensitive material which is
deposited on an insulating substrate such as ceramic. The material is deposited in a zigzag
pattern in order to obtain the desired resistance and power rating. This zigzag area separates
the metal deposited areas into two regions.
LDR Advantages
 Sensitivity is High
 Simple & Small devices
 Easily used
 Inexpensive
 There is no union potential.
 The light-dark resistance ratio is high.
 Its connection is simple
LDR Disadvantages
 Spectral response is narrow
 Hysteresis effect
 Temperature stability is low for the best materials
 In stable materials, it responses very slowly
 The use of LDR is limited where the light signal changes very quickly
 It is not so much a responsive device.
 It provides incorrect result once working temperature alters
Applications of Photoresistors (LDRs)

Photoresistors (LDRs) have low cost and simple structure and are often used as light
sensors. Other applications of photoresistors include:
 Detect absences or presences of light like in a camera light meter.
 Used in street lighting design
 Alarm clocks
 Burglar alarm circuits
 Light intensity meters
 Used as part of a SCADA system to perform functions such as counting the number of
packages on a moving conveyor belt.
Photo Diode
What is Photodiode?
The photodiode is a kind of pn junction semiconductor diode which works with the
intensity of light falling on it at the reverse biased condition.
Working Principle of Photodiode

When a diode is in reverse biased condition, there would be a reverse saturation current
flowing through it from positive to the negative terminal of the diode. The unavoidable
minority charge carriers cause this reverse saturation current in the semiconductor crystal. The
value of this reverse saturation current does not depend on the applied reverse voltage across
the diode rather it depends on the concentration of minority charge carriers in the
semiconductor crystal. Hence for a certain range of reverse voltage across the diode, this
current remains almost constant. We can control the reverse saturation current in a diode by
controlling the concentration of minority charge carriers in the semiconductor crystal. We can
change the concentration of minority charge carriers in a semiconductor by supplying external
energy to the crystal.
In the photodiode, we do the same to control the conductivity of the device. As the
name suggests in the photodiode, the pn junction gets exposed in the light. Depending on the
intensity of the light, the covalent bonds in the crystal get broken and generate free electron-
hole pairs across and nearby the pn junction. As a result, the reverse current in the diode gets
increased or in other words the conductivity of the device increases.
Construction of Photodiode
The photodiodes are available in a metallic package. The diode is a p n junction,
mounted in an insulated plastic substrate. Then we seal the plastic substrate in the metal case.
On the top of the metal case, there is a transparent window, which allows light to entire up to
the PN Junction. Two leads, anode and cathode of the diode come out from the bottom of the
metal case. A tab extending from the side of the bottom portion of the metal case identifies the
cathode lead.
Symbol of Photodiode
The symbol of a photodiode is just like ordinary diode except for two downward
inclined arrows to symbolise the light.
Characteristic of Photodiode
Dark Resistance of Photodiode
 It is true that there are always some minority charge carriers in the semiconductor
crystal even in extreme dark condition these minority charge carriers in the
semiconductor crystal present due to unavoidable impurities and natural thermal
excitation of the crystal. So even in dark condition, there would be a tiny and constant
reverse saturation current in the diode. This current is fixed for a photodiode, and the
current is known as dark current. The ratio of maximum withstandable reverse voltage
to the dark current of a photodiode is called dark resistance of that diode.
 When we apply light to the diode, the reverse current increase. This relation is linear.
The value of reverse current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light
energy.
 If we go on increasing the light intensity, after a certain value of reverse current. The
current will not increase further with increasing light intensity. We call this maximum
value of reverse current as saturation current of the photodiode.
Applications of Photodiode
 Photodiodes are used in simple day-to-day applications. The reason for their prominent
use is their linear response of photodiode to light illumination.
 Photodiodes with the help of optocouplers provide electric isolation. When two isolated
circuits are illuminated by light, optocouplers are used to couple the circuit optically.
Optocouplers are faster compared to conventional devices.
 Photodiodes are used in safety electronics such as fire and smoke detectors.
 Photodiodes are used in numerous medical applications. They are used in instruments
that analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas
monitors.
 Photodiodes are used in solar cell panels.
 Photodiodes are used in logic circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in the detection circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in character recognition circuits.
 Photodiodes are used for the exact measurement of the intensity of light in science and
industry.
 Photodiodes are faster and more complex than normal PN junction diode and hence are
frequently used for lighting regulation and optical communication.
Photo Transistor
What is a Phototransistor?
A semiconductor device like a phototransistor includes three layers with a light-

sensitive base region. Here, the base region detects the light & changes it into the current
that supplies among the two regions like the emitter & the collector.
The phototransistor construction can be done like an ordinary transistor apart from the
base region. In this type of transistor, the flow of current to the base region is not provided, but
the light energy can be used as the input. Alternatively, a phototransistor is also considered like
a Photodiode including a current amplifier. This transistor changes directly from photons to
charge similar to a photodiode and also offers a current gain. The phototransistor symbol is
shown below that is the same as an ordinary transistor but the main difference is that the two
arrows on this will explain the light incident on the base terminal of the transistor.
Working Principle
The working principle of a phototransistor is similar to a photodiode including an
amplifying transistor. The light falls on the base terminal of a phototransistor then it will
induce a little current then the current amplified through the action of a normal transistor,
which results in an extensively large. Generally, as compared with a related photodiode, a
phototransistor generates 50 – 100 times of a photodiode current. The phototransistor is
fabricated with a semiconductor material. Once the light falls on the material then the charge
carriers like holes or electrons of the semiconductor material can cause the current to supply
within the base area. The base region of this can be used for transistor biasing.
The light penetrates the base terminal of the transistor to produce the pairs of electron-
hole in the reverse biasing. The flow of electrons in the pressure of the electric field can cause
the current within the base region. This current can be injected with the electrons within the
emitter area. The main disadvantage of this transistor is the low-frequency response.
Phototransistor Construction
As compared to the normal transistor, the area of the collector and base terminals in the
phototransistor is large. The best example of a phototransistor IC is the 2N5777
phototransistor. The area of the base terminal can be increased to enhance the amount of
produced current because when more light drops on this transistor then a huge current will be
generated. Before, it was designed with a single semiconductor material such as germanium or
silicon. At present, these transistors are made up of Arsenic & Gallium to get high efficiency.
Characteristics
In the following graph, the x-axis signifies the applied voltage at the collector-emitter
region of the transistor whereas the y-axis signifies the collector current supplies throughout
the device in mA. From the following graph, we can notice how the current flow in the
collector region changes with the incident light intensity. The current within the collector
terminal enhances through the intensity of light. The current within the collector region
changes through the wavelength as well as the light intensity. In the above graph, we can
notice that the current increases through the light intensity when falls on the base terminal.
And also signifies the difference within the base current through the difference within the
intensity of light.
Difference between Photodiode and Phototransistor
Photo Diode Photo Transistor
It is responsive more to incident light It is not responsive more to incident light
The linear response is high, so used to

The linear response is low
measure the exact measurement of light
It allows less current, so used in less power It allows more current, so used in high
consumption applications power consumption applications
It is not sensitive It is more sensitive
Dark current is low Dark current is high
It is not used as a solid-state switch It is used as a solid-state switch
Operational speed is high Operational speed is low
Noise interference is less immune Noise interference is more immune
Output response is fast Output response is low
The High-frequency response of this diode The High-frequency response of this diode
gives good results gives poor results
It is used to change the energy of light into It is used to change the light energy into
current current
It generates both current & voltage It generates only current
It works in both biasing It works in forward biasing
It is used in light meters, solar plants, etc It is used to detect the light
Advantages
 Highly sensitive
 Not expensive
 Less complex
 It provides a high amount of current including high gain.
 As compared with photodiodes, these transistors have high gain, current & quick
response time.
 These are sensitive to wavelengths which range from UV to IR through visible
radiation.
 Sensitive to different light sources like fluorescent, incandescent, lasers, sunlight, neon
bulbs, flames, etc.
 Stable temporarily
 Reliable highly
 Less noisy as compared to avalanche-type photodiodes.
 These are available in different packages like transfer-molded, epoxy-coated & surface
mounted.
Disadvantages
 It gives a less frequent response.

 When the illumination is low then the circuit is not capable to notice it effectively.
 Electric surges occur frequently
 Phototransistors get affected by the difference within electromagnetic energy.
Applications
 For light detecting and controlling

 In counting systems and punch card readers
 In relays
 Alarm Systems
 Level Indicators
 Proximity Detectors
 Encoders
Photo Voltaic Cell (or) Solar Cell

What is a Photo Voltaic Cell (or) Solar Cell?
A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical

device that converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar
cell is basically a p-n junction diode. Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a
device whose electrical characteristics such as current, voltage, or resistance vary when
exposed to light.
Construction of Photo Voltaic Cell (or) Solar Cell

A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction it is little bit different
from conventional p-n junction diodes. A very thin layer of p-type semiconductor is grown on
a relatively thicker n-type semiconductor. We then apply a few finer electrodes on the top of
the p-type semiconductor layer. These electrodes do not obstruct light to reach the thin p-type
layer. Just below the p-type layer there is a p-n junction. We also provide a current collecting
electrode at the bottom of the n-type layer. We encapsulate the entire assembly by thin glass to
protect the solar cell from any mechanical shock.
Working Principle of Photo Voltaic Cell (or) Solar Cell

When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction,
through very thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient
energy to the junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the
thermal equilibrium condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can
quickly come to the n-type side of the junction. Similarly, the holes in the depletion can
quickly come to the p-type side of the junction. Once, the newly created free electrons come to
the n-type side, cannot further cross the junction because of barrier potential of the junction.
Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross the
junction became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons
becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes
more in another side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a
small battery cell. A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small
load across the junction, there will be a tiny current flowing through it.
V-I Characteristics of a Photo Voltaic Cell (or) Solar Cell

Isc is the short circuit current and it is measured by short circuiting the terminals. Voc is
the open circuit voltage and it is measured when no load is connected. Pm is maximum power,
Im is maximum current, Vm is maximum voltage and it occurs at the bend of the characteristic
curve.
Advantages
 It uses renewable energy

 No pollution so it is environment friendly
 It lasts for many years
 No maintenance cost
Disadvantages
 Energy is not produced during rainy, cloudy days and during night times.
 Cost of installation is high.
Applications
 It is used in calculators and in wrist watches

 Used in storage batteries
 Street lights
 Portable power supplies
 Satellites
Photovoltaic Cell Vs Solar Cell

Photo refers to visible light. Voltaic refers to electricity. A photovoltaic cell produces
electricity from visible light.
Solar refers to the Sun. A solar water heater uses heat from the Sun to make water
hot. A solar cell refers to a cell that absorbs Sunlight from the full range of frequencies the
Sun produces and not just the visible light.
People may refer to Photovoltaic cells as solar cells but this is just wrong terminology.
Photo Emissive Sensors (or) Photoemissive Cell

The Photoemissive cell converts the photons into electric energy. It consists the anode
rode and the cathode plate. The anode and cathode are coated with a Photoemissive material
called caesium antimony.
A photoemissive cell is also known as a phototube that operates on the photoelectric

effect. It consists of a photosensitive cathode(negative) from which electrons are emitted when
hit by light. It also contains an anode(positive) that attracts these free electrons. Both cathode
and anode are enclosed in glass or quartz. When the electrons are drawn from cathode to
anode, an electric current is generated proportional to the fallen light.
Working Principle
When the radiation of light fall on cathode plates the electrons starts flowing from
anode to cathode. Both the anode and the cathode are sealed in a closed, opaque evacuated
tube. When the radiation of light fall on the sealed tube, the electrons starts emitting from the
cathode and moves towards the anode. The anode is kept to the positive potential. Thus, the
photoelectric current starts flowing through the anode. The magnitude of the current is directly
proportional to the intensity of light passes through it.
The principle of working of a photo-emissive transducer is based on the emission of

electrons when the transducer is exposed to sunlight. In some special combination of material
like cesium-antimony, when it is exposed to sunlight, the photons of the light beam incident on
the surface of the material causes electrons to break their atomic bonds and are emitted. This
phenomenon is called the Photo-emissive Effect. The arrangement consists of a glass tube in
which photo-emissive material is enclosed. There are three types of photo-emissive
transducers,
 Vacuum phototube
 Gas-filled phototube
 Photomultiplier tube
Vacuum Photo Tube

A vacuum phototube consists of an anode rod and a cathode plate enclosed in a vacuum
glass tube. The cathode plate is coated with photoemissive material, which emits electrons
when the light beam falls on it. The electrons emitted are attracted by the anode rod by keeping
the anode at positive potential. The amount of electrons emitted is proportional to the intensity
of light. Thus the magnitude of current flowing in the circuit depends upon the intensity of
incident light on the cathode.
Gap Filled Photo Tube

A similar arrangement as the vacuum tube except, inert gas like argon is filled in the
tube and emitted electrons by the light are accelerated by the electric field and cause ionization
thereby increasing the current due to high collision.
Photo Multiplexer
It is the most popular and most widely used photo-emissive transducer. The working of
the photomultiplier is similar to the vacuum phototube, but the electrons emitted from the
cathode are not immediately drawn to the anode. But they are made to attracted by another
electrode called dynode D1. Again the dynode D1 emits secondary electrons due to incident
electrons of the cathode. These secondary electrons when strike dynode D2, it emits electrons
which are finally collected by the anode. Thus electrons are multiplied in numbers at each
dynode by secondary emission.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

What is a Light Emitting Diode (LED)?
A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a special type of PN junction diode. The light
emitting diode is specially doped and made of a special type of semiconductor. This diode
can emit light when it is in the forward biased state. Aluminum indium gallium phosphide
(AlInGaP) and indium gallium nitride (InGaN) are two of the most commonly used
semiconductors for LED technologies.
LED Symbol
The LED symbol is similar to a diode symbol except for two small arrows that specify
the emission of light, thus it is called LED (light-emitting diode). The LED includes two
terminals namely anode (+) and the cathode (-). The LED symbol is shown below.
Construction of LED
The recombination of the charge carrier occurs in the P-type material, and hence P-
material is the surface of the LED. For the maximum emission of light, the anode is deposited
at the edge of the P-type material. The cathode is made of gold film, and it is usually placed at
the bottom of the N-region. This gold layer of cathode helps in reflecting the light to the
surface.
The gallium arsenide phosphide is used for the manufacturing of LED which emits red
or yellow light for emission. The LED are also available in green, yellow amber and red in
colour.
Working of LED
The working of the LED depends on the quantum theory. The quantum theory states
that when the energy of electrons decreases from the higher level to lower level, it emits
energy in the form of photons. The energy of the photons is equal to the gap between the
higher and lower level.
The LED is connected in the forward biased, which allows the current to flows in the
forward direction. The flow of current is because of the movement of electrons in the opposite
direction. The recombination shows that the electrons move from the conduction band to
valence band and they emits electromagnetic energy in the form of photons. The energy of
photons is equal to the gap between the valence and the conduction band.
The simple transistor can be used for off/on of a LED as shown in the figure above. The
base current IB conducts the transistor, and the transistor conducts heavily. The resistance RC
limits the current of the LED.
LED V-I Characteristics

Before emitting light from any light emitting diode, it needs to have current to flow
across it, since LED is a current dependent device with its output light intensity being directly
proportional to the forward current passing through the LED. Light emitting diode has to be
connected in a forward bias combination across the power supply and it should be current
limited by using a resistor connected in series to protect it from the excess current flow. LED
should not be connected directly to the battery or power supply because excess amounts of
current will flow through it and LED may damage.
Each LED has its own individual forward voltage drop along the PN junction and this
parameter has been determined by the semiconductor material used in manufacturing of LED
for a specified amount of forward conduction current, usually for a forward current of about
20mA. At low forward voltages, the driving current of the diode is dominated by the non-
radiative recombination current due to recombination of charge carriers across the length of the
LED chip. At higher forward voltages, the diode driving current is dominated by the radiative
diffusion current.
Even at larger voltages than the usual, the diode current is limited by the series
resistance. The diode should never reach to reverse breakdown voltage for a short duration of
time since permanent damage of the diode may occur. The below figure shows the I-V
characteristics of the different color LEDs.
Advantages of LEDs:
 Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED. Voltage range 1 to 2 volts.
Current 5 to 20 milliamperes.
 Total power output will be less than 150 milliwatts.
 The response time is very less only about 10 nanoseconds.
 The device does not need any heating and warm up time.
 Miniature in size and hence lightweight.
 Have a rugged construction and hence can withstand shock and vibrations.
 An LED has a lifespan of more than 20 years.
Disadvantages of LEDs:
 A slight excess of voltage or current can damage the device.

 The device is known to have a much wider bandwidth compared to the laser.
 The temperature depends on the radiant output power and wavelength.
Applications of LEDs:
 In motor vehicles and bicycle lights

 In traffic light Indicators, signs and signals
 In data displaying boards
 In medical applications and toys
 Non visual applications
 In light bulbs and many more
 Remote controls
IR Emitter (Infrared Light Emitting Diode) IRLED

An IR LED is a type of diode or simple semiconductor. Electric current is allowed to
flow in only one direction in diodes. An Infrared light-emitting diode (IR LED) is a special
purpose LED emitting infrared rays ranging from 700 nm to 1 mm wavelength. Different IR
LEDs may produce infrared light of differing wavelengths, just like different LEDs produce
light of different colors.
The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an
IR photodiode . Photodiode is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength which is emitted by
the IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, the resistances and the output voltages will
change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received. There are five basic elements
used in a typical infrared detection system: an infrared source, a transmission medium, optical
component, infrared detectors or receivers and signal processing. Infrared lasers and Infrared
LED‟s of specific wavelength used as infrared sources.
Principle of Working
An IR sensor consists of two parts, the emitter circuit and the receiver circuit. This is
collectively known as a photo-coupler or an optocoupler. The emitter is an IR LED and the
detector is an IR photodiode. The IR phototdiode is sensitive to the IR light emitted by an IR
LED. The photo-diode‟s resistance and output voltage change in proportion to the IR light
received. This is the underlying working principle of the IR sensor. The type of incidence can
be direct incidence or indirect incidence. In direct incidence, the IR LED is placed in front of a
photodiode with no obstacle in between. In indirect incidence, both the diodes are placed side
by side with an opaque object in front of the sensor. The light from the IR LED hits the opaque
surface and reflects back to the photodiode.
Applications
IR sensors are classified into different types depending on the applications. Some of the
typical applications of different types of sensors. The speed sensor is used for synchronizing
the speed of multiple motors. The temperature sensor is used for industrial temperature control.
PIR sensor is used for an automatic door opening system and the Ultrasonic sensor is used for
distance measurement.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

What is Liquid Crystal Display?
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is an flat display screen used in electronic devices such
as laptop, computer, TV, cellphones and portable video games. As the name says liquid
crystal is a material which flows like a liquid and shows some properties of solid. These LCD
are vey thin displays and it consumes less power than LEDs.
Molecular arrangement of Liquid Crystal
As the name says the molecular structure of liquid crystal is in between solid crystal and
liquid isotropic. In Liquid crystal display (LCD) nematic type of liquid cyrstal molecular
arrangement is used in which molecules are oriented in some degree of alignment. For
example when we increase the temperature the ice cube melts and liquid crystal is like the state
in between ice cube and water
Construction of Liquid Crystal Display
Construction of LCD consists of two polarized glass pieces. Two electrodes are used,
one is positive and the other one is negative. External potential is applied to LCD through this
electrodes and it is made up of indium-tin-oxide. Liquid crystal layer of about 10µm- 20µm is
placed between two glass sheets. The light is passed or blocked by changing the polarization.
Working of Liquid Crystal Display

The basic working principle of LCD is blocking of light. It does not produce light on its
own. So external light source is used. When the external light passes from one polarizer to the
next polarizer, external supply is given to the liquid crystal ,the polarized light aligns itself so
that the image is produced in the screen.
The indium oxide conducting surface is a transparent layer which is placed on both the
sides of the sealed thick layer of liquid crystal . When no external bias is applied the molecular
arrangement is not disturbed. When the external bias is applied the molecular arrangement is
disturbed and it and that area looks dark and the other area looks clear. In the segment
arrangement, the conducting segment looks dark and the other segment looks clear. To display
number 2 , the segments A,B,G,E,D are energized.
Positive and Negative LCDs:

In positive LCD display the segments are dark and the background is white and the
polarizers are placed perpendicular to each other. In the negative LCD display the segments
are white in the dark background and the polarizers are aligned to each other.
Advantages:
 It is thin and compact
 Low power consumption
 Less heat is emitted during operation
 Low cost
Disadvantages:
 Speed of operation is low
 Lifespan is less
 Restricted viewing angles
Applications:
 Used in digital wrist watch
 Display images in digital cameras
 Used in numerical counters
 Display screen in calculators
 Mainly used in television
 Used in mobile screens
 Used in video players
 Used in image sensing circuits
Optocouplers
Definition:
An optocoupler or optoelectronic coupler is an electronic component that basically

acts as an interface between the two separate circuits with different voltage levels.
Optocouplers are common component by which electrical isolation can be supplied between
the input and output source. It is a 6 pin device and can have any number of photodetectors.
Here, a beam of light emitted by a light source exists as an only contact between input
and output. Due to this, we can have an insulation resistance of megaohms between the two
circuits. In high voltage applications where the voltage difference between the two circuits
differs by several thousand volts, such isolation is favourable. The use of all such electronic
isolators lies in all that conditions where the signal is to pass between two isolated circuits.
What is an isolated circuit?

Isolated circuits are the circuits which do not have a common conductor in between
them and proper isolation is maintained. Already aware of the fact that the information signal
highly contains noise and additional distortions in it which can be beyond the tolerance limit of
the logic circuit at the output end during transmission. Optical couplers can be used to work on
both ac and dc high voltages.
Construction of an Optocoupler
An optocoupler mainly consists of an infrared LED and a photosensitive device that
detects the emitted infrared beam. The semiconductor photosensitive device can be a
photodiode, phototransistor, a Darlington pair, SCR or TRIAC.
The infrared LED and the device that are light sensitive is packed in a single package.
The LED is kept on the input side and the light-sensitive material is placed on the output side.
A resistance is connected at the beginning of the circuit which is used to limit the current and
the other resistance is connected between the supply voltage and the collector terminal.
Pin 1: Anode
Pin 2: Cathode
Pin 3: Ground
Pin 4: Emitter
Pin 5: Collector
Pin 6: Base
The base terminal of the phototransistor is externally available. A single phototransistor

is used at the output stage of a simple isolating optocoupler.
Working Of an Optocoupler
An Optocoupler is a combination of LED and a Photo-diode packed in a single package.
As we can see in the below-shown circuit diagram, when a high voltage appears across the
input side of the Optocoupler, a current start to flow through the LED.
Due to this current LED will emit light. This emitted light when falls on a
phototransistor cause a current to flow through the same. The current flowing through the
phototransistor is directly proportional to the supplied input voltage. An input resistance placed
at the beginning of the circuit will decrease the amount of current flowing through the LED if
its value is increased. As the LED glows due to this current, hence, when current will be low
so as the light intensity of LED. As we have already discussed earlier the intensity of emitted
light by the LED will be equal to the corresponding current flowing through the
phototransistor. This means that the low-intensity light emitted by the LED will cause a low-
level current to flow through the phototransistor. Thus a changing voltage is generated across
the collector-emitter terminal of the transistor. In this way, an incoming signal from the input
circuit is coupled to the output circuit.
Types of Optocoupler
For the use in DC circuits, photo-transistor and photo-Darlington devices are majorly
used. In the case of AC, powered circuits photo-SCR and photo-TRIAC are used. There exist
some other forms of source-sensor configurations like LED-LASER, LED-photodiode,
reflective optocoupler, slotted optocoupler etc.
Advantages
 Optocouplers allow easy interfacing with logic circuits.

 Electrical isolation provides circuit protection.
 It allows wideband signal transmission.
 It is small in size and lightweight device.
Disadvantages
 The operational speed of Optocouplers is low.

 In case of a very high power signal, the possibility of signal coupling may arise.
Applications
 It is used in high power inverters.

 It is used in high power choppers.
 In AC to DC converters optocouplers are widely used.

B.SC Electronics - Semiconductor Devices (.PDF) - Course Syllabus & Material - All Units (Bharathiar University)

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SRI VASAVI COLLEGE, ERODE

(SELF FINANCE WING)

Course code SEMICONDUCTR DEVICES L T P C

Expected Course Outcomes:

K1 - Remember; K2 - Understand; K3 - Apply; K4 - Analyze; K5 - Evaluate; K6 - Create

Unit:1 PN JUNCTION DIODE 15 hours

Unit:2 SPECIAL DIODES 15 hours

Unit:3 BJT 15 hours

Unit:5 OPTOELECTROIC DEVICES 15 hours

Total Lecture Hours 75 hours

Related Online Contents [MOOC, SWAYAM, NPTEL, Websites etc.]

Mapping with Programme Outcomes

Energy Band Structure and Conduction in Insulator:

Classification of Energy Bands

Energy Band Theory

Forbidden Energy Gap

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor

Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor

Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high

Dependence on temperature only Dependence on temperature as well as on the

No impurities Trivalent impurity, pentavalent impurity

Why are Semiconductors Doped?

Semiconductors made of several elements are called compound semiconductors, as

When a tetravalent atom such as Si or Ge is doped with a pentavalent atom, it occupies

 Mainly due to Electrons

 Mainly due to Holes

Formation of PN Junction Diode

Biasing conditions for the p-n Junction Diode

Reverse Bias Condition

VI characteristics of PN junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current

Clipping and Clamping

Differences between Clipper and Clamper Circuit

Clipper Circuit Clamper Circuit

It is made of diode and resistor. It is made of a diode, resistor & capacitor.

Clipper does not require an energy-storing It requires an energy-storing component like

Circuit Symbol of Zener Diode

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

Zener Diode Specifications

Some commonly used specifications for Zener diodes are as follows:

Zener Diode Applications

Structure of Backward Diode

Circuit Symbol of Backward Diode

The circuit symbol of a backward diode is a slightly modified symbol of a conventional

Working of Backward Diode

Characteristics of Backward Diode

Application of Backward Diode

 Detector: It can be used as a detector up to the frequency of 40 GHz. It possesses low

Construction of Varactor Diode

Characteristics of Varactor Diode

Advantages of Varactor Diode

Disadvantages of Varactor Diode

Applications of Varactor Diode

Step Recovery Diode

Construction of Step recovery diode

This is constructed in a similar manner to that of an ordinary diode. The major

Working of Step recovery diode

Advantages & Disadvantages of Step Recovery Diode

Applications of Step recovery diode

Point Contact Diode

Construction of Point Contact Diode