PHYS1210 Particle Physics and Cosmology

Dr Michael Gladys
Physics
Particle Physics Outline

Modern Physics Sub-atomic particles

• Atomic structure • Pair production and antiparticles
• Conservation laws
• Wave particle duality • Beta decay and neutrinos
• Quantum mechanics and uncertainty • Neutrino oscillations

Particle Accelerators Classifying particles

• Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons • Gauge bosons
• Leptons, hadrons, baryons & mesons
• CERN and the LHC • Quarks
• Particle detection

Elementary Particle Physics Standard Model of Particle Physics

• Particle exchange • Quantum chromodynamics
• Grand unified theories
• Feynman diagrams

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Big Physics Questions

What are we made from?

– What are the fundamental building blocks of nature?
– What are the fundamental forces of nature?

Particle Physics
– Dealing with the very smallest objects in the Universe

Where did we come from?

– How did the universe start?
– How does the universe work now?

Cosmology
– Dealing with the very largest objects in the Universe

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Modern Physics – It’s a Quantum World

Structure of the Atom

– Rutherford model of H atom
• electron (charge = -1.6x10-19 C) orbits a
central positive nucleus (+1.6x10-19 C).
– Techniques such as scanning tunneling
microscopy and transmission electron
microscopy allow atoms to be “seen” even
though they are only 10-10 m across.
Ernest Rutherford
(1871-1937)

Electromagnetic waves
E.dA=Q/ε0
• James Maxwell (1831-1879)
summarised all magnetic and  B.dA = 0
electrical phenomena in a set of 4
James Clerk Maxwell
equations.  E.dl = -dΦ/dt (1831-1879)
• Visible light is an electromagnetic
wave and obeys these equations  B.dl = μ0 I + μ0ε0 dΦ/dt

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Radioactivity and Half Life
• Radioactive intensity depends on
dN
mass of radioactive material  N
• Number of decay events (dN)
dt solution N  N 0 e l t
dN
per unit time (dt) is proportional  l N
to total number of particles (N) dt
• Solution defines decay rate (l)

N(t)
N0 • Half-life is the average time it
takes half of a given number of
N ( t )  N 0e  l t radioactive nuclei to decay.
• Set N = N0 / 2 and t = T½ in
N0 /2
exponential decay equation gives
N0 /4
ln 2 0.693
T1/ 2  
T1/2 2T1/2 l l
time

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Radioactivity and Half Life

dN
 N
dt solution N  N 0 e l t
dN
 l N
dt

• Half-life is the average time it

takes half of a given number of
radioactive nuclei to decay.
• Set N = N0 / 2 and t = T½ in
exponential decay equation gives

ln 2 0.693
T1/ 2  
l l

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Waves as Particles
Wave-particle duality – Photoelectric effect
– Lenard (1902) showed that kinetic energy of
ejected electrons depends on the frequency of
the incident light. But, the metal surfaces quickly
oxidized making quantitative measurements
difficult.
Philipp Lenard
– Einstein’s 1905 paper proposed that energy came (1862-1947)
in discrete packets (quanta) and that the energy
in each quanta was proportional to Planck’s
constant (h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js)
– The photoelectric effect experiment (incident light
of the correct wavelength can eject electrons from
an irradiated metal surface) was carried out by
Millikan in 1916 – trying to prove Einstein wrong! Albert Einstein
(1879-1955)
– Clever apparatus – rotating blade in vacuum to
scape the metal surface clean every experiment
– Results confirmed Einstein’s theory (1905) that
incident light consists of particles (photons) of
energy hc/l ejecting electrons with a maximum
energy E= hc/l -e
Robert Millikan
(1868-1953)
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Particles as Waves

Matter waves
• Particles can also behave as waves e.g. they
can diffract or interfere.
• de Broglie (1923) showed that particles can be
represented by matter waves with a wavelength:
l = h/p
Louis de Broglie • where p is the particle’s momentum and h is
(1892-1987)
Planck’s constant (6.6x10-34 Js)
• These ideas were published in his thesis (1924).

• Paul Langevin was one of de Broglie’s

examiners and was initially hesitant in accepting
the ideas and sent the thesis to Einstein – who
Paul Langevin
(1872-1946)
found the work very interesting – Langevin
changed his mind!
• The development of the Scanning Helium
Microscope (SHeM) at Newcastle shows that
wave properties of atoms can be used to image
surfaces!

George Thomson PHYS1210: Particle Physics 8

(1892-1975)
Electronics and Electron Waves

Electron waves
• Thus electrons are not just particles but are also
waves and they can diffract and interfere.
• Diffraction: means that we can build “optical” or
imaging instruments based on electrons – hence
electron microscope.
• Interference: constructive and destructive interference
of electrons leads to electron energy levels in
materials.

Electronics
• So electrons in solids exist in discrete energy levels
• Consequence: Semiconductors and band gaps
• Determines all of the properties of electronic
components used in diodes, transistors and ICs
• So, quantum mechanics is how your
computer/phone/etc work!

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Atomic Structure and Spectra

• The discrete electron orbits in the Bohr model of the

hydrogen model are explained in terms of the standing
waves formed by the electron’s wavefunction
• The visible spectrum of hydrogen results from
transitions to the n=2 level

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Atomic Structure and Spectra

• The functioning of neon signs

(gas discharge tubes) is
governed by quantisation.
• Strong electrical field excites
electrons in tube that collide with
gas atoms
• Electrons in gas atoms are
excited to higher energy states.
• When they “relax” to a more
stable orbital a photon is emitted.
• Quantisation of energy levels
says that this can only have
certain energy values.
• Frequency of the light is related
to energy and so only get certain
colours!

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Heisenberg and Uncertainty

• But when we try and measure small objects, we start to

disrupt the objects we want to measure.
• e.g. Where is the particle? Shine a light at it and look.
– But the light hitting an ordinary object has a power
typically of mW (or about 1015 photons/s hit the object).
– So just fire one photon at it & observe recoiling photon.
– But particle will also recoil & its momentum will change!
– The smaller the particle the more accurately we have to
fire the photon – the greater the momentum change.

• The Heisenberg uncertainty principle says we cannot

simultaneously measure the position and momentum
of a particle with accuracies better than Dx, Dp where:
• So, in the quantum world, certainty is lost.
– Define probability of finding particles in a certain region.
– So, exact radius of orbits in the Bohr model is replaced
by a probability of an electron being at a certain radius.

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Models, Theories and Laws

A scientific disclaimer
• Is Physics the absolute truth?
– No, it is a scientific model which fits the observed data.
• What is the nature of Science?
• At the core of Physics is the scientific process
– Careful observation, experimentation and measurement
– Invention and development of theories to explain the observations.
– Creation of a model that predicts new observations and measurements.
– Repeated testing of the model to see if the predictions are borne out.

Test the model by making predictions about the outcome

of future experiments. • Ultimately, a model is
never proved by
repeated testing – merely
Do experiment supported.
• Thus, no theory can ever
Does result agree (to within experimental error) with prediction? be absolutely verified!
• Welcome to the real
Yes – Do another experiment No – Change model world!!

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PHYS1210 Particle Physics and Cosmology

Lecture 2
Particle Accelerators

Van de Graaff Accelerator

– Apply high voltage (~50 kV) to pointed conductor
– Pull electrons off resulting in positive charge on belt
– Charge transferred from belt to spherical conductor
Robert Jemison – Produces high static potential difference (up to 30 MeV)
Van De Graaff
(1901 - 1967)

Cyclotron
– Constant magnetic field to move ions in circular paths
– Two D-shaped cavities separated by a gap
– AC potential difference to ions as they cross the gap
– AC ensures applied voltage in correct direction
– Incremental increase in KE until max radius achieved. Earnest Orlando
Lawrence
(1901 - 1958)
Synchrotron
– Mass of accelerating particle increases relativistically
– To maintain constant radius need to increase B-field
– Synchronous increase - synchrotron particle
accelerator
– Energy loss – synchrotron radiation
Australian Synchrotron
Melbourne, VIC
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Particle Detectors

• First detectors based on photographic emulsion plates

– ionised atoms along path of high energy particles leads to a
chemical change in the emulsion.
• A cloud chamber contains a supersaturated vapour by
cooling a gas just below its condensation point
– Gas molecules then condense on any ionised species
– Ions created along the particle’s path act as nucleation sites for
condensation – cloud tracks

• A bubble chamber contains a liquid close to its boiling point

– Ions produced by particles act as nucleation sites for bubble production
– Typically more efficient than a cloud chamber since liquid (often liq H2)
density is higher than gas.

• Wire drift chambers (most common now) involve

closely spaced wires in gas chamber.
– Ionised gas species produces an electron avalanche
– Position determined by time of detection at edge
– Reconstruct path via computer

LHC ATLAS Detector, 2007

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CERN and the LHC

• Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire

(CERN) is the world’s most powerful particle collider
• The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) will guide protons
at almost the speed of light in opposite directions
around a 27 km underground ring before smashing
them into one another with an energy of 14 TeV at
four separate points
– 14 TeV ~ energy of 14 mosquitoes in flight
– But resulting energy density is the highest ever
produced in a laboratory
– 4 large detectors: ATLAS, LHCb, ALICE & CMS will
catch and analyse the debris from these collisions.

• LHC turned on in Sep 2008 – but shut it down 36 hours

later due to an electrical fault
• Restarted in Nov 2009 – world’s most powerful accelerator
• The main challenge for CERN is the search for the elusive
Higgs boson – and the origin of mass.

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The Higgs Boson – The “God” Particle

• 1964: Peter Higgs (Edinburgh University) publishes

landmark paper in PRL proposing that after the big
bang, many particles had no mass, but became
heavy later on due to the Higgs quantum field.

What is the Higgs field?

• An energy field stretches through universe.
• Clings to fundamental particles
• Drag that is produced makes them heavy.
• Some particles feel the field stronger than
others – its more "sticky" to them.
• Photons don’t feel it at all and are massless
• So, all particles initially were massless but
when the Higgs field switched on (shortly
after the big bang), they gained mass.
• Higgs boson is signature particle of the field.

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Strong Nuclear Force

• So the atom comprises a nucleus surrounded by

electrons. But are these fundamental particles?
• By the 1930’s the nucleus was known to made of
protons and neutrons.
• But are neutrons and protons fundamental particles?
• Why don’t the nuclear protons repel each other?
• There must be a strong attractive force holding the
nucleons together – the strong nuclear force.
E • Forces can be modelled using concept of force fields.
F • An electron generates an electric field (E) which interacts
e e with another electron causing repulsive force (F).
• But the electric field really propagates as an
electromagnetic wave
1. em waves are also collections of photons
photon
2. or interaction can be modelled as an exchange of photons
e e

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Particle Exchange

• So, lets focus on 2nd idea - crude analogy:

– Attraction: kids on roller skates grabbing pillows
– Repulsion: kids on roller skates throwing pillows
• For EM force photons are exchanged
• Illustrate process using a Feynman diagram
– Energy & momentum are exchanged
– But, it’s a virtual photon since process is too
fast to be observed by measurement.
– The photon mediates (carries) the EM force.

• So perhaps all forces can be modelled

as the interchange of virtual particles
• Yukawa (1935) predicted that a virtual
particle with mass (meson) mediates the
strong nuclear force.
• Thus, meson exchange holds nucleons
together in the nucleas.

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Particle Exchange

• The effect of the mass of the meson is

to restrict the range of the force, since
a new particle has to appear from
nowhere violating energy conservation.
• This can only happen for a time Dt
where h
DE  D t ~
2
• The mass of the meson is 250 times
the mass of the electron.
• The pi meson (pion) was discovered in
1947 by Powell and Ochialini.
• The corollary is that the range of the
em force is infinite so Dt= so DE=0
• Hence mass of the photon is zero.

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Particle Exchange

• The effect of the mass of the meson is

to restrict the range of the force, since
a new particle has to appear from
nowhere violating energy conservation.
• This can only happen for a time Dt
where h
DE  D t ~
2
• The mass of the meson is 250 times
the mass of the electron.
• The pi meson (pion) was discovered in
1947 by Powell and Ochialini.
• The corollary is that the range of the
em force is infinite so Dt= so DE=0
• Hence mass of the photon is zero.

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Quantum Chromodynamics

• Yukawa’s model of pion exchange as the mediator

of the strong force is out of date.
• Replaced by quantum chromodynamics which
involves quarks exchanging gluons.
• E.g. a proton contains 2 “up” quarks & a “down”
quark – explain later!
• But, basic idea of forces mediated by virtual
particles is still valid.
• Four forces are thought to act on matter.
– Why four?
– Are the 4 forces just manifestations of one
force? (just as friction force is
electromagnetic).
• A focus of particle physics is to develop a
grand unified theory which links all 4 forces.
• In 1983 the Z particle was discovered by
UA1 team at CERN – electroweak force.

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The Subatomic Particle Zoo

• More than 200 subatomic particles

have been discovered
• Gauge particles (photon, W,Z etc)
– Mediate interactions
• Hadrons (baryons & mesons)
– Interact via the strong nuclear force
• Leptons (electron, neutrino etc)
– Interact via weak nuclear force

“Young man, if I could remember the

names of these particles, I would have
been a botanist!” Enrico Fermi to his
student (and future Nobel Laureate)
Leon Lederman
Enrico Fermi
(1901-1954)

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Anti Matter
• Anti matter is the stuff of science fiction stories – but
what is its origin?
• Anti matter was first predicted by Paul Dirac as he
developed a relativistic theory of the electron.
• Antimatter is the corollary of matter – particles with the
same mass but opposite charge.
Paul Dirac
• Particle – antiparticle pairs are produced by high (1902-1984)
energy photons interacting with a target.

• The first anti-particle to be discovered

was the positron; by Carl Anderson in PET scan showing
1932 in cloud chamber experiments. abnormal glucose
uptake in the stomach
• Annihilation occurs (to produce a
photon) when particle – antiparticle
pairs collide.
• Is antimatter useful?
• Yes – positron emission tomography
(PET) is used in hospitals for medical
imaging of tumours.

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Particle Interactions and Conservation

• How do we make sense of all these particles and interactions?

• Experimental observations show that some reactions don’t occur.
– E.g. even though charge & energy are conserved
pn p p p
• Postulate that there are new conservation relations during
interactions and symmetries which hint at underlying order.
• For example, new concept of baryon number
– Generalised idea of nucleon number (n + p).
– Already know that total number of nucleons conserved in nuclear decay.
• For example, the following quantities are conserved in hadron
interactions
– Charge, energy, momentum, baryon number,
– Lepton numbers (Le, Lm, Lt) – associated with weak interactions
– Strangeness (S), Charm (C), Bottomness (B), Topness (T).
• Not concerned with the detailed origin of these numbers
– Just need to know how to use them in conservation problems

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Strange Particles and Strangeness

• 1946 – George Rochester & Clifford Butler observe

Charged
unusual cloud chamber tracks at Manchester Uni kaon
• Discovered the kaon – the first strange particle
• 1951 – lambda particle is discovered
• Properties: decay

• particles had strangely long lifetimes

muon
• Decays in 10-10 s instead of 10-23 s
• Always produced in pairs
• Only certain reactions were observed

• Explanation requires a new quantum number

• Introduce strangeness and is ±1.
• Strong force interactions
• Strangeness is conserved
• Weak force interactions
• Strangeness is not conserved

PHYS1210: Particle Physics 27

New Conservation Laws

PHYS1210: Particle Physics 28

Beta Decay Example

PHYS1210: Particle Physics 29

Energy Conservation Example

• A S+ particle decays into a proton and a

neutral pion, o.

S+  p + o
• What are the energies of the products
assuming the S+ was initially at rest.
• Need to know that at relativistic speeds, the
normal expression for KE no longer holds.
• Special relativity says that KE is related to
rest mass (mo) & momentum (p) by:

K  E  m0c 2    pc  m c   m c
2
0
2 2
0
2

PHYS1210: Particle Physics 30

Which decays are allowed?

• Are the following decays allowed?

0S+ + - -S0 + - + 

• For both processes, strangeness is not

conserved
0S+ + - S: -2-1+0
-S0 + - +  S: -3-1+0+0

• Such decays are not allowed via strong force but

may be allowed through the weak force.

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PHYS1210 Particle Physics and Cosmology

Lecture 3
Quarks

• There are only 3 classes of leptons but

many hadrons.
• Leptons appear to be elementary particles
but hadrons had internal structure.
• Gell-Mann and Zweig (1963) proposed that
hadrons were made from combinations of
elementary particles called quarks.
• Baryons were made from 3 quarks,
• Mesons from pairs of quarks.

• In the Standard Model there are 3

families of quarks and leptons
• A proton comprises 2 up quarks
(+2e/3) and 1 down quark (-e/3).
• A K- meson contains an anti-up
quark and a strange quark.

PHYS1210: Particle Physics 33

Quarks

Three quarks for Muster Mark!

Sure he has not got much of a bark

And sure any he has it's all beside the mark.

James Joyce, Finnegans Wake

• In the Standard Model there are 3

families of quarks and leptons
• A proton comprises 2 up quarks
(+2e/3) and 1 down quark (-e/3).
• A K- meson contains an anti-up
quark and a strange quark.

PHYS1210: Particle Physics 34

Quark Flavours

• There are 6 different types of quarks and 6 corresponding antiquarks

• But quarks also have another property known as colour.
• Leads us to the “Standard Model” and Quantum Chromodynamics.

PHYS1210: Particle Physics 35

Quantum Chromodynamics

• Each quark has a corresponding anti-quark. • Overall, the hadrons or mesons

• Each quark also carries a colour charge (or must have no colour.
anticolours for antiquarks) and is bolded. • So the 3 quarks in a hadron have
colours R,G,B which sum to white.
• The mesons contain a quark and
antiquark with the same colour (i.e.
green and anti-green) which again
add to zero overall colour.

• Colour charge is analogous to electrical charge.

• bu has Q=-1, B=0, S=0, C=0, Bottom=-1,Topness=0 so
is a B- meson.
• uss has Q=0, B=1, S=-2 so is a 0.
• So if hadrons decay, then quarks must change flavour.
• They do this by exchanging gluons.
• Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) explains strong force
between nucleons in terms of a force between quarks.

PHYS1210: Particle Physics 36

Quantum Chromodynamics

• Colour charge analogous to electric charge, e.g.

– Red + anti-red = neutral (no colour)
– Blue + anti-blue + green = green
– Green + anti-green = neutral (no colour)
– Green + anti-green – anti-blue = blue
• Quarks exchange gluons
• Gluons have two colour charges, for example

Hadron with Blue quark Green quark has absorbed

3 quarks emits a blue- the blue-antigreen gluon
anti-green and is now blue; color
gluon remains conserved

PHYS1210: Cosmology 37
Gluons and Mesons

• Discussed early theory of Yukawa

postulating meson as the mediating particle
for the strong force.
• But, QCD now shows that strong interaction
between a neutron and proton is really the
exchange of up and down quarks.
• The wavy blue lines in the diagram
represents the exchange of gluons between
the quarks.

• Thus gluons have replaced mesons as

the particles carrying the strong force.
• Weak force is mediated W+, W-, Z
particles
• Acts between the weak charges that
each particle has.

PHYS1210: Particle Physics 38

Quark Confinement

• Particle accelerators have produced

countless billions of collisions
• But, we never observe individual quarks.
• Why? Must mean that the colour force has
some special properties.
• For the EM force, the field line density
decreases with increasing separation
• Colour force is different: field lines are
collimated and do not spread out as quarks
are separated.

• As quarks are pulled apart the interaction

energy gets high enough to create a new
quark-antiquark pair.
• Energy is conserved: energy of colour
force is converted into mass of new
quarks

PHYS1210: Particle Physics 39

Weak Decay

• All stable matter consists of the up and

down quarks (lowest mass quarks) and the b decay
electron (lowest mass lepton). Why?
• The decay of fundamental particles involves
quarks and leptons changing flavour.
• Flavour changes involve the weak force.
• For example: neutron decays to proton,
electron and antineutrino via a W– boson.
• W boson = virtual particle

• The weak force, mediated by W±, Z

particles acts between the “weak” charges
that each particle has.
• These particles have been observed and
their masses measured
(W=80.41±2GeV/c2, Z=91.19 ±0.1GeV/c2)

PHYS1210: Particle Physics 40

Grand Unified Theory (GUT)

• Why are there four forces?

• Weiberg, Glashow and Salam showed that
EM and weak nuclear forces are different
aspects of the same electroweak force.
• The electroweak theory plus QCD is
referred to as the Standard Model.
• QCD and electroweak theory can (possibly)
be unified at very high energies (1014 GeV)
when quarks and leptons approach each
other within 10-30 m.
• At this scale, quarks and leptons can
change into each other by exchanging so-
called X bosons.
• So, they look alike and there is only one
force between them – a grand unified
force.

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