NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Sumacab Este., Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija

ME-223 ENGINEERING UTILITIES 2

BASIC MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY :

BSCE 2C

SUBMITTED TO:

Engr. Alelie Joy C. Alejo

Table of contents: Page

Basic Principles Of Plumbing Design …………………………………………………. 1- 4

PLUMBING MATERIAL, FITTINGS, AND FIXTURES

Building Water System Design ………………………………………………………… 4 - 6

Water Distribution System …………………………………………………………..… 6 - 10

Common Piping and Plumbing Fittings ………………………………………… 11 - 14

Water Supply and Distribution Pipe Connection Details ……………………. 15 - 18

Plumbing Fixtures: Water Closet …………………………………………………… 19 - 22

Plumbing Fixtures: Bath tub, Shower, and Bidet …………………….………….. 23 - 25

Plumbing Fixtures: Lavatory and Kitchen Sink …………………..……………… 26 - 31

Plumbing Fixtures: Urinals …………………………………………………………… 31 - 41

DOMESTIC HOT WATER SUPPLY IN BUILDING

Domestic Water Heating System/Types of Water Heater ………………….…. 48 - 58

Energy Source for Water Heaters/Energy Efficiency ……………………….….. 58 - 70

Hot Water Recirculating System/Sizing for Storage Tank for Water Heater .. 71 - 78

Pumps for Water Supply …………………………………………………….………. 78 - 82

The DWV System ………………………………………………………………………. 83 - 86

Design and Construction of Septic Tank …………………………………….…. 86 - 102

Sanitary and Storm Drainage System ………………………………………….. 103 - 115

LIFE SAFETY SYSTEMS IN BUILDINGS

Fire in Buildings …………………………….………………………………….…… 116 - 137

Passive Fire Protection …………………………………………….……………… 137 - 157

Active Fire Protection and Suppression ……………………………………….. 157 - 170

Fire Detection and Alarm System …………………………………….………… 170 - 179

BUILDING CONVEYING SYSTEM

Elevators ……………………………………………………………….……………. 179 - 196

Escalators …………………………………………………………………………… 197 - 205

Walkways and Ramps ……………………………………………………………. 205 - 208

Other Systems ……………………………………………………………………. 209 - 216

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………… 217 - 224

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PLUMBING DESIGN

 Principle No. 1 - All the Premises made for human use or habitation shall be

provided with the supply of pure and water, neither connected to unsafe

water supply nor subject to backflow or back- siphonage.

 Principle No. 2 - Plumbing fixtures, devices and appurtenances shall be

supplied with water in sufficient volume and pressure adequate to function

satisfactorily and without undue noise.

 Principle No. 3 - Plumbing system shall be designed and adjusted to use the

minimum quantity of water consistent with proper performance and

cleaning.

 Principle No. 4 - Devices which are used for heating and storing water shall

be designed and installed in such a manner so as to prevent dangers from

explosion through overheating.

 Principle No. 5 - Every building located on a street, alley or easement with a

public sewer shall have its plumbing fixtures to the sewer system.

 Principle No. 6 - Each family dwelling unit shall have minimum of one water

closet, kitchen type sink, a bathtub or shower to fulfill the basic requirements

of sanitation and personal hygiene.

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 Principle No. 7 - Plumbing fixtures should be made of smooth non-absorbent

material, and they should be free from concealed fouling surfaces and they

must be located in ventilated enclosures.

 Principle No. 8 - The drainage system shall be designed, constructed, and

maintained to prevent the fouling, deposit of solids, clogging and with

adequate cleanouts so arranged that the pipes may be readily leaned.

 Principle No. 9 - All piping shall be made of durable NAMPAP approved

materials. They should be free from defective workmanship and should be

designed and constructed by skilled Plumbers to ensure satisfactory service.

 Principle No. 10 - Every plumbing fixture connected directly to the drainage

system shall be equipped with a water-sealed trap.

 Principle No. 11 - The piping system of drainage pipes shall be designed to

provide adequate circulation of free air from siphonage aspiration.

 Principle No. 12 - Vent terminals shall extend to the outer air and installed to

preempt clogging and the return of foul air to the building.

 Principle No. 13 - Plumbing systems shall be subjected to such tests to

effectively disclose all leaks and defects in the workmanship.

 Principle No. 14 - No substance which will clog the pipes, produce explosive

mixture~ destroy the pipes or their joints or interfere unduly with the sewage-

disposal process shall be allowed to enter the building drainage system.

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 Principle No. 15 - Proper protection shall be provided to prevent

contamination of food, water, sterile goods and similar materials by

backflow of sewage. When necessary, the fixture, device or appliance shall

be connected indirectly with the building drainage system.

 Principle No. 16 - No water closet shall be located in a room or

compartment which is not properly lighted and ventilated.

 Principle No. 17 - If water closets or other plumbing fixtures are installed in

buildings where there is no sewer within a reasonable distance, suitable

provision shall be made for disposing of the building sewage by some

accepted method of sewage treatment and disposal, such as a septic tank.

 Principle No. 18 - Where a plumbing drainage system may be subject to

backflow of sewage, suitable provision shall be made to prevent its overflow

in the building.

 Principle No. 19 - Plumbing systems shall be maintained in serviceable

condition by Registered Master Plumbers.

 Principle No. 20 - All plumbing fixtures shall be installed properly spaced, to

be accessible for their intended use.

 Principle No. 21 - Plumbing shall be installed by Registered Master Plumbers

with due regard to the preservation of the strength of structural members

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and the prevention of damage to walls and other surfaces through fixture

usage.

 Principle No. 22 - Sewage or other waste from a plumbing system which may

be deleterious to surface or sub-surface waters shall not be discharged into

the ground or into any waterway, unless first rendered innocuous through

subjection to some acceptable form of treatment.

BUILDING WATER SYSTEM DESIGN

THE MAIN PARTS OF A WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM INCLUDES:

1. BUILDING SUPPLY 4. RISER

2. WATER METER 5. FIXTURE BRANCH

3. BUILDING MAIN 6. FIXTURE CONNECTION

1. BUILDING SUPPLY

Building supply (water service)—The pipe carrying potable water from

the source of the water supply to a building or other point of use or distribution

on the lot. The water service pipe primarily includes all exterior potable water

supply located prior to the connection with the water meter inside the building.

2. WATER METER

Water metering is the practice of measuring water use. Water meters

measure the volume of water used by residential and commercial building units
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that are supplied with water by a public water supply system. They are

also used to determine flow through a particular portion of the system.

3. BUILDING MAIN

The water-supply pipe, including fittings and accessories, from the water

main or other source of supply to the first branch of the water-distributing system.

4. RISER

A riser pipe is a durable metal or plastic pipe which extends from the water

supply line to the water heater and up through the walls to deliver water, steam, or

gas to the lavatories, kitchens, and plumbing fixtures on the upper floors of a

building and branch to up to two higher levels. The system also has backflow

preventers act as stop valves to prevent wastewater from contaminating clean

water sources.

5. FIXTURE BRANCH

Any pipe which connects several plumbing fixtures, such as a drain serving

two or more fixtures or a supply pipe between thewater-distributing pipe and several

fixtures.

A fixture branch is a type of drain branch for any combination offixtures - not

including toilets - in a plumbing system.

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6. FIXTURE CONNECTION

Connecting a fixture to a pipe seems like it should be a simple one-button

command. However, what we have learned from our customers is that there are a

lot of different types of fixture connections. The current version of Design Master

Plumbing includes 15 different buttons for connecting a fixture to a pipe. They share

some similarities, but they are all different.

There are three main types of connections that depend upon how the

change in elevation between the fixture and main pipe is handled.

 Vertical at Fixture: A pipe is extended horizontally from the main pipe to the

fixture, then goes up or down at the fixture.

 Horizontal: A pipe is extended horizontally to the fixture. The connection to the

fixture is at the same elevation as the main pipe—there is no change in

elevation.

 Vertical at Pipe Connection: A pipe goes up or down from themain pipe, then

extends horizontally to the fixture.

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with

appropriate quality, quantity and pressure. Distribution system is used to describe

collectively the facilities used to supply water from its source to the point of usage.
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REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

 Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distributionpipes.

 It should be capable of supplying water at all the intendedplaces with sufficient

pressure head.

 It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during

firefighting.

 The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply,

during the repair of any section of the system.

 All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one metreaway or above the

sewer lines.

 It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due toleakage to the minimum.

LAYOUTS OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such

their layouts generally follow the layouts of roads. There are, in general, four different

types of pipe networks; any one of which either singly or in combinations, can be

used for a particular place. They are: Grid, Ring, Radial and Dead End System.

GRID IRON SYSTEM

It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and

branches are laid in rectangles.

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Advantages:

 Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of deadends.

 In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is available from some

other direction.

Disadvantages:

 Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on

all branches.

RING SYSTEM

The supply main is laid all along the peripheral roads and sub mains branch

out from the mains. Thus, this system also follows the grid iron system with the flow

pattern similar in character to that of dead end system. So, determination of the size

of pipes is easy.

Advantages:

 Water can be supplied to any point from at least twodirections.

RADIAL SYSTEM

The area is divided into different zones. The water is pumped into the

distribution reservoir kept in the middle of each zone and the supply pipes are laid

radially ending towards the periphery.

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Advantages:

 It gives quick service.

 Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.

DEAD END SYSTEM

It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite pattern ofroads.

Advantages:

 Relatively cheap.

 Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less number of valves.

Disadvantages:

 Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.

UPFEED AND DOWNFEED DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

There are two ways of water distribution in the building as perdifferent pressure

available in the supple. They are up feed & down feed system.

UPFEED SYSTEM

When the water supply pressure is adequate to force water throughout a

building with floors, the maximum number of floors that can be serviced with this

system depends on the water pressure at the main, fixture pressure requirements,
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piping resistance & the height of the building. When water pressure is inadequate

either in main or deep well pump, circulating pump is installed in the supply line to

raise the water pressure to overcome piping resistance or building height.

This system is frequently used on hot water lines to provide an almost zero

wait time for hot-water supply.

DOWNFEED SYTEM

Water is forced or pumped to storage tank located above the highest

fixture level. When water is required, it flows by gravity from storage tank to the

fixture. For hot water supply in tall buildings, down feed system is fitted with

circulating pumps in the line to ensure adequate amounts of hot water at each

fixture.

COMBINATION SYTEM

The up feed system is used for lower building levels & the down feed system

for upper building levels. This system is effective distribution system for multiple floor

buildings because water main supply pressure is utilized to the fullest extent &

pumps & an upper water storages tank provides additional pressure for the upper

levels.
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COMMON PIPING AND PLUMBING FITTINGS

INTRODUCTION

A fitting is a detachable piece of pipe or tubing that either connects to

another piece of pipe or tubing or connects two such pieces. Fittings are

generally used in mechanical and plumbing operations for a number of

different purposes. There are many different kinds of fittings, made from a variety

of materials: some of the most common types are elbows, tees, wyes, crosses,

couplings, unions, compression fittings, caps, plugs and valves.

Purpose of Pipe Fitting

Plumbing fittings have different shapes which allow rigid straight pipe to

change both direction and diameter.

ELBOWS

Elbows, also known as “ells,” are used to change the direction of a pipe

system. An elbow typically features a 45- or 90-degree bend, although other

angles are also available. Elbows come in a variety of diameters and are

generally threaded for connectivity. A common example of an elbow fitting in

the home is the piece that extends from the wall of your shower to which the

shower head connects.

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Used to change the angle or direction of the pipe run. Most commonly in

90 degrees and 45 degree turns. The sweep of the fitting describes how fast a

transition or change in direction is made. Mainly can buy in hardwares

TEES, WYES, & CROSSES

Tee, wye and cross fittings are all used to combine or split pipe or tube

sections. Their names describe the basic design of each: tee and wye fittings

each have one input and two outputs (or vice versa), intersecting at 90- and 45-

degree angles, respectively; cross fittings have one input and three outputs (or

vice versa) that intersect at 90-degree angles. All three designs come in

standard designs (in which all outlets/inlets are the same diameter) and

reducing designs (in which one or more is a different size).

Tee, wye, cross fittings have 3-4 holes each item. Tee fitting is shaped like

the letter T. Allows for branch lines. Wyes used primarily to gain inside access to

DWV (drain-waste-vent) systems. Lastly, Cross used to divide the flow into three

courses.

COUPLINGS & UNIONS

Couplings and unions come in a number of different sizes and designs. The

basic function of each is simply to connect two pieces of pipe or tubing.

Therefore, couplings and unions are generally quite short fittings. The main

difference between couplings and unions is that couplings are designed to be

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somewhat permanent and are often welded in place or secured by a series of

bolts and nuts, while unions are designed to be easily removed at any time.

Couplings used to join two straight pieces of pipe of the same diameter

while Unions Used to join pieces of pipe where pipes cannot be turned or when

a piece of equipment may have to be removed for maintenance or

replacement.

COMPRESSION FITTINGS

Compression fittings are generally made up of three pieces: a body, nut

and gasket ring (or ferule). They use pressure to tighten connections, thereby

preventing leakage. These fittings are used in many different industries, as well as

many places throughout the house, such as in toilets and faucets.

It can use to join pipes of different diameters. Makes a gradual change in

diameter. Compression fittings have parts like gasket and rings that can prevent

leakages.

CAPS & PLUGS

Caps and plugs perform basically the same function but in different ways.

A cap, as its name suggests, is a cap that goes over the end of a pipe, creating

a dead end. Plugs also stop up a pipe or tube system, but are plugged, like a

stopper, into the end of the pipe.

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Caps and plugs used to and the line of a pipe creating a dead end for

liquid and gases.

VALVES

Valves, while considered fittings, are sometimes placed in their own

category because of their complexity and variety. There are many different

types of valves but the one unifying attribute is that they control the flow of fluids

and gases through a system. In addition, some valves are also used to control

temperature. Some common types of valves are butterfly, gate, globe and ball.

Sink and shower/bathtub faucets are among the most common types of valves.

Devices that control the flow of liquid or gas through or from a pipe.

(Compression valves, ball valves, sleeve-cartridge valves, ceramic disc valves,

etc).

COMPOSITION

Fittings may be composed of a number of different materials. The most

important consideration is that each fitting be made of a material compatible

with the material composition of the rest of the pipe or tube system. Some of the

most common materials used to create fittings are copper, steel, brass and PVC.

You can use different composition of fittings but the suggested is use only

one composition so the tube system will endure different kinds of problems.
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WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION PIPE CONNECTION DETAILS

WATER SUPPLY

Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial

organizations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of

pumps and pipes.

Water supply is available water provided to fulfill a particular need. If the

need is domestic, industrial, or agricultural, the water must fulfill both quality and

quantity requirements. Water supplies can be obtained by numerous types of

engineering projects, such as wells, dams, or reservoirs.

TYPES OF WATER SUPPLY

 CONTINUOUS

Where continuously water supply in 24 hours. In this system, there is

continuous water supply (for 24 hours). This is possible where adequate quantity

of water is available. The major advantage of such system is that due to

continuous water supply, water remains fresh and rusting of pipes will be low.

However, losses of water will be more in case of any leakage.

 INTERMITTENT

Supply of water is for fixed hours in a day or as per specified day. In such

system, supply of water is either done in whole village/town for fixed hours or

supply of water is divided into zones and each zone is supplied with water for
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fixed hours in a day or as per specified day. Such system is followed when there

is low water availability, however, in certain cases, wastage of water is more

due to tendency of community for storing higher amount of water than required.

In such system, pipelines are likely to rust faster due to wetting and drying.

However, maintenance can be easily done during no-supply hours.

What is a water distribution pipe?

WATER DISTRIBUTION

 A water distribution system is a network of pumps, pipelines, storage tanks,

and other appurtenances.

 It must deliver adequate quantities of water at pressures sufficient for

operating plumbing fixtures and firefighting equipment, yet it must not

deliver water at pressures high enough to increase the occurrence of leaks

and pipeline breaks. Pressure-regulating valves may be installed to reduce

pressure levels in low-lying service areas. More than half the cost of a

municipal water supply system is for the distribution network.

 A water-distribution pipe is located inside a building and delivers potable

water to the fixtures. The supply system delivering water from the potable

source to the building is the "water service" pipe.

 The water distribution system includes normally both hot and cold water.
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Water distribution pipe connection result by combination of three;

1. Pipe Fittings 2. Pipe Joints 3. Valves

PIPE FITTINGS

Pipe fittings are an important component of the plumbing system. Any

part used in connection with water supply, distribution, measurement,

controlling, use and disposal of water is known as a pipe fitting.

In plumbing, many types of fixtures are joined with the help of various

types of material as per the requirement. Fittings are fixed in the plumbing

system to join straight pipes or any section of tubes. We can say that the water-

supply fittings like elbow, tee, socket, reducer, etc., are fitted to change the

direction of flow, distribute the water supply from the main pipe to other pipes of

equal size or lower size, etc.

Any part used in connection with water supply, distribution, measurement,

controlling, use and disposal of water is known as a pipe fitting.

PIPE JOINTS

Pipes are connected with the help of joints. A variety of joints are used in

an assembly of pipes. Connecting two or more pipes together is called a fitting.

Various types of joints could be used in a pipe as per the requirement.

Joints are also used for multiple pipe connections, and are an important
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component of the plumbing system. Generally, the pipe joint fitted can

easily sustain the pressure created in the pipe.

VALVES

For proper functioning of the pipeline, valves made of iron or brass are

used in the water-supply mains.

Valves stop or control the flow of fluid like liquid, gas, condensate, etc.

These are classified according to their usage like isolation, throttling and non-

return corrector. Various types of valves are manufactured depending upon

their use and type of construction.

FERRULE

It is used for connecting a service pipe to the water main. It is usually

made of non-ferrous metal and screwed to the main pipe.

Details connection of pipe line.

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PLUMBING FIXTURES: WATER CLOSET

WATER CLOSET

Originally, the term "wash-down closet" was used. The term "water-closet"

was an early term for a room with a toilet. 300 years earlier, during the 16th

century, that Europe discovered modern sanitation. The "water-closet" was

invented in England around 1870. It did not reach the United States until the

1880s. The term "water closet" is still used today in some places, but it often refers

to a room that has both a toilet and other plumbing fixtures such as a sink or a

bathtub. Plumbing manufacturers often use the term "water-closet" to

differentiate toilets from urinals. American plumbing codes still refer to a toilet as

a "Water Closet" or a "WC". The water closet is basically a toilet in its own room.

They help add privacy for the toilet user and allow the other to continue to use

the bathroom. They need a lot of space “Water closet” means a toilet facility

maintained within a toilet room for the purpose of both defecation and

urination and which is flushed with water. bowls for public use shall be the

elongated bowl types equipped with open front seats. Water closet seats shall

be of smooth non-absorbent material and properly sized for the water closet

bowl used.
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Parts Of Water Closet/ Functions

1. Tank - The toilet tank is the upper part of the toilet which rests on the top

of the toilet bowl. The toilet tank contains the water that gets released

when the toilet is flushed.

2. Toilet Bowl - The toilet bowl is the large base on which the user sits. With

an oblong or round hole to accept waste, most toilet bowls are made of

vitreous china, a waterproof material that resists staining well.

3. Tank O-Ring Seal - The tank o-ring seal (more commonly known as a

mack washer), or tank-to-bowl gasket, is a large O-shaped rubber or wax

washer or gasket that fits between the bottom of the toilet tank and the

top of the toilet bowl. Its purpose is to prevent water from leaking out of

the toilet tank.

4. Floor Flange - A floor flange is a round metal or plastic bracket located

above the sewer pipe protruding from the floor and below the toilet bowl.

The floor flange, or closet flange, is firmly attached to the floor by screws

or bolts. The toilet attaches to the flange with T-bolts.

5. Wax Seal - A wax seal is a round, cone-shaped gasket that fits between

the bottom of the toilet bowl and the top of the floor flange. Its purpose is

to prevent water from leaking from the toilet. Wax seals can be used only

once.

6. Handle - The toilet handle is the lever located on the toilet tank that is

used to flush the toilet. In some cases, the handle is not a lever but a
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large button on the top of the toilet lid. Dual flush toilets have two buttons:

one for flushing liquid waste and another for flushing solid waste.

7. Float - The toilet float is a round plastic or aluminum ball that is buoyant

enough to float on top of the water in the toilet tank. The toilet float is

responsible for managing the level of the water in the toilet tank.

8. Chain - The toilet chain, sometimes called a lift chain, is a short strip of

metal-linked chain that connects the toilet lever to the toilet flapper.

After the toilet lever is depressed, it pulls the toilet chain, which in turn lifts

the toilet flapper.

9. Flapper - The toilet flapper is the rubber stopper located on the inside

base of the toilet tank which lifts and closes to send water into the toilet

bowl. The toilet flapper is controlled by the toilet lever via the chain. After

the water has been released, the flapper falls back into place and closes

the hole at the base of the tank, much like a rubber stopper in a bathtub.

10. Refill Tube - The refill tube is a flexible plastic tube in the center of the

toilet tank that trickles water into the toilet bowl when the toilet is refilling.
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2 Types of Traps

 Both types of traps are intended to do the same thing, which is to

provide a water barrier between the inside of your home and the sewer.

 P-traps were designed to eliminate the main issue with S-traps, which is

that they tend to siphon away too much waste water, leaving the drain

“dry”.
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PLUMBING FIXTURES: BATH TUB, SHOWER & BIDET

BATHTUBS

A standard tub in a home is 5-0" in length and averages 30" wide. The

depth of water a tub can hold varies with each specific tub design. Some tubs

are sold separately, while others are sold with wall kits. A one-piece tub and

shower unit is a fiberglass tub molded with the walls as a single unit.

BATHTUB FAUCETS

A tub faucet is intended to fill a tub. Deck-mounted faucets are common

for large-capacity tubs and whirlpool tubs. Tub/shower valves can be used for

tubs without a shower by installing a plug or cap in the shower riser port.

DECK-MOUNTED FAUCETS

Deck-mounted faucets are common for large-capacity tubs and

whirlpool tubs. FAUCET SERVING A TUB OR A SHOWER known as a tub valve and

can be used for tubs without a shower by installing a plug or cap in the shower

riser port.

TUB & SHOWER FAUCETS

A tub and shower combination faucet are capable of providing water for

bathing or showering with the use of a diverter. Many different designs are

available to divert the water flowing through a tub spout to flow through a

shower head. Diversion methods: SINGLE-HANDLE TUB & SHOWER FAUCET and
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THREE-HANDLE TUB & SHOWER FAUCET. The single handle tub and shower faucet

are use either a diverter style tub spout or a push button diverter usually located

directly below the faucet handle and the three-handle tub and shower faucet

are use in the middle handle as the diverter.

BATHTUB DRAINS

A bathtub drains is called a bath waste and overflow or (BW&O) and a

bathtub has an overflow port hole and a drain port that are always connected

and installed as a pair.

SHOWER

ADA-compliant shower bases have a lower or no threshold and a larger

square foot area than a typical non-handicap shower base. Many shower

designs use a seat within the shower, and most handicap shower designs must

have a seat. If a seat is constructed in a tiled shower on a wood floor, the

plumber must provide waterproofing (ex: PVC liner to the seat as well as the

shower base).

SHOWER FAUCETS

A shower faucet is intended to serve a shower head. A combination

tub/shower valve that does not incorporate an integrated diverter may be used

with the tub port plugged or capped.

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SHOWER DRAINS

A shower base constructed on a wooden floor covered with ceramic tile

requires a safety pan. Most safety pans use a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) liner. A

three-piece shower drain is required to ensure that water does not seep around

the drain. The threaded top portion is adjustable to allow various tile thicknesses.

BIDET

A bidet is a personal hygiene fixture that is usually placed adjacent to a

toilet. A bidet's faucet and drain assembly are sold based on the fixture design

and typically sold as a pair with the toilet. Water supply is typically a 3/8 supply

tube similar to a lavatory's supply tube.

BIDET FAUCETS

A bidet faucet must be compatible with the fixture for installation. A

vacuum breaker is required by code if the hygiene sprayer is located in the

bowl area of a bidet because it is below the flood level rim of the bidet.

BIDET DRAINS

A bidet's drain assembly is very similar to a lavatory's pop-up assembly.

Most bidets that use vacuum breakers have a dedicated hole in the fixture.

Others are served with the backflow device installed in the piping system.
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PLUMBING FIXTURES: LAVATORY AND KITCHEN SINK

Plumbing codes require that every house must have at least one toilet,

lavatory sink, bathtub or shower, and a kitchen sink.

PLUMBING FIXTURES

A plumbing fixture is an exchangeable device which can be connected

to a plumbing system to deliver and drain water.

A fixture refers to the plumbing device that provides water and/or disposal.

Common fixtures in plumbing are toilets, sinks and showers. Flapper valve. The

flapper valve connects the water tank and toilet bowl.

Pay attention to flow rates, volume, and water usage in selecting fixtures.

One key aspect of sustainability in plumbing focuses on water conservation.

Lavatory faucets and shower heads are two primary focal points of conserving

water. The true water saving aspect of a shower is based on duration of each

use. A hand-held shower can be equipped with mechanisms to turn off the

water flow for certain showering activities, such as lathering.

LAVATORY SINK

Also known as a lavatory, lav, or basin.

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Many types, shapes, and colors are available. Many homebuilders install

cultured marble solid surface countertops with pre-molded sink basins, so the

plumber does not install a separate sink.

Other models of lavatory sinks include drop-in, under-mount, and vessel

(similar to bowl setting on the countertop fed by a separate counter mounted

faucet), The stub-out piping serving a lavatory is either 1 – 1/4” or 1 -1/2”. Most

residential lavatories use a pop-up drain assembly. The overflow drain on a

residential lavatory is an integral feature provided by the sink manufacturer.

LAVATORY ADA REQUIREMENTS

Many lavatories are sold specifically for ADA compliance, but they are

used more for commercial applications. ADA requirements require specific

codes relating to the countertop height from the floor, the knee space under

the sink, and the distances from the side and back walls.

LAVATORY STYLES

Lavatory sinks are ordered based on shape, size, color, and mounting

requirements, as well as the number of faucet holes and the distance between

them.

 ONE-PIECE

Cultured marble or other approved material, incorporates the

countertop and sink being formed as one unit.

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 DROP-IN

A typical residential home utilizes a drop-in style lavatory that is either

round or oval. A drop-in type lavatory sink requires a specific size hole cut

into the countertop for the particular sink to be installed into the hole.

 UNDER COUNTER MOUNT

Considered an upgrade, under counter mounted sinks attach to the

underside of finish grade holes based on templates of the sink in granite,

composite, and other hard countertops. While some of these sinks are

secured with retaining clip, many rely on modern adhesive caulks to adhere

them to the countertop and support their full weight during use.

 PEDESTAL

A pedestal sink is a wall-hung sink with a decorative vertical leg known

as a pedestal. The bowl is supported with brackets that are anchored to

pieces of wood installed in the wall framing. The pedestal is not designed to

be the sole support of the basin (bowl), but instead conceals the drain

piping below the sink while providing a decorative styling.

LAVATORY FAUCETS

A lavatory faucet installs onto a plumbing fixture with various methods

depending on the faucet type and manufacturer’s design. They can be

installed in either fixture mount style sinks or deck mount (through the countertop)
 29

applications. The standard, and most common, lavatory sink has a 4” hole

spread between the hot and cold handles. The term spread refers to the

distance between the hot and cold faucet inlets. The two most common handle

designs are a single-handle and a two-handle faucet. The middle hole of a

three-hole lavatory sink is located in the center in the sink to receive the

drainage operating assembly (pop-up) and/or a faucet spout connection.

LAVATORY DRAINS

The drain assembly for a lavatory faucet is known as a pop-up. The pop-

up assembly consists of several different operating pieces that function as one

unit. The pop-up rod is inserted through the faucet within the spout and

connects to a linkage assembly below the sink that operates the pop-up

plunger. All lavatory sink pop-up assemblies are 1 -1/4” tubular size. Most

lavatories have an overflow port to eliminate water from rising over the rim of

the fixture.

KITCHEN SINK

The most common residential kitchen sinks have either a single bowl or a

double bowl. Most kitchen sinks are surface mounted and are installed into a

countertop during the trim-out phase of construction. Surface-mounted sinks are

also known as self-rimming sinks and typically have holes for installing the faucet

directly onto the sink. Solid surface countertops can utilize a sink mounted from

under the countertop and incorporate deck mounted faucets. The common
 30

types of kitchen sinks used in residential construction are stainless steel and cast

iron. The weight of a cast iron sink provides the necessary stability to maintain its

permanent position on the countertop and does not require retainer clips when

installed with an appropriate adhesive caulk. A plumber applies caulking to the

edge of the cutout area of the countertop and places the cast iron sink into the

hole. A stainless steel sink requires the sink to be fastened to the countertop

using fastening clips provided. A kitchen sink can also serve a garbage disposal

and dishwasher.

KITCHEN FAUCETS

A kitchen faucet is usually installed before installing a kitchen sink. A

kitchen faucet has a swivel spout that allows the water flow to be used in each

bowl of a kitchen sink. The most common type of kitchen faucet requires a sink

to have three faucet holes that are 4” apart or 8” from the hot and cold water

supply connections to the faucet. Most kitchen sinks are offered as a three-hole

design, but many popular faucet designs have a pull-out spout that is also the

spray unit. If a separate handheld sprayer is used, a four-hole model sink must

be selected. Most pull-out spout faucets are manufactured with an integral

check valve. The center hole of a three-hole sink is normally aligned with the

center of the sink.

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KITCHEN SINK DRAINS

The drainage system serving a kitchen sink is connected to the fixture with

a basket strainer. Regardless of the type or style of kitchen sink, the connection

of the drainage system is the same, and all have 1 -1/2” drain connections. A

rubber gasket is placed over the basket strainer from under the sink. A fiber

(cardboard)-type gasket is placed between the tightening nut and rubber

gasket.

PLUMBING FIXTURES: URINALS

INTRODUCTION

PLUMBING FIXTURES

A plumbing fixture is device or vessel that is permanently or temporarily

installed in a commercial facility, residence, hospital, school etc. and maybe

connected to the portable water system. That device discharges used water

and suspends solids into the facility sewer line.

URINALS

A urinal is a sanitary plumbing fixture designed for urination only. It is

typically used in the standing position. Urinals are most frequently placed in male

public toilets, those found in commercial or institutional settings. However, some

homeowners have opted to install urinals as a method of saving water. Female

urinals are available, although they are not as popular or common.

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HISTORY

While public toilets and trough urinals go back to ancient times, the first

pissoirs (also known as a vespasienne) were introduced in Paris in the 1830s.

These simple outdoor structures were meant to reduce public urination in the

streets. The enclosed booths offered varying levels of privacy and were only

meant to be used by men.

PATENTED URINALS

In 1866, Andrew Rankin patented the first upright flushing urinal. The

devices became popular during the industrial revolution as factories - and

populations - grew in American cities. The urinal required less space, so several

could be installed in a small area in the factory. The urinal was also thought to

improve productivity, since workers tended to take less time using a urinal than a

toilet.

It is believed that a woman actually invented the first urinal during the civil

war says Klaus Reichardt CEO and Founder of Waterless Co. Inc. However in the

1800’s women could not register a patent so Andrew Rankin followed her and

was awarded the first urinal patent in 1886

Fun Fact

Urinals made it into the art world

In 1917, Marcel Duchamp created Fontaine, a conceptualized porcelain

urinal, which became his most famous work. He signed it, “R Mutt”.
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Also in 1917, a noted photographer, Alfred Stieglitz, then married to artist

Georgia O’Keefe, photographed La Fontaine. It became one of his most

famous photographs

TYPES OF URINALS

1. BOWL TYPE

The bowl type urinal is of one piece construction. It may be of either flat

back pattern for fixing on a wall or angle back pattern for fixing at the junction

of two walls. Bowl urinals tend to be made from vitreous china, although a

number of stainless steel models are also available. Bowl urinals offer far more

privacy than troughs - but because they only accommodate one user at a time

and essentially require the same amount of plumbing as a four-person trough

urinal, they are a little less cost-effective.

The standard sizes of these urinals are as indicated below:

1. Flat Back Pattern- 430 mm Min. x 260 mm Min. x 350 mm Min

2. Angle Back Pattern- 340 x 430 x 265 mm

2. SLAB TYPE

Slab urinal means a sanitary appliance with or without flushing system

comprising a floor channel and a slab or sheet fixed to a wall, for receiving urine

and water used for flushing and directing both into a drainage system. The slab

type urinal consists of a smooth glazed batter slab fixed on the wall with two end

slabs one on either side of the batter slab fixed projecting from the wall.
 34

The standard size of the slab type urinal is as indicated below:

Batter slab- 450 x 1000 mm or 600 x 1000 mm

End slab- 360×1000 mm

3. STALL TYPE

A stall urinal is a kind of urinal that either the floor or flange supports. There

are two kinds of stall urinals out there in the market, and these are the half-stall

urinal and the full-stall urinal. The former is supported by a flange, while the latter

is supported by the floor. The stall type urinal is similar to slab type urinal in which

the batter slab and the two end slabs are made of one piece construction.

The standard size of the stall type urinal is 1140 x 460 x 400 mm.

4. SQUATTING PLATE TYPE

A squatting urinal, as the name implies, is a urinal so short it’s almost a part

of the floor it’s bolted on. The squatting plate type urinal is also of one piece

construction including a drain pipe.

The standard sizes of the squatting plate type urinals are 600 x 350 mm

and 450 x 350 mm.

The bowl type, slab type and stall type urinals may be used for urinating in

standing position while the squatting plate type urinals may be used for urinating

in sitting or squatting position. The urinals are usually flushed with siphonic type

flushing cisterns which operate automatically at regular interval of 10 to 15

minutes. The urinals may be installed either as single unit or as multiple units

placed side by side.

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FLUSHING CISTERNS

Flushing cisterns are the plumbing fixtures provided for flushing out water

closets and urinals. These are made of cast iron, glazed earthenware or

vitrecous china, or plastic.

Flushing cisterns are of two types:

(i) Valveless siphonic type, and

The bell type flushing cistern is operated by chain being pulled over which

lifts the bell, when the chain is released the bell falls thus displacing water under

the bell down the sand pipe. Siphonic action is then created which empties the

cistern.

(ii) Valve fitted siphonic type

When the lever is depressed sharply the piston is lifted which displaces

water over the siphon Water discharging down the flush pipe takes some air with

it and creates a partial vacuum in the siphon. The greater air pressure acting

upon the water through the siphon until air is admitted under the piston which

breaks the siphonic action.

5. EXPOSED CISTERN URINAL SYSTEMS

Exposed cistern urinals are designed so that the cistern is to be wall-

mounted externally and thus on view, above the height of the urinals in the

washroom. This means the sparge pipes (often also called the flush pipes), are

also to be externally mounted and visible on the walls.

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6. CONCEALED CISTERN URINAL SYSTEMS

Concealed cistern urinals are designed so that the cistern is to be hidden

from view, perhaps behind IPS duct wall panels, wall cladding, or within a wall

void in the washroom. This means the sparge pipes will also be concealed and

run behind the panels or cladding or within the void.

SPREADERS

Connect to the flush pipes at the urinal are designed to spread the

flushing water in the urinal to both sides of the bowl to ensure a full and clean

flush. These are typically included within all the full urinal kits we sell as they are

essential for a flushing urinal.

 Exposed cistern urinal kits these spreaders typically sit on top of the bowl

secured by the pipework.

 Concealed cistern or mains flushing urinals, the spreaders typically exit

through the wall, wall cladding or paneling and then through a hole in the

top of the urinal.

Three main ways of dealing with urinal waste

1. Flushing the urinals via a cistern (auto cistern)

2. A direct mains water fed flush,

3. Not to flush the urinal at all but to install a waterless urinal system.
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While there are two major types of cisterns, urinal flushing systems come in

a variety of styles. In bathroom warehouses or washroom warehouses, several

flushing technologies might provide alternatives such as better water efficiency

and hygiene. Take a look at the following urinal flushing options

TYPES OF URINAL FLUSHING

AUTO CISTERN URINAL FLUSH

Using an auto-siphon, the cistern flushes by filling the cistern with water

and releasing when flushed, filling up to the desired location to allow for

subsequent flushes.

URINAL CISTERN FLUSH CONTROL

The cistern flush control prevents the cistern from filling continually and

flushing without reason. Using a petcock within the inlet pipe, water flow is

slowed as the cistern is filled.

HYDRAULIC VALVE URINAL FLUSH CONTROL

Hydraulic valves prevent waste by ensuring that the cistern is only filled

and flushed when the urinal is used. This is accomplished through a hydraulic

mechanism within the auto-cistern.

INFRARED SENSOR URINAL FLUSH CONTROL

Using infrared sensor technology, this flushing system will only activate

when movement is detected. This will prevent extraneous use of water, only

flushing when necessary.

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URINAL MAINS WATER FLUSHING

For a sleeker look to a urinal system, a urinal mains water flushing system

will utilize the mains water to flush the water directly through the bowl. This

option removes the need for an exposed or concealed pack.

WATERLESS URINALS

True to their name, waterless urinals do not need to be flushed via a

cistern, increasing efficiency and hygiene. As an atypical option, waterless

urinals are a perfect choice for areas that are not built for larger cisterns or

typical urinal systems. The online piping that waterless urinals require are for

removal of wastewater from the urinal itself.

Wastewater options: Bottle Trap, S Trap and P Trap

The third element to a urinal system is the process of removing wastewater

from the urinal once used. To achieve this, two main styles are used: Bottle Traps

or S and P Traps. A water trap is a must-have part of a waste pipe. It provides a

type of water seal that prevents odors, insects, and harmful bacteria to enter

your property.

BOTTLE TRAP

Has the appearance of an upside-down bottle that leads into the pipes –

hence its name. Collects the waste on its bottom, allowing the much lighter

water to continue running through the rest of the pipes. Bottle traps are the most

commonly used trap for urinals, as they allow for the wastewater to move

smoothly away from the urinal to the piping. Bottle traps are often easier to
 39

access and clean than S Trap and P Traps, but can more easily leak if the

flushing system were to stop functioning properly and flood the urinal itself. Bottle

traps are not recommended if using a waterless urinal.

P - TRAP

U-shaped pipes you can see underneath the toilet sinks. If they are

installed properly, they always contain a bit of water. They are modern solutions

that work well because they allow the best possible flow. However, they are

prone to debris accumulation, which can lead to clogs. Also, if you don’t use

the said sink for a long period of time, the water inside the p trap can evaporate.

This will allow the harmful sewer gasses to enter your home. Fortunately, you can

resolve this issue by letting the water run for a little while.

S - Trap

The S trap is shaped like the letter ‘S – ’quite logical. The S traps were used

before P traps, back in the 1920s. Then, the P traps were designed to resolve

some of the issues with the S traps. The most notable one is that the S trap tends

to siphon away a lot of wastewater, which can leave the drain dry. Once this

happens, the unwanted gasses can enter the home.

S Traps & P Traps

Compared to Bottle Traps, S and P Traps are sometimes chosen due to

their ability to allow free-flowing water through the urinal. The water that moves

through the trap is often cleaner than that found in bottle traps, but the piping

may be more difficult to access and clean should there be an issue.

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STEP BY STEP INSTALLATION

Step 1: Fitting the Mounting Board

The first step in adding a urinal to your bathroom is to add a mounting

board to the wall. In most urinal installations, the wall is extended a little further

out from the rest of the room, as this allows you to conceal all of the fitting

behind tiling. Walls come in a number of different varieties, but most personal

urinals reach the floor, as stand-alone items. Attach the mounting board to the

wall, making sure that you install it so that all of the urinal fittings can be screwed

into this board. Place the board between two studs, and then attach the edges

of the board to the studs using some nails.

Step 2: Add the Coldwater Line

Once the mounting board has been fitted, you are then ready to start

connecting the water pipes. First take the cold water pipe, and bring it to the

front of the mounting board. Make sure that you have the pipes in the correct

position to attach to the front of the faucet. You should add a shut-off valve

before the pipe is moved into place, as this will allow you to turn it off whenever

you wish. Add an elbow pipe, so that the final piece of the cold water supply

line is facing forward, ready to be attached to the urinal.

Step 3: Installing the Drain

When you have added the supply line, you can then fit the drain into the

urinal. Place the strainer into the hole at the bottom of the drain, and add a

layer of caulk to the metal. Press the strainer down into the hole, and ensure that
 41

it is sealed tightly. Underneath the strainer, on the underside of the urinal, you

should add two or more washers, one of rubber and the others of metal. Then

add a nut to the bottom and tighten. The drain strainer should now be secured

to the urinal.

Step 4: Installing the Waste Outlet

You will now need to attach the waste outlet to the drains. You can do

this by laying pipes until you come to the toilet waste pipe. Attachment of a T-

pipe will allow you to join in two drain lines, one from your toilet and the other

from your urinal. The wall should be refinished once you have done this.

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

What is Water Distribution System?

A water distribution system is one in which the drinking water is transported

from the centralized treatment plant or well supplies to the service connection

or consumers´ taps. These systems aim to preserve the quality and quantity of

water, as well as maintain sufficient pressures in the distribution of water.

Distribution System is used to describe collectively the facilities used to

supply water from its source to the point of usage. The purpose of distribution

system is to deliver water to consumer with appropriate quality, quantity and

pressure.
 42

METHODS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYTEM

For efficient distribution, it is required that water should reach every

consumer with the required water flow. Therefore, the same pressure in the

pipelines is necessary which should force water to reach every place. The

distribution system can be classified as follows:

 GRAVITY SYTEM

When the distribution reservoir is located at a higher elevation than the

target community; then water can be supplied with the gravity flow.

This method is much suitable when the source is the river or impounded

reservoir at sufficient height than the target community. Usually pumping water

is not required at any stage of this type of distribution.

No energy and pump are required to operate the gravity system as water

is conveyed by gravity but it is not applicable in some places like in plain or flat

terrain where an elevation source of water is not available.

 PUMPING SYTEM

In this system, water is supplied to the consumers with the help of pumps.

Some extra pumps are installed for emergency causes like fire hazard, peak

water demand, etc.

 43

This method is suitable if the source is at lower elevation than the target

community. However, this system of distribution becomes very expensive for long

term use.

One of the advantages in using this type of system is the water can be

pumped only when require and low water loss due to leakage but in some

cases if the power fails it causes a break down of system if that happen the

maintenance and operation cost is also high and during pumping hours, the

inflow of water through leaks may cause water contamination.

 DUAL SYTEM

It is a combination of a gravity system and a pumping system. So it is

called the Dual System.

a. One-way Dual System

In this system, water is pumped to the elevated reservoir and then

supplied to the consumers by the actions of gravity.

b. Two-way Dual System

In this system, separated pumps are provided for direct distribution

and elevated reservoir where the elevated reservoir is used for back up in

an emergency, power failure, etc.

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Types Distribution Network in Water Distribution System

 Dead-end or Tree Distribution System

In this type of water distribution system, one main pipeline runs through the

center of the building, and the sub-mains branch lines off from the both sides.

The sub-main lines are then divided into several branch lines from which service

connections are provided for particular houses.

In a simple explanation, Dead end distribution system is also known as tree

system. In this type of distribution system, it is suitable for old towns and cities

having no definite patterns of roads.

As the name suggests this type has an end at every branch of pipes.

Mainly 3 types of pipes are there. Main pipe which takes the water from reservoir

and Sub mains that are connected to main pipe takes water and distributes to

the houses through Branches. These branches are not connected continuously.

They have a fixed end called Dead End.

ADVANTAGES

 The design of pipe laying is simple and easy, also no skilled labor in

required

 A less number of cut-off valves are required and the operation and

maintenance cost is low

 45

DISADVANTAGES

 The system is less successful in maintaining satisfactory pressure in high-

rise building and is therefore favored in modern waterworks practice.

 Only one pipe provides the water to the entire building which is quite

risky. In case of any repair of pipes a large area will be affected. Water

might be stagnated in the pipes if there is no supply and it leads to the

development of Bacteria. If main pipe has to be repaired then total

supply will be stopped because we have only one pipe line that

supported the entire building or community.

 The water pressure available is also lower which requires a pumping

system.

 Gridiron Distribution System

The main supply lines run through the center of the building, and sub

mains branch off in perpendicular directions. The branch interconnects the sub-

mains.

Grid iron system is one method of the layout of distribution pipes. This

system is also known as interlaced system or reticulation system.

The distinguishing features of this system are that all types of pipes are

interconnected and there are no dead ends.

Water can reach at the given point of withdrawal from many directions,

which allows more flexible operation, particularly when repairs are required.
 46

ADVANTAGES

 The system enables the free circulation of water without any stagnation

of sediment.

 It provides sufficient supply during firefighting.

 During repair, only few housed are affected.

DISADVANTAGES

 In this system, more cut-off valves are required and requires a longer pipe

length with larger diameter

 As more pipes are required, ultimately increases the cost of the

distribution system.

 The analysis of discharge, pressure, and the velocity in the pipes is difficult

and cumbersome

 Circular or Ring Distribution System

In this type of distribution system, the supply mains form a ring around the

area. The branch pipes are connected cross-wise to the mains and also to each

other. This system is most reliable for a town with well-planned streets and roads.

ADVANTAGES

 The number of interconnections is less with minimum loss of head.

 The discharge is also higher when compared to other methods of

distribution.
 47

 Fewer consumers are affected at the time of repairs as separate main

lines available for each household

DISADVANTAGES

 The length of pipe laying is more which ultimately leads to higher cost.

 Several valves are required to control the flow and discharge of water.

 Radial Distribution System

In this type of distribution system, the whole buildings are divided into

several distribution area. Each building has a centrally located elevated

reservoir from where distribution pipes run radially towards the periphery of the

distribution areas

ADVANTAGES

 Generally, in high-rise building, a radial system is used for the water

distribution system.

 In this system, water is available with higher discharge and with minimum

head loss.

 Fewer numbers of the consumers are affected while repairing.

 The major advantage of a radial distribution system is that it is simplest

system and has the lowest initial cost.

DISADVANTAGES

 The design of the pipe laying system is complicated.

 More length pipe is required as the connections is more in this system.

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Requirements of Good Distribution System

 Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.

 It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with

sufficient pressure head.

 It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during

firefighting.

 The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water

supply, during repair of any section of the system.

 All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one meter or above

the sewer lines.

 It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the

minimum.

DOMESTIC WATER HEATING SYSTEM/ TYPE OF WATER HEATING

WATER HEATING

Water heating is a heat transfer process that uses an energy source to

heat water above its initial temperature. Typical domestic uses of hot water

include cooking, cleaning, bathing, and space heating. In industry, hot water

and water heated to steam have many uses.

Domestically, water is traditionally heated in vessels known as water

heaters, kettles, cauldrons, pots, or coppers. These metal vessels that heat a

batch of water do not produce a continual supply of heated water at a preset

 49

temperature. Rarely, hot water occurs naturally, usually from natural hot spring.

The temperature varies with the consumption rate, becoming cooler as flow

increases.

DOMESTIC WATER HEATING SYSTEM

A Domestic water heating system is also called, Domestic Hot Water (DHW)

System delivers hot water to fixtures used by people at the sink, shower, tub, and

any other appliance where water may contact humans.

WHAT ARE THE MAIN TYPES OF HOT WATER SYSTEM?

Currently there are three main types of hot water systems. Open vented,

unvented and instantaneous. But what do these terms mean and how do they

work?

Open vented hot water systems

This system uses many different parts to heat the water. It consists of a hot

water cylinder, a cold water storage cistern (tank), special pipework (known as

an open vent pipe), and a heat source to heat the water. There are two types

of open vented hot water: direct heating and indirect heating.

Direct heating

Is when the water is heated directly from the heat source either by an

immersion heater or by the boiler.

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Indirect heating

the central heating and the hot water are separate. The water is heated

via a coil (heat exchanger) from a boiler. This is done because there is a set of

radiators connected to the boiler, in this case water in the central heating

system slowly becomes contaminated by iron residues from the radiators which

would make the hot water unusable for washing.

THE MAIN PART OF THE OPEN VENTED HOT WATER SYSTEM

The Cylinder

This is where the hot water is heated. The heat can come from an

immersion heater, directly from a boiler or indirectly from a boiler using a coil

fitted inside the cylinder. Often the indirectly heated cylinders come with an

immersion heater back up in case of a boiler breakdown.

The cylinder coil (heat exchanger)

It is the tube that is often fitted to a cylinder to heat up water using the

water from the central heating system. The pipe itself is coiled up inside the

cylinder to give as much chance as possible for the pipe to ‘touch’ the water in

the cylinder and heat it up.

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The storage cistern

is the reservoir of cold water used to supply the cylinder. This is always

positioned above the cylinder to give a head of pressure (to make the water

flow out of the cylinder).

The open vent pipe

Is is the main safety setup for an open vented hot water system. It helps

the system cope with the expansion of water in the system. The open vent pipe

should end in the storage cistern allowing for the control of expansion of the hot

water in the system.

Unvented hot water systems

These systems are far more complicated and have many more parts to

them but do allow near mains pressure hot water supply. They are designed to

do away with the storage cistern and operate at a much higher pressure than

the open vented system.

THE MAIN PART OF THE UNVENTED HOT WATER SYSTEM

Pressure reducing valve

This is placed on the incoming cold water main pipe to the hot water

system to reduce the water pressure slightly and keep it at a constant level of

pressure.
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Line strainer

This is placed on the incoming cold water main pipe to filter out any

particles that might come from the cold water system, because of the sensitive

nature of some of the components (a small piece of grit could cause them to

malfunction), the strainer keeps them clear.

Expansion vessel

This is used to deal with the expansion of the water in the system as it is

heated. As water gets warmer it gets bigger, by up to 4% in volume. The water

has to go somewhere, the expansion vessel is designed to store this extra water

and stop the parts of the system bursting.

Temperature and expansion relief valve

This valve is also part of the ‘sealed’ heating system. It is designed to

remove pressure from the system.

The Tundish

This is connected to the pipe coming from the relief valve. This device is

placed in the pipeline to alert you to a fault in the system, as you will be able to

see the water flowing out of the safety valve(s).

Instantaneous hot water heating systems

This method involves using gas or electricity to heat the water to a

useable temperature without the need to store the water. The electric versions
 53

use a coiled heating element to heat the water rapidly in a similar way to a

kettle or immersion heater. The most common method to heat water is the use

of a combination boiler, this type of boiler works by using the circuit that powers

the central heating and diverting it to another ‘water to water’ heat exchanger

(heat swapping).

Common materials and components

The following are materials and components, common to all hot water

systems.

Copper and plastic pipes

Pipes for hot systems can be either copper or plastic, and come in many

sizes from 8mm to 35mm in diameter.

Programmer / timer

This decides to turn the heating boiler on or off, and controls the flow of

heated water to the hot water cylinder or radiators.

Cylinder thermostat

This little box sits on the hot water cylinder about 1/3 from the top. It

measures when the water in the cylinder is warm enough (depending on what

you set it to). As the cylinder cools down it will tell the programmer to turn it back

on again.
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Immersion heater

This heater uses electricity to heat the water; this is the same as an electric

kettle but on a much larger scale. Whereas a kettle is 300 - 500 watts, an

immersion heater is 3000 – 5000 Watts.

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF HOT WATER SYSTEMS?

There are 2 basic types of hot water systems.

Storage systems and continuous flow (or instantaneous) systems. Both can

use one or more energy sources to heat water, including gas (LPG and natural

gas), electricity, and solar power.

Storage water heaters

In a storage water heater, water is heated and stored in an insulated tank

for use when it is required. Storage tanks may be made of copper, glass

(enamel) lined steel, or stainless steel. Copper and glass-lined tanks typically

have a sacrificial anode to reduce tank corrosion, which needs to be replaced

every few years. Warranties offered for tanks typically range from 5 to 10 years.

Continuous flow water heaters.

Continuous flow or instantaneous systems

Heat only the water required and do not use a storage tank, so do not

suffer the same amount of heat or energy losses as storage systems. They can

operate on natural gas, LPG, or electricity. Gas models are available with either
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electronic ignition or a pilot flame. They can be mounted externally or internally

if suitable ventilation is available.

TYPES OF HOT WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Hot water supply has different types that can be either centralized or

localized.

CENTRALIZED SYSTEM

A centralized system is one in which the water is heated and possibly

stored centrally within the building, supplying a pipework system to the various

draw-off points. Under a centralized system, we have "Direct hot water supply"

and "Indirect hot water supply".

DIRECT HOT WATER SUPPLY

In a direct system, there are chances where precipitation of limestone will

occur when heated. This precipitation will then clog the boiler and the nearby

pipeworks. Therefore, a direct system is only suitable to be used in areas of "soft"

water.

INDIRECT HOT WATER SUPPLY

The indirect DHW system is probably the most common form of DHW and allows

a boiler to be used for central heating purposes also

LOCALIZED SYSTEM

A localized system is one in which the water is heated locally to its needs,

a single-point heater located above a sink. It may be chosen where a long

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distribution pipe would mean an unnecessarily long wait for hot water to be

drawn off at the appliance. Filled either by gas or electricity. Two distinct types

of localized DHW heaters will be found:

Instantaneous Single Points

These heaters are fueled either by gas or electricity and heat the water

only when required. They are usually fitted with a swivel spout and located

directly above the sanitary appliance, the water flow usually being inlet

controlled. With electric instantaneous heaters, the water is allowed to flow into

the heater, where it is surrounded by an electric heating element. The water

flowing through the heater is sensed by the pressure or flow switch located on

the inlet supply, which in tum makes the electrical contacts to the immersion

heater element.

Storage Types Single Points

These heaters are located near a sink and have a capacity of not more

than 15 liters. The stored water is heated by an electric element until the water

has expanded enough to discharge from the discharge spout. Cool water from

the base of the unit will then replace the hot stored water that has discharged

out. As after the discharging of hot water the water will soon cool down again, it

is only suitable for small quantities of draw off as the hot water which can be

discharged is limited.
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ENERGY USE FOR WATER HEATING

Common energy used for heating water is such as fossil fuel, natural gas

liquefied, petroleum gas, oil, and sometimes solid fuels. This fuel may be

consumed directly or using electricity

TYPES OF WATER HEATER

 Conventional Water Heater

Conventional water heaters are among the most popular water heater

options. They feature a sizable, insulated tank where water is stored and

warmed.

 Tankless Water Heater

Tankless water heaters are able to produce instantaneous hot water

through super-heated coils. These coils fill up with water the instant you demand

it, offering near-limitless hot water for your home.

 Heat Pump Water Heater

Heat pump water heaters, also known as hybrid water heaters, are

designed to work without directly generating heat. By using the heat in the

ground and surrounding air, the only electricity used is dedicated to moving

heat from point A to point B.

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 Solar Water Heater

Solar water heaters depend on the power of the sun. They work by

using roof-mounted panels that transfer energy through a closed-loop system

that connects to the water tank which then warms the water.

 Condensing Water Heater

While condensing water heaters are similar to conventional heating

systems, they work by capturing hot exhaust gases that would normally exit

the home through a flue, and redirecting them to a heat exchanger located

inside of the tank.

ENERGY SOURCE FOR WATER HEATERS / ENERGY EFFIECIENCY

What is a Water Heater?

Water heating is a heat transfer process that uses an energy source to

heat water above its initial temperature. Typical domestic uses of hot water

include cooking, cleaning, bathing, and space heating. In industry, hot water

and water heated to steam have many uses.

Hot water heaters are appliances used to heat water and to keep it at a more

or less constant elevated temperature. Just as importantly, they are also used for

the purposes of having a steady and continual supply of water.

Appliances that provide a continual supply of hot water are called water

heaters, hot water heaters, hot water tanks, boilers, heat exchangers, geysers
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(Southern Africa only), or calorifiers. These names depend on region, and

whether they heat potable or non-potable water, are in domestic or industrial

use, and their energy source.

The other terms for water heater are hot water heaters, hot water tanks, boilers,

heat exchangers, geysers (Southern Africa only), or calorifiers.

Water Heater vs Traditional Heating Vessels

This is one big difference which sets hot water heaters apart from

traditional heating vessels such as kettles, cauldrons, pots and coppers, with the

latter being unable to provide constant stores of water.

Traditional heating vessels such as kettles, cauldrons, pots and coppers

does not provide constant stores of water. The water heated there will remain in

the same amount and when gone, you will need to fill it up and heat again.

However, water heater provides a constant use of warm water. That is their main

difference.

Energy Source for Water Heaters

WATER There are various sources of energy which are used to hot water

heaters for heating water. The most common sources are fossil fuels in the form

of natural gas, heating oil, propane, liquefied petroleum gas, solid fuels, etc.
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Other such forms of energy which may be used to hot water heaters

include solar energy, geothermal energy, heat pumps, hot water heat recycling,

and so on.

In the next slides we will talk more about the fossil fuels, solar energy,

geothermal energy, heat pump water heaters, water heat recycling heater and

thermal energy which are one of the sources of energy for water heaters.

Fossil Fuels

A fossil fuel is a hydrocarbon-containing material formed underground

from the remains of dead plants and animals that humans extract and burn to

release energy for use.

Fossil fuels energy fuels may be used up diametrically or they may be

consumed with the use of electrical energy, which in turn may be obtained from

any of the abovementioned fossil fuels or they may be derived from nuclear or

renewable supplies.

Solar Energy

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using

a range of technologies such as solar power to generate electricity.

Solar energy is commonly used for solar water heaters and house heating.

The heat from solar ponds enables the production of chemicals, food, textiles,

warm greenhouses, swimming pools, and livestock buildings.

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Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is heat within the earth. The word geothermal comes

from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat).

Geothermal energy, form of energy conversion in which heat energy from

within Earth is captured and harnessed for cooking, bathing, space heating,

electrical power generation, and other uses. Heat from Earth's interior generates

surface phenomena such as lava flows, geysers, fumaroles, hot springs, and

mud pots.

Heat Pumps

Heat pump water heaters use electricity to move heat from one place to

another instead of generating heat directly.

Heat pump water heaters use electricity to move heat from one place to

another instead of generating heat directly. Therefore, they can be two to three

times more energy efficient than conventional electric resistance water heaters.

To move the heat, heat pumps work like a refrigerator in reverse.

Hot Water Heat Recycling

It is the use of a heat exchanger to recover energy and reuse heat from

drain water from various activities such as dish-washing and clothes washing.
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Water heat recycling is also known as drain water heat recovery, waste

water heat recovery, greywater heat recovery, or sometimes shower water heat

recovery.

Thermal Energy

Thermal energy is a type of power produced by atomic and molecular

particle movement within a substance.

Productive uses of thermal energy include but are not limited to: cooking,

drying, heating, smoking, baking, water heating, cooling and manufacturing.

Differences (in terms of size, installation, environmental concerns, costs,

maintenance and safety)

 Size

Bigger is not necessarily better when it comes to choosing the size of a

water heater.

If you install a tank that's too small, you'll run out of hot water before

finishing the shower. And if you get a tank that's too big, you're wasting money

on heating water they won't use.

 Installation

Select an installation contractor carefully. Make sure that he or she has

experience with the type of system you want to install.

Because if the system is integrated with your heating system, have your

heating contractor put in the water heater. To get a good value, ask for bids
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from several contractors and evaluate the bids carefully. Consider warranties,

service, and reputation as well as the price.

 Environmental Concerns

Human activity (including water heater usage) and energy consumption

interfere with nature's ability to regulate carbon dioxide and other gases in the

atmosphere.

From showers to washing clothes and dishes, your hot water heater

probably runs throughout the day—giving off harmful emissions every time it runs

due to carbon dioxide that it releases.

 Cost

Even though electric water heaters are more efficient than gas water

heaters, you’ll likely spend less money overall if heating your water supply with

gas.

This is due to the cost of the fuel source. These days, natural gas is one of

the cheapest sources of energy, and in most cases, the cost of electricity will be

much higher.

Maintenance and Safety

 Temperature or pressure relief valve

help prevent tanks from exploding if temperature or pressure exceeds

safe limits. Unfortunately, residential valves can be prone to failure, so test this

valve yearly by: Pulling up on the handle to make sure water flows freely out,
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and stops when you let go of the handle. If it does nothing or runs or drips, then

the valve should be replaced.

 Temperature control

On residential tanks, the settings are normally warm, hot, very hot or

something similar. There is so much variation on what these settings mean, but

the right temperature is at least 120 degrees at the tap, which you can test with

a meat or candy thermometer. It is important to keep the temperature close to

120 degrees to kill germs and prevent children from being scaled.

 Vents

A poor draft can cause fumes and carbon monoxide to reenter the room

instead of going outside. To maintain good ventilation, make sure that:

- The vent is the same diameter as the tank's draft diverter

- The vent goes straight up and out, without any dips

- Where it passes through walls or roofs, it is double-walled. Single-walled

vent sections should be screwed with 3 screws per section, especially in

earthquake zones.

 Earthquake straps

Strapping your water heater is a good idea, even if you live outside an

earthquake zone. This is particularly important for maintaining gas water heater

safety. If your water heater were to fall over, it could sever the gas line and

cause an explosion.
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Advantages and Disadvantages

ADVANTAGE

 Low Upfront Cost - Water heaters are less expensive, while tankless, on-

demand water systems tend to be more expensive upfront. Generally

speaking, the price disparity between the types of hot water heaters is

largely the result of the cost of installation.

 Efficient Use of Energy - The best way to compare the efficiencies of various

water heaters is to look at their respective energy factors (EF). This number

evaluates how effective a water heater is at producing hot water,

measuring how much fuel or electricity is required to heat your water. With

the EF numbers in hand, comparing the efficiency of each type of water

heater is quite simple: higher efficiency heaters will have higher EF numbers.

 Safe to Operate - Both electric and gas water heaters are safe solutions for

heating your water. That said, as with any appliance run on gasoline, water

heaters are susceptible to gas leaks if they run on propane or natural gas.

DISADVANTAGE

 Relatively slow heating time – Gas water heaters have a higher recovery

rate (i.e. the amount of water the appliance can heat to a set temperature

in a given time frame). For larger households with more hot water needs, gas

water heaters may be a necessity. Alternatively, households with only a

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couple members won’t require the same recovery rate that gas water

heaters have to offer.

 Susceptible to power outages – If the grid goes down due to a storm or other

event, you won’t have access to hot water with an electric water heater.

Gas water heaters, on the other hand, can operate even when your power

is out.

 High operating costs – As discussed on the previous slide, this is due to the

cost of the fuel source. These days, natural gas is one of the cheapest

sources of energy, and in most cases, the cost of electricity will be much

higher.

What is Energy Efficiency?

Energy efficiency simply means using less energy to perform the same task

– that is, eliminating energy waste.

Energy efficiency brings a variety of benefits: reducing greenhouse gas

emissions, reducing demand for energy imports, and lowering our costs on a

household and economy-wide level.

Example of Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency refers to using less energy to provide an energy service.

For example, energy-efficient LED light bulbs are able to produce the same

amount of light as incandescent light bulbs by using 75 to 80 percent less

electricity.
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A LED light that gives the same amount of power as incandescent light is

better to use since LED is environmentally friendly and you will only consume a

lower amount of electric energy. In that way, you can help the community and

also the Earth to conserve energy.

Energy efficiency is calculated by dividing the energy obtained (useful

energy or energy output) by the initial energy (energy input).

For example, a refrigerator has an energy efficiency of 20 to 50%, an

incandescent bulb about 5%, a LED lamp over 30%, and a wind turbine 59% at

most.

A water heater's energy efficiency is determined by the energy factor (EF),

which is based on the amount of hot water produced per unit of fuel consumed

over a typical day.

The higher the energy factor, the more efficient the water heater.

How To Save Water Heater and Energy Waste

1. LOWER THE THERMOSTAT

Though many manufacturers set their water heater thermostats at 140°F,

most typical households are comfortable with 120°F. Try taking a shower after

you’ve made the adjustment; it’s unlikely you will notice a substantial difference

in the temperature. Not only does this small decrease cut costs, it also reduces

scalding and slows mineral buildup and corrosion in your heater and pipes.
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2. INSULATE TANK

Insulating your storage tank (whether it’s electric, natural gas or oil) helps

to reduce heat loss and prevents the unit from turning on as frequently. Be

careful to follow the manufacturer’s recommendations which include not

covering the heater’s thermostat, burner, and the top and bottom. Call your

local plumber for assistance in insulating your hot water tank.

3. INSTALL HEAT TRAPS

Heat traps allow the flow of cold water into the tank, but prevent heated

water and unwanted convection to flow from the unit. Most modern water

heaters are designed with built-in heat traps. But if your unit is more than 10 years

old (and in good condition), installing a heat trap is a viable option. Ask your

professional plumber for more information.

4. USE COLD WATER

While this may seem like an obvious tip, using cold water for most laundry

loads (especially during the rinse cycle) and for basic grooming (brushing teeth,

washing hands, etc.) will go a long way in helping cut down your utility bill. Cold

water is also healthy and good for your health and wellbeing.

5. REPAIR LEAKY FAUCETS

A leaky faucet may seem like a minor nuisance, but it can waste water

and money in a very short period of time. Repair any leaky faucet immediately

(be sure to check the outdoor faucets as well).

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Did you know that 10% of homes have plumbing leaks that waste over 90

gallons a day?

A faucet or shower head that drips 60 drips per minute wastes 21 liters per

day, or 5 gallons of water a day. That's 2,082 gallons per year. Fixing a leaky

faucet or shower head is not hard.

6. DRAIN THE TANK

It’s a good practice to drain your water heater every year or so. Draining

the tank helps to remove sediment that can impede heat transfer and

ultimately lower the efficiency of the unit. While this is a relatively easy

procedure, always make sure to follow the manufacturer’s directions. If in doubt,

call a professional to help with water heater maintenance.

7. INSTALL A TIMER

A traditional water heater tank is always running, which is a waste of

electricity. Installing a timer to turn off your heater at night is a great way to help

conserve energy – and could add years to the life of the unit. Call your local

plumber for more information on water heater timers.

8. INSULATE PIPES

In addition to insulating the tank itself, consider adding insulation to the

first 6 feet of both the hot and cold-water pipes connected to the unit. This will

prevent fire hazards and help conserve heat so that your system doesn’t have

to work so hard to reheat it.

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9. REPLACE OLD APPLIANCES

If your dishwasher or washing machine is more than 10 years old, you

might consider replacing it with a new, more energy-efficient model. There are

many new designs on the market (including ENERGY STAR® models) that use less

water and are much more efficient than what was on the market even a

decade ago.

10. CONSIDER PURCHASING A NEW WATER HEATER

It’s a good idea to replace your water heater if it is more than 10 years old.

An old water heater is not only inefficient but could also cause irreparable

damage if it leaks or bursts.

PROTECTION FOR HOT WATER TANK

CATHODIC PROTECTION

Cathodic protection (sacrificial anode) This protection usually lasts only a

few years and must be replaced, because once it is completely consumed, the

water heater will start to rust.

To begin with, it is important to know that a tank is equipped with

sacrificial cathodic protection (magnesium anode). A magnesium anode is

used as a sacrificial anode in cathodic protection. Magnesium has the highest

driving voltage of all the materials used for sacrificial anodes. Magnesium is low

on the noble scale, and therefore corrodes easily

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HOT WATER RECIRCULATING SYSTEM AND SIZING OF STORAGE TANK

FOR WATER HEATERS

HOT WATER CIRCULATING SYSTEM

A hot water recirculation system is a plumbing system that moves hot

water to fixtures quickly without waiting for the water to get hot. Rather than

relying on low water pressure, common in most water lines, recirculating systems

rapidly move water from a water heater to the fixtures.

SYSTEM TYPES

DEDICATED LOOP

The circulation pump for this system is mounted on a pipe connected to

the water heater tank down low. This is the cooler side of the loop, or the return.

The hot water pipe is installed in a loop throughout the home, passing near each

plumbing fixture. At each fixture, a short pipe connects the loop to the hot water

valve. Because hot water is constantly circulating through the hot water loop,

any time a valve is opened, it takes only a fraction of a second for hot water to

reach the valve.

INTEGRATED LOOP

This system is typically used on retrofits but may also be installed on new

construction. It consists of a pump installed under the plumbing fixture farthest

from the water heater. The pump contains a sensor which switches the pump on
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when water temperature drops below 85° F, and switches it off when water

temperature reaches 95° F. Newer pumps are adjustable from 77° to 104° F.

ACTIVATION

Hot water recirculation systems are most commonly activated by either a

thermostat or a timer. Systems that use a thermostat or timer automatically turn

the pump on whenever the water temperature drops below a set point, or when

the timer reaches a certain setting. These systems ensure that hot water is always

available at the faucet.

2 TYPES OF RECIRCULATING PUMP

FULL RECIRCULATING PUMP SYSTEM

An additional pipe that is designated for hot water is installed in your

home’s plumbing. This system creates a loop from the water heater to the

faucet and back again. The unused hot water is drawn back through this loop

by the pump, so when you turn on your hot water faucets, you get hot water

quickly. Water is not left in the pipes to get cold and you waste less water

because you don’t have to wait.

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RECIRCULATING PUMP COMFORT SYSTEM

This system uses the existing cold water pipe to send the unused water

back to the water heater. This is a cost effective solution for homeowners who

are frustrated with the wait for hot water but are unable to install the first option.

The Comfort System can bring hot water quickly to areas in your home that take

a long time to get hot water. For example, if your water is far away from your

shower or kitchen, the recirculating pump will solve this problem.

 Quick Access to Hot Water

The biggest reason why people choose to buy a hot water recirculating

pump is because they want to have a quick access to hot water. With this

pump, you no longer have to wait for hot water while waiting for a shower or to

wash hands.

 They Save Water

The best hot water recirculating pump is great for environment because it

saves a great amount of water yearly. In fact, a study showed that the average

person wastes between 1 and 3 gallons of water just by waiting for hot water to

come through the faucet!

 They Save Money

We’ve already mentioned how recirculating pumps help save water. By

doing so, they also help you lower your utility bills. Sure, they will spend a bit
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more electricity (except if you get a pump that comes with a timer), but over

the years, they will help you save a small amount of money by not spending as

much water. This is especially helpful for big families who usually use a lot of

water.

 They Are Easy to Maintain

If you or your plumber have followed the hot water recirculating pump

installation diagram properly, you can expect to have very little maintenance

over the year.

Cons of Hot Water Recirculating Pumps

 They Are Expensive

The biggest reason why many people hesitate on purchasing a hot water

recirculating pump is their high initial cost. Some of the more affordable pumps

cost $100-$300, but if you have to hire a plumber to install them, this can cost up

to $1000! In fact, studies have shown that this is the second biggest home

expense, right after HVAC costs.

 You’ll Wait for Cold Water

When getting a recirculating pump, many people aren’t aware that there

is a trade-off. While you’ll end up getting hot water faster, many pumps will

require you to wait a bit until you get cold water. This is avoided in pumps that

use separate pipes from cold water ones – but you might end up having hot
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and cold water not mixing in shower if the pump goes bad. Of course, some

people don’t mind this turn of events. It all comes down to which one is more

urgent to you – cold or hot water.

 Faulty Sensor Valve

The sensor valve that many of these pumps work on is still one of the main

issues people have with these units. Many reports state that the sensor valve has

to be replaced every few years.

 Additional Wiring

Most recirculating pumps require you plugging them into an outlet. If you

have one nearby, that’s good news, as you have one less concern to worry

about. However, the problem arises when there isn’t an outlet close enough. This

will require that you either install a new outlet or rewire the water pump so it

connects into something else. Either way, this can be time consuming and it can

end up costing you.

Sizing storage tank water heaters

 A water heater is required for supplying potasble water for showers,

kitchens, bathrooms, washing machines, dishwashers and other purposes

in a home or commercial building.

 A water heater is defined as a closed vessel used to supply potable water,

which is heated by combustion of fuels, electricity or any other source

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and withdrawn for use externally to the system at pressures not exceeding

160 psig, and shall include all controls and devices necessary to prevent

water temperatures from exceeding 210°F. The water heater is intended

to supply potable water with 100% make-up from a potable water supply

system like city water.

 Based on use, a water heater may be classified as a commercial water

heater or a residential water heater. Automatic storage type water

heaters for residential use range from 5 to 120 gal. nominal tank capacity.

Water heaters for commercial applications are available with storage

capacities from 40 to 500 gal. or more.

 If you select a water heater more than the capacity required, you will be

paying extra needlessly and fuel cost will be high. If you buy a water

heater of less capacity, there may be a shortage of potable water.

There are some terms that are important to know when sizing a water heater:

Storage tank capacity

The capacity of the tank for storing hot water. The tank permits a large

volume of water to be drawn from the system at flow rates exceeding the

recovery capacity of the heater.

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Recovery capacity

The amount of water in gallons per hour, raised at a given efficiency and

Btu input. One-hour draw capacity: The maximum hot water use for one hour at

the peak period of the day when the heaviest draw of hot water will occur.

Input rating

The amount of fuel measured in British Thermal Units (Btus) consumed by a

gas or oil heater in an hour. Input for the electric heater is expressed in kilowatts

(kW). One kW of electricity is equal to 3, 413 Btus.

Basis of Selection

The best method for selecting a water heater is on the basis of hot water

usage. The selection is a combination factor of heat input, tank size and

recovery capacity.

Heat input provides hot water at the hourly recovery rate hour after hour.

The tank represents instant hot water at greater-than-heater recovery. The

supply of hot water in the tank cannot be replenished until the peak usage

period has ended, and heater recovery is available for this purpose.
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Theoretically, a water heater should have a combination of storage and

heat capacity equal to usage:

Available Hot Water = Storage + Heat Input (Recovery Rate)

Residential Peak usage, based on accepted practice, is the one hour

period during the day when the heaviest draw of hot water will occur.

Pumps for Water Supply

Many kinds of pumps are used in distribution systems. Pumps that lift

surface water and move it to a nearby treatment plant are called low-lift pumps.

These move large volumes of water at relatively low discharge pressures. Pumps

that discharge treated water into arterial mains are called high-lift pumps. These

operate under higher pressures. Pumps that increase the pressure within the

distribution system or raise water into an elevated storage tank are called

booster pumps. Well pumps lift water from underground and discharge it directly

into a distribution system.

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Most water distribution pumps are of the centrifugal type, in which a

rapidly rotating impeller adds energy to the water and raises the pressure inside

the pump casing. The flow rate through a centrifugal pump depends on the

pressure against which it operates. The higher the pressure, the lower the flow or

discharge. Another kind of pump is the positive displacement type. This pump

delivers a fixed quantity of water with each cycle of a piston or rotor. The water

is literally pushed or displaced from the pump casing. The flow capacity of a

positive-displacement pump is unaffected by the pressure of the system in

which it operates.

STORAGE TANKS

Distribution storage tanks, familiar sights in many communities, serve two

basic purposes: equalizing storage and emergency storage. Equalizing storage

is the volume of water needed to satisfy peak hourly demands in the community.

During the late night and very early morning hours, when water demand is lower,

high-lift pumps fill the tank. During the day, when water demand is higher, water

flows out of the tank to help satisfy the peak hourly water needs. This allows for a

uniform flow rate at the treatment plant and pumping station. Water in a

distribution storage tank may also be needed for fighting fires, cleaning up

accidental spills of hazardous materials, or other community emergencies. The

capacity of a distribution storage tank is designed to be about equal to the

average daily water demand of the community.

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Distribution storage tanks are built at ground level on hilltops higher than

the service area. In areas with flat topography, the tanks may be elevated

aboveground on towers in order to provide adequate water pressures, or

ground-level storage tanks with booster pumping may be provided.

Water Pump Types

There are two basic types of water pumps: centrifugal and positive

displacement. Both types are designed to move water from one place to

another continuously.

A centrifugal water pump uses a rotating impeller to move water

into the pump and pressurize the discharge flow. Centrifugal water pumps

come in several different types, including standard, trash, and submersible

models. All liquids can be pumped using centrifugal water pumps, even

those with low viscosity. These pumps work well with thin liquids and offer

high flow rates.

Positive displacement water pumps deliver a fixed amount of flow

through the mechanical contraction and expansion of a flexible

diaphragm. Positive displacement pumps are used in many industries that

manage high-viscosity liquids and where sensitive solids may be present.

They are recommended for applications requiring a combination of low

flow and high pressure.

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Considerations for Centrifugal Water Pumps

Centrifugal pumps are used in many construction and water system

applications, in addition to dewatering. They are employed to pump water

supplies in buildings and are compatible with pneumatic systems and where no

suction lift is required. They are also used to pump water from domestic wells

and to boost pressure in water intake lines. Centrifugal pumps can provide a

continuous pressure source for fire protection systems, and they can serve as

sump pumps in either vertical or horizontal configurations.

Centrifugal pumps are prone to several common problems. Some pumps

may need recirculating liquid to prevent overheating caused by low flows.

Centrifugal pumps must be primed, or filled with the pumped fluid, to operate

properly. When the positive suction head of a system is too low for the selected

pump, it can result in cavitation, a condition where air bubbles form near the

impeller, leading to shockwaves inside the pump. Finally, wear of the pump

impeller can be worsened by suspended solids in the liquid.

Considerations for Positive Displacement Water Pumps

Positive displacement water pumps, sometimes called rotary pumps, are

very efficient due to the fact that they remove air from the lines and thus

eliminate the need to bleed the air. These pumps are also effective for dealing

with high-viscosity liquids.

The primary drawback of positive displacement pumps is that they require

a very small clearance between the rotating pump and the outer edge of the
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unit. As a result, the rotation must occur at very slow speeds. If the pump is

operated at higher speeds, the liquids can erode and eventually reduce the

efficiency of the water pump.

Requirement of Pumps

A water supply scheme requires pumps at multiple stages.

1. In the case of groundwater sources and low-leveled surface sources, pumps

are required to lift the water as it cannot flow under gravity.

2. When sufficient slope is not available at a treatment plant to facilitate the

gravitational flow of water, pumps become a necessity.

3. After treatment, the water has to be forced into the distribution mains.

Pumps play a vital role in forcing out the water either directly or through a

service reservoir.

4. In the distribution mains, the pressure has to be boosted or increased at a

few intermediate points. Pumps provide the required pressure so that the

water reaches the required height in multistory building

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THE DWV SYSTEM

The drain-waste-vent system is all of the plumbing in your home minus the

water supply. This includes the drainpipes, drains, and vents. Drainpipes send

water to the main sewer line, located underground. If there is no sewer service

available, the sewage would empty into a septic tank.

Fixture drain

Means the pipe that connects a trap serving a fixture to another part of a

drainage system.

As you can see in this picture, the pipe between the trap and the waste

stack it's connected to, is not vented until it reaches the stack so it would be

called a trap arm fixture drain. The trap arm fixture drain is sized by the trap it is

connected to, and is graded at a minimum of 1/4" per foot (1:50) slope. A trap

arm cannot drop more than its internal diameter, before connecting to a vent; if

the trap arm does extend further than the legal limit, a siphon will be formed

and the water will be sucked out of the trap, potentially allowing dangerous

gases from your plumbing system to enter your home.

A fixture drain is the section of pipe between a trap and another section

of drainage, called a trap arm. A trap arm is only the part of the pipe that runs

between the trap and the vent.

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What is a P-trap?

It combines two 90 degree joints with a

horizontal overflow pipe, one of the 90 degree joints

exits the drain of the sink and then is joined to another

which contains a water seal system that allows for water to flow into the

overflow pipe, but not to flow backward toward the sink.

P-trap installed under the sinks in the bathroom and kitchens.

A P-trap is a plumbing fixture that has several purposes. It traps debris that

has drained from the sink and prevents it from forming a clog deep within the

plumbing system, and to stops sewer gases from passing into the home.

Washing Machine Standpipe

Washing machines drain into what is called a

standpipe. A standpipe is a vertical piece of pipe with an

elbow on the bottom. The elbow remains filled with water,

preventing sewer gas from backing up into your laundry area. The standpipe

assembly keeps the water level of the washer tub below that of the drain,

preventing siphoning from the drain or sewer line back into the washer.

A laundry standpipe connects a washing machine’s drain hose to a

home’s waste stack. While it might be tempting to simply connect your washer

to any other convenient drain line, doing so increases the risk of water overflow

and sewer fumes.

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Toilet Trap

A toilet trap, or trapway, is a curving channel inside the base of a toilet

that leads from the hole at the bottom of the bowl to the drainpipe.

2 types of Toilet trap

P-traps

Are perfect for homes and toilets that

are on very high floors and it have very

typical ventilation inside the walls and

through the ceiling that allows the entry

of outside air.

S-traps

Creates a trap at the bottom of the first bend. This type of toilet trap is

common today and it is generally favorable for all those living in facilities on

the ground floor.

Importance of drain-waste-vent system

In plumbing, a vent, or more precisely, a drain waste vent, helps to

remove sewage and greywater from a building or home. The vent also helps

to regulate air pressure in the plumbing pipes to ensure that the water flows

unimpeded through them.

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Why is DWV important?

The DWV system is one of the most important and complicated systems in

the home. Contractors usually install it first and plumbing codes help ensure

proper safety and sanitation. Strict regulations, such as pipe size, slope, and

fixture height, must be followed to keep contaminants out of the house.

How does a DWV system effectively work?

DWV systems maintain neutral air pressure in the drains, allowing free flow

of water and sewage down drains and through waste pipes by gravity.

Design and Construction of Septic Tank

What is Septic Tank?

A septic tank is a

waterproof compartment

composed of bricks, concrete,

fiberglass, PVC, or plastic that

receives blackwater from

cistern or pour-flush toilets and

greywater from a conduit

from within a structure or an

outdoor toilet for initial treatment. Solids and organics are reduced through

settling and anaerobic processes, although the treatment is only modest.

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Heavy particles sink to the bottom of the tank when liquid runs through it,

while scum (mainly oil and grease) floats to the top. Solids that sink to the

bottom deteriorate anaerobically over time. However, because the rate of

buildup outpaces the rate of decomposition, the collected sludge and scum

must be removed on a regular basis.

How does a Septic Tank work?

Septic systems are wastewater treatment facilities that are typically

utilized in rural regions where there are no centralized sewage lines. They treat

wastewater from residential plumbing, such as bathrooms, kitchen drains, and

laundry, with a combination of nature and established technology.

A septic system typically includes a septic tank and a drainfield, often

known as a soil absorption field.

Organic matter is digested in the septic tank, and floatable stuff (such as

oils and fats) and particles are separated from the wastewater. The effluent

(liquid) from the septic tank is discharged into a series of perforated pipes buried

in a leach field, chambers, or other specific devices intended to gently release

the wastewater into the soil.

Sludge

It is the 60-70 percent of the sewage's suspended solids is removed mostly

by sedimentation, resulting in a semi-liquid material.

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Wastewater

(effluent) it is the liquid wastes from your property's toilets, sinks, baths and

showers, dishwashers and washing machines.

Scum

It is a term used to describe a collection of substances in a septic tank

that are lighter than water. It is consist of oil, fats, and grease. These items float

to the surface of the water, where aerobic bacteria work to digest the majority

of the floating solid waste.

Digestion

It is the process where the parts of the solids are formed into a floating

scum. Anaerobic bacteria digest both the scum and the sludge, converting

them to liquids and gases.

As a result, the septic tank combines two processes: sedimentation in the

top tank and anaerobic decomposition of accumulated sludge at the bottom.

The bacteriological process of decomposition of organic materials from

human waste is caused by: (1) Aerobes, which are aerobic bacteria; (2)

Anaerobic bacteria, often known as anaerobes; (3) Facultative bacteria.

Aerobic bacteria's life process occurs in the presence of material oxygen.

Anaerobic bacteria, on the other hand, work without the presence of oxygen.

Facultative bacteria, on the other hand, may function with or without free
 89

oxygen. There is no link between these three kinds of bacteria and illness. They

flourish in sewage naturally and will operate when the following conditions are

met: the provision of food; temperature; moisture.

Excreta waste decomposes until the organic stuff is changed into

components that bacteria can no longer use in their life process. Stabilization

refers to the process of breakdown.

Anaerobic bacteria generate decomposition, which is sometimes referred

to as materials that the bacteria can no longer use in their life process.

Stabilization refers to the process of breakdown.

Putrefaction, or the decomposition of food produced by anaerobic

microorganisms, is accompanied by foul aromas. Aerobic decomposition, on

the other hand, does not produce an unpleasant odor. Septic is sewage that

has darkened and has an unpleasant odor owing to anaerobic decomposition.

Aerobic bacteria decompose organic waste in an undetermined amount

of time, which might be as little as a few hours.

Gases that are produce inside the Septic Tank (Organic and Inorganic)

 Methane gas (CH4) is a combination of hydrogen and carbon, a

principal component of natural gas.

 Carbon Dioxide(CO2) is a combination of carbon and oxygen. It is the

simplest oxide of carbon.

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 Carbon Monoxide(CO) is a by-product of methan, classified as

poisonous gas.

 Hydrogen(H2) evolves as a moist gas from organic waste.

 Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) is a colorless gas with offensive odor.

 Sulfur Dioxide (HO2) is also a colorless gas having an irritating odor.

Note: It is vitally important to open and inspect your septic tank at least every

three (3) years, to make sure that baffles are intact and functional
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Recommended Septic Cleaning Schedule

Number of Residents per household

Tank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

size

(gallons) Septic tank cleaning frequency in years

500 5.8 2.6 1.5 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 -

750 9.1 4.2 2.6 1.8 1.3 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.3

1000 12.4 5.9 3.7 2.6 2.0 1.5 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.5

1250 15.6 7.5 4.8 3.4 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.2 0.7

1500 18.9 9.1 5.9 4.2 3.3 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.0

1750 22.1 10.7 6.9 5.0 3.9 3.1 2.6 2.2 1.9 1.3

2000 25.4 12.4 8.0 5.9 4.5 3.7 3.1 2.6 2.2 1.6

2250 28.6 14.0 9.1 6.7 5.2 4.2 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.0

2500 30.9 15.6 10.2 7.5 5.9 4.8 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6
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Types of Septic Tanks

1. Concrete Septic tanks

These long-lasting tanks will

often last several decades. This sort

of tank, however, can leak waste

and enable groundwater to flow in

if the concrete fractures. When a

backlog occurs in a concrete septic tank, the blockage may cause water to

overflow.

2. Steel Septic tanks

Despite the fact that steel is a

naturally robust material, septic

tanks built of steel often only last 25

years before rusting. As a result,

homeowners are less inclined to

choose steel septic tanks.

When a steel tank's roof begins to corrode, the tank may become too

weak to sustain the weight of the earth above it. A human or animal might fall

into the tank if this happens.

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If the remainder of the unit is physically solid, the cover of a steel tank

might be changed to save money. Rust development on entry and exit baffles

should be monitored by property owners.

3. Plastic Septic tanks

Plastic tanks are long lasting, lightweight, and affordable. Plastic septic

tanks do not corrode and are less prone to breaking than concrete septic tanks.

These tanks are incredibly light, making installation a breeze.

However, because they are so light, they might be damaged during

installation. Furthermore, if not fitted properly, plastic tanks might float to the

surface.
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LOCATION OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEM

Minimum Distance in Clear Building Septic Disposal Seepage Pit

Required From: Sewer Tank Field or Cesspool

 Buildings or Structures 6m 1.5 m 2.4 m 2.4 m

 Property line adjoining

private property Clear 2 1.5 m 1.5 m 2.4 m

 Water Supply Wells 15.2 m3 15.2 m 30.5 m 45.7 m

 Streams 15.2 m 15.2 m 15.2 m 30.5 m

 Trees - 3m - 3m

 Seepage pits or cesspools - 1.5 m 1.5 m 3.7 m

 Disposal Field - 1.5 m 1.2 m 1.5 m

 On site domestic water

service line 3 m5 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m

 Distribution box - - 1.5 m 1.5 m

 Pressure public 3 m5 3m 3m 3m
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Septic Tank Design and Construction

The capacity of a septic tank is determined by the number of users and

the frequency with which sludge is removed. Sludge should be removed every

two years in most cases. The tank's liquid capacity ranges from 130 to 70 liters

per person. For a small group of users, 130 liters per person are required. A septic

tank normally has a brick wall with cement mortar [not less than 20cm (9 inch)

thick and a cement concrete 1:2:4 foundation floor. The interior and outside

faces of the wall, as well as the top of the floor, are plastered with a 12mm (half-

inch) thick cement mortar 1:3 mix. The septic tank's inside edges are all rounded.

At a rate of 2% of the cement weight, a water proofing agent such as

Impermo, Cem-seal, or Accoproof is added to the mortar. For the tank's floor, a

water proofing agent should be mixed in with the concrete in a same amount.

The floor of the septic tank is sloped from 1:10 to 1:20 towards the inflow side for

ease of collection and disposal of sludge. As a result, the floor on the outlet side

will be higher than the floor on the inlet side.

Septic Tank Roofing Slab

The septic tank's top is covered with an Reinforced cement concrete

(RCC) slab with a thickness of 75-100mm, depending on the tank's size. For

inspection and desludging, circular manholes with a clear diameter of 500mm

are supplied. The clear dimension of a rectangular aperture is fixed at

600X450mm.
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Suitable Sizes of Septic Tank Based on Number of Persons

Liquid

Liquid Capacity Free

No of Length Breath Sludge to be Interval
Depth to be Board
users L in m B in m removed(m3) Cleaning
in m provided in m

in m3

1.0
5 1.5 0.75 1.12 1.18 0.3 0.36 0.72 1 year 2 year
1.05

10 2.0 0.9 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.0 0.3 0.72 1.44 1 year 2 year

15 2.0 0.9 1.3 2.0 2.3 3.6 0.3 1.08 2.16 1 year 2 year

20 2.3 1.1 1.3 1.8 3.3 4.6 0.3 1.44 2.88 1 year 2 year

50 4.0 1.4 1.3 2.0 7.3 11.2 0.3 3.60 7.20 1 year 2 year
 97

A Septic tank needs to be strong enough

A well-built septic tank will

not leak and should be able to

withstand earth movements;

unfortunately, many septic tanks

in Indonesia are cracked and

leaking.

It is easy to underestimate

the forces that a septic tank has to withstand. You will see people building

septic tanks using lightweight concrete blocks (batako) with a thin skim of

cement on the inside. The slightest bit of ground movement, probably even the

settlement resulting from the tank's construction, will be enough to crack it.

We should also bear in mind that when a tank is operating it will be

holding a metric ton (1,000 kgs) of liquid for each cubic metre, for an average

tank this is likely to be as much as 3 or 4 tons. That is a lot of weight.

Septic tanks should be either made from plastics that will give a little with

ground movement or be built from reinforced concrete and designed such that

in the event of ground movement the tank will move as a single entity and

retain its integrity.

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In addition, how well your septic tank will work is dependent on how well it

is design worked and built. There are many people around building septic tanks

who do not fully understand how they design.

Let us say we need a tank of 2.9 cubic metres (the amount of effluent the

tank will hold) this is typical for an average 2 bathroom house with 4 people

living in it. Refer to the construction drawing below for a 2.88 cu m septic tank

designed for a typical household.

How many chambers?

A septic tank should have at least two chambers, 3 is better but 2 is

enough. The second chamber can be around half the size of the first chamber.

In this tank the first chamber is 1.2m x 1.0m x 1.6m deep = 1.92 cubic

metres liquid capacity. The second chamber is 0.6m x 1.0m x 1.6m deep = 0.96

cu m capacity = a total capacity of 2.88 cubic metres. Note that 1.6 metres is

the depth of the effluent in the tank.

This tank is purposely designed to be quite deep while having a smaller

footprint for use on smaller blocks of land.

The walls and floor of the tank are 10 cms (4 inches) thick reinforced

concrete providing sufficient strength to withstand water pressure and a

reasonable amount of earth movement. The reinforcing steel is a mesh of 8 mm

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diameter reinforcing bars spaced 15 cms (6 inches) apart and built into a mesh

box

When casting the concrete shuttering (plywood formwork) is placed

around the steel to form a box shaped mold ready to cast the concrete around

the steel. This should be placed to make sure that the walls are 4 inches thick

and, when the concrete is poured, that there will be a good thick layer of

concrete on both sides of the steel mesh to stop the steel rusting.

There should also be a bed of sand underneath the concrete floor of the

tank to allow some movement as the tank settles and moves in the ground.

The 15cm (4 inch) diameter PVC inlet, transfer and outlet pipes for the

tank need to be installed before the concrete is poured along with a 7.5cm (3

inch) diameter ventilation pipe to allow gas to flow between the 2 chambers.

The concrete should be correctly mixed (the mix should be designed to

suit the sand and other materials

being used however if this is not

possible then 3 parts aggregate: 2

parts good quality sand: 1 part of

cement is good). Too much water

should NOT be added (a slump of 7 is

good) to give a good hard concrete

and, during pouring, the concrete

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should be vibrated with a vibrator to make sure it is properly compacted with no

cavities or air holes. The aggregate must be small enough to fit easily between

the steel and the plywood.

This might all sound complicated, in fact it is not difficult and following

these straightforward guidelines will make sure you have a well-built tank that

will not leak or crack.

Levels are very important

It is important when designing the septic tank that you pay close attention

to levels. The inlet pipe to the tank that carries effluent from your toilet to the

tank need to be 15 cms diameter and a slope of at least 2% (a fall of 2cms per

meter) all the way from the toilet to the tank.

The tank must be built deep enough to allow for this and should be

carefully planned before you start.

The inlet pipe should go straight into the septic tank. Many contractors

want to install small manholes (locally called control boxes) to access the inlet

pipe just before it enters the tank. These manholes are a common cause of

blockages and smells. It is better to have a free flow straight to the tank.
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Inlet, Outlet and Transfer pipes

We now install the pipework. Note the positions of the inlet, outlet and

transfer pipes inside the tank, the inlet pipe is higher than the outlet pipe and the

transfer pipe is a bit lower than both. These relative heights are important.

This tank design has 15cm (4 inch) tee pieces on both the inlet and outlet

pipes and on both ends of the transfer pipe between the chambers, these keep

the pipes clear of the scum that forms on the surface of the effluent as it is

digested by the bacteria. They also help to reduce any turbulence that might

be caused as effluent runs into the tank and from one tank to the other. We

want as gentle a flow as possible through the tank.

The transfer and outlet pipes have vertical extensions on the tee pieces in

the upstream chamber. This is so that liquid entering the pipe is taken from the

central level of the tank below any turbulence and high enough to not get

blocked by deposits at the bottom of the tank.

Finally, an open 7.5cm (3 inch) diameter pipe is installed between the 2

chambers above the water and scum level to relieve any pressure buildup and

allow free flow of gases between the 2 chambers.

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Manholes and Vent Pipe

We can now install the top of the tank, once again a 15cm (4inch) thick

reinforced concrete slab is used. The top has a 2 inch diameter galvanized steel

vent pipe in it. In this design, the pipe is over 2 metres high to allow any gases to

be freely dispersed in the wind. Remember that when operating properly a

septic tank should not smell.

The top also has 2 manholes in it. Normally these will be sealed with grout

to make them gas tight. The manholes are large enough to allow someone to

enter the tank should maintenance be needed and are positioned so that they

allow access to the inlet and outlet pipes to clear blockages.

The manholes also allow access to pump out the tank, a process you may

have to carry out say once every five years. Many tanks are built without

manhole covers but have 15cm (4 inch) diameter pipes in the top to allow the

tank to be pumped out. In these cases it is not possible to get into the tank to

repair or unblock it should the need arise.

Note that the manhole covers are designed to seal with horizontal

surfaces. You will find in some places that contractors may make the manhole

and their covers fit together with a tapered joint. It is very difficult to make

tapered joints that fit properly and so they are difficult to seal. Flat surfaces are

much better. Also make sure the manhole covers have steel handles so they

can be lifted.
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SANITARY DRAINAGE SYTEM DESIGN

Sanitation

Can be defined as the methods for dealing with human wastes such as

feces and urine.

Drainage

In agriculture, the artificial removal of water from land.

Can remove excess water from an area before it enters the soil, and

thus it prevents leaching of nutrients and standing pools of water on the surface

and can permit early spring planting.

System

Is a collection of elements or components that are organized for a

common purpose.

A set of things working together as parts of a mechanism or an

interconnecting network.

Away of managing, controlling, organizing, or doing something that

follows a set of rules or a plan.

A group of related parts that move or work together.

Sanitary drainage system

A system of piping within public or private premises that conveys

sewage or other liquid waste to an approved point of disposal.

Have purpose to remove effluent discharged from plumbing fixtures and

other equipment to an approved point of disposal.

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Aim reduce the impact of urbanization on flooding, protect or enhance

water quality, and serve the needs of the local community in environmentally

friendly ways,

Designs

Designers are directly influenced by many different factors, all of which

affect the designs they produce; these include: the environment, level of

education, age, personal and cultural values, perceptions and even the

emotions experienced during the design phase and the way in which these

emotions, also known as emotional intelligence, are dealt with.

Things to consider when designing a sanitary drainage system:

 Pitch or slope - Drains must be pitched to maintain a velocity of 2 feet per

second or greater. The minimum velocity is designed to keep the solids in

suspension. The minimum pitch is ¼ inch per foot (2 percent) for sizes 1-½-

inch and 2-inch drains, and 1/8 inch per foot (1 percent) for larger drains.

Some codes vary and require ¼ inch per foot for 3-inch and smaller. There is

no maximum pitch in a piping system. The most extreme pitch is vertical. We

call that a stack.

 Branch interval – Is the distance along a soil or waste stack corresponding to

a story height, but not less than 8 feet, within the horizontal branches from

one floor or story of a structure are connected to the stack.

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 Building drain sizing - The “Building Drain” and “Building Sewer” have slightly

different numbers. When sizing, first determine the number of fixture units.

Next, determine the pitch of the pipe. Finally, establish the minimum pipe size.

Environmental impacts

Poorly maintained drainage systems and poor waste management

habits can adversely affect our environment in the following ways:

Water Pollution

Water Born Diseases

Breeding Site of Mosquito

Factors that lead to poor drainage system:

The materials used for the construction

There are materials used for constructing drainage system, if these

materials are not strong and they are used. The drainage cannot last long

because if the materials are already used making them prone to breakage and

collapsion.

Lack of maintenance

This is on both the part of the government and the community. The

government should put personnel’s in place so that the drainage system will be

maintain in case of blockage it can be taken care of by the personnel’s so that

the water can flow very well if this things are put in place by the government it

will help to prevent flooding and other diseases.

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On the part of the community they should not always wait for the government

they should help to dear and clean the drainage always so that the storm water

can flow very well.

Attitude of people that are using the drainage system

This is the character of the people or the way people make used of the

drainage system. You will find out that some people purposely blocked the

drainage system with sand simply because they want to drive into their premises

or because they are constructing a house.

Public health implication of poor drainage system

It causes nervousness, irritability bad temper, mental unrest, behavioral

and personality disorder and mental break down.

It encourages total infestation of vectors and vermin’s which transmit

disease and also cause discomfort.

It promotes the spread of disease such as cholera, typhoid and increases

infant mortality.

NOTE: Drainage construction is an effective mosquito control measures. It is

cheaper than application of insecticides and does not have to be repeated

regularly.
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Principle of constructing drainage system

It is said that the following points must be put into consideration and

application if an effective drainage layout is to be executed.

 Type of soil where drainage is to be constructed.

 Topography or tertian of the community or area.

 Individual residential capacity for constructing the drainage.

 Types of drainage system to be provided in residential buildings, industrial

areas, markets, highly commercialized areas, traffic congested areas,

slum and marshy areas, waste treatment areas.

 Sizes, volume, length and depress of drains to be constructed.

 Government policy and finance.

Remedy to the problem of drainage system

 Greening the area is encouraged.

 Ensure proper connectivity of the drainage system.

 Expansion of width, length and depth of drainage systems.

 Used of quality materials in the construction of drainage facilities.

 An effective drainage design and technical capabilities should be

improved.

 Routine reporting, monitoring and evaluation should be made.

With the recommendations stated above and assurance that

government will do something about poor drainage system in the area; there

definitely will be improvement in the metropolis environment.

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Preventive maintenance program

Will result in improved system performance and help to eliminate the

number of sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs) which cause sewer backups and

basement flooding claims.

The elements of a preventive maintenance program:

A MAP OF THE SYSTEM

INSPECTIONS

MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE

The Importance of Sanitary and Plumbing Systems in Home Design:

 Safe, Clean Water Delivery

 Eradicating Waterborne Disease

 Improves Water Use Efficiency

 Promote Water Conversation

 Promotes Energy Saving

 Installation Essential Appliances

 Adds Comfort in the Houses

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SEPTIC TANKS

 All drains in the home converge to a single pipe that leads to the septic

tank buried outside.

 When the waste water from your toilet, shower, sinks and washing

machine leave your house, it's combined. When it hits the septic tank,

however, it begins to separate.

 The heaviest particulate matter in the waste, called sludge, sinks to the

bottom. At the top of the tank, fats, oils and proteins form the floating

scum layer. In the middle is the comparatively clear liquid layer called

effluent or gray water. Combined, these components are called septage.

 Septic systems are designed so that only the effluent is discharged from

the tank into the drain field (also called the leach field). This is simply a set

of pipes with holes drilled into them that release the effluent below

ground (but above the water table).

Signs that your Septic Tank is Full

1. Bad Odor 4. Pooling Water

2. Slow Drains 5. Sewage Backup

3. Trouble Flushing
 110

STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM DESIGN

Storm Drainage System Design

A municipal storm drainage system is designed to drain and collect

excess surface water and rainwater runoff from parking lots, streets, roads,

sidewalks, and roofs into storm grates (catch basins) and natural channels.

Many storm drains are gravity sewer systems that collect and transport

untreated storm water into streams or rivers, which is why it’s essential not to

dispose of waste materials in storm collection points.

Storm Drainage System Design

Rain Gutter - an open pipe,

usually at the lower edge of a roof,

that collects and carries away rain. A

gutter directs the flow of rainwater

away from the house, often into a

drain or rain barrel.

Downspout - The purpose of a

downspout is to allow water from a

gutter to reach the ground without

dripping or splashing down the

building structure.
 111

I. Inlets

Inlets collect excess stormwater from the street, transition the flow into

storm drains and can provide maintenance access to the storm drain system.

There are three major types of inlets: grate, curb opening and combination.

1. An inlet grate must act as a strainer and

prevent harmful debris from entering

sewer lines. Objects such as branches,

large sheets of semi rigid material, sticks,

chunks of wood, etc.

2. Curb opening inlet- Is one of the major

types of inlets used in highway and city

drainage systems. It has the advantage

of being clogged with debris, and has

particularly good performance at

locations where the longitudinal grade

is relatively flat.

3. Combination- it is the most effective of all the street-type inlets, it require

the same input data as both Curb and Grate Inlets

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4. Slotted Drain Inlet- Is a continuous opening inlet that efficiently removes

surface water on streets and highway. It is widely used in parking lots and

other similar locations.

II. Catch Basin

Catch basins or storm drain is a curbside drain with the sole function of

collecting rainwater from our properties and streets and transporting it to local

waterways through a system of underground piping culvers, and/or drainage

ditches. Storm drains can also be found in parking lots and serve the same

purpose.

III. Storm sewer pipe

The storm sewer is a system designed to carry rainfall runoff and other

drainage. It is not designed to carry sewage or accept hazardous wastes. The

runoff is carried in underground pipes or open ditches and discharges untreated

into local streams, rivers and other surface water bodies. Storm drain inlets are

typically found in curbs and low-lying outdoor areas. Some older buildings have

basement floor drains that connect to the storm sewer system.

Types of pipes used in storm drainage:

1. Iron pipes- have been used for water and sewage supply lines for

decades. However, iron pipes are more suitable for drinking water than

wastewater. They feature extreme durability and long useful life with

proper maintenance, but can be costly and difficult to install, and can be

prone to corrosion.
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2. Steel pipes- are another popular choice for drainage. Steel generally has

similar pros and cons to iron, although it is less prone to acidic corrosion.

Additionally, steel pipes tend to cost more than iron pipes due to the

presence of different metals in the alloy.

3. Plastic pipes- include PVC and HDPE options, both of which have

become extremely popular in drainage applications in recent years

thanks to their resistance to collapse and chemical corrosion, flexibility,

and durability. While PVC pipes are low cost and quite easy to install,

HDPE is generally the better choice for high-pressure systems.

4. Concrete pipes- are a highly popular drainage pipe choice that can last

for decades if properly installed. While they are prone to acidic chemicals

or soil degradation, they can work at high operating pressures and aren’t

as prone to root and soil intrusion as some other types. Proper installation is

key to having long-lasting concrete pipes.

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MASTER PLUMBER’S CODE OF ETHICS

A registered master plumber shall maintain a professional bearing consistent

with an honorable and dignified pursuit of his/her profession, adhering to a set of

conduct becoming of his/her calling, and shall not:

1. UNPROFESSIONAL

Act in an unprofessional manner and demand any renumeration

other than his/her original charges except for additional services not

covered in the basic contract;

2. SUPPLANT

Supplant another Registered Master Plumber after definite steps

have already been taken toward his/her being commissioned to perform

the contract;

3. UNDERBID

Underbid another Registered Master Plumber by reducing his/her

professional fees after being informed of the fees charged by the other

Registered Master Plumber;

4. GOVERNMENT POSITION

Take the advantage of a salaried government position to compete

unfairly with a practicing Registered Master Plumber;

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5. ALLOW LICENSE

Allow the use of his/her License as Registered Master Plumber for a

fee to an unlicensed Master Plumber in plumbing works without his/her

personal supervision.

6. INJURE REPUTATION

Injure falsely or maliciously, directly or indirectly, the reputation of

another Registered Master Plumber by reviewing his/her work for the same

client unless the professional services of the former have been officially

terminated and all professional fees have been dully paid by the client;

7. SELF LAUDATORY

Advertise in self-laudatory language, act in any manner and

engage in any practice which tend to bring dishonor to the dignity of the

Registered Master Plumber, the National Master Plumbers Association of

the Philippines (NAMPAP) and the plumbing profession.

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FIRE IN BUILDINGS

History of Fire-fighting

In 24 B.C.E., the Roman emperor Augustus is credited with establishing

a corps of fire-fighting vigilies (watchmen) and developing regulations

for detecting and preventing fires. Most cities in this era had watchmen

who sounded an alarm when they saw signs of fire.

The history of the firefighter can be traced back to the 3rd century in

ancient Rome, when Augustus was in power. Prior to that, there is evidence of

fire fighting in use in Ancient Egypt. In AD 60 Emperor Nero formed a group

of firefighters called the Vigiles to combat fires. The Vigiles were a fire-fighting

force that also served as a police force in Rome's streets. As you can see there

is a picture of bucket, which was passed from hand to hand to deliver water to

the fire in ancient Rome and early modern times, it was the most important

piece of firefighting equipment. Another important firefighting tool was the ax

or the pulaski, which was used to remove fuel and prevent the spread of fire, as

well as to cut openings in a burning building to allow heat and smoke to

escape.

Following the Great Fire of London in 1666, insurance companies formed

fire brigades. The government was not involved until 1865, when these

brigades became London’s Metropolitan Fire Brigade. The first modern

standards for the operation of a fire department were not established until 1830,
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in Edinburgh, Scotland. These standards explained, for the first time, what was

expected of a good fire department.

The Great Fire of London was a major fire that swept through central

London from Sunday, September 2 to Thursday, September 6, 1666. The

medieval City of London, which was located within the old Roman city walls,

was completely destroyed by fire.

After a major fire in Boston in 1631, the first fire regulation in America

was established. In 1648 in New Amsterdam (now New York) fire wardens

were appointed, thereby establishing the beginnings of the first public fire

department in North America. Up until a hundred years ago, church bells were

the only means to alarm citizens of a fire.

After the church bells rang, the bucket brigade was the most common

method of putting out fires: a line of volunteers passing buckets and using water.

To put out a fire, water from private wells is used.

Modern fire departments are a fairly recent phenomenon,

developing over the past two centuries. Their personnel are either volunteer

(non-salaried) or career (salaried). Typically, volunteer fire-fighters are found

mainly in smaller community, career fire-fighters in cities. The modern fire

department with salaried personnel and standardized equipment became an

integral part of municipal administration only in late 1800s.

Volunteer firefighters are typically found in smaller communities, while

career firefighters are found in larger cities.

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Noteworthy Building Fire Catastrophes

Several noteworthy fire-related catastrophes have led to

sweeping changes in building codes and revised techniques used to prevent

and fight fires in buildings. These events include the following catastrophes.

Iroquois Theatre Fire

On December 30th, 1903, fire broke out at the Iroquois Theatre, Chicago,

Illinois, when an arc light ignited a velvet curtain. At the time of the fire,

approximately 1900 people filled the theatre to standing room only capacity.

The fire resulted in over 600 deaths and was the deadliest blaze in Chicago

history. The fire rapidly erupted into an uncontrolled blaze. Many occupants, still

in their seats, died of smoke inhalation.

A public inquiry revealed that most injuries occurred within 15 minutes

of the start of the fire, which was put out by the fire department within a half

hour. A large fraction of the injuries were caused by being crushed.

The Iroquois Theatre fire was the deadliest theatre fire in American history,

as well as the deadliest single-building fire. Some of the doors were shut.

Other gates were unlocked but latched, requiring the use of a latch that most

theatre patrons were unfamiliar with. Some of the gates opened inwards. The

fire code was changed as a result of these investigations, requiring theatre

doors to open outward and fire exits to be clearly marked. Employees at

theatres were also required to practice fire drills.

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Triangle Shirtwaist Company Fire

On March 25, 1911, a fire broke out at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company

factory on the eighth, ninth, and tenth floors of the Asch Building in the lower

Manhattan garment district of New York City. Although the fire lasted less than

30 minutes, 146 of the 500 employees at the factory were killed.

The factory workers, mostly young female immigrants from Europe

who worked long hours for low wages, died because of inadequate

safety precautions and lack of fire escapes. To keep the employees working

at their sewing machines, doors leading to the exits were locked once the

workday began. When the fire rapidly engulfed the factory, panicked workers

rushed to the stairs, the freight elevator, and the fire escape.

Almost all of the workers on the eighth and tenth floors were able to

escape.

The majority of the workers on the ninth floor died as a result of their

inability to force open the locked exit door. Many workers were killed when

the rear fire escape collapsed, obliterating an escape route for those still

trapped. Several employees attempted to slide down elevator cables but

were unsuccessful. Observers of the fire saw many workers leaping from the

ninth-floor windows in a panic. Others died as a result of being burned alive.

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Coconut Grove Nightclub Fire

A fire struck the Coconut Grove nightclub in Boston, Massachusetts, on

November 28, 1942. On the night of the fire, the night club had approximately

1000 occupants, many of whom were military personnel preparing to go

overseas for World War II.

Almost half (492) of the occupants were killed, and many more were

seriously injured, in less than 10 min.

Combustible contents such as satin drapes, plastic upholstery, and

paper decorations spread thick smoke and fire rapidly. One exit door,

equipped with panic hardware, was chained shut. The two revolving doors at

the main entrance had bodies stacked up to five deep after the fire was

brought under control. Authorities estimated that possibly 300 of those killed

could have been saved had the doors swung outward. The “safe” capacity of

the structure had also been exceeded.

The Coconut Grove fire sparked a surge in efforts to prevent and control

fires in nightclubs and other similar gathering places. In places of assembly,

immediate steps were taken to provide emergency lighting and occupant

capacity limitations. As a result of the panic caused by the fire, exit lights were

also made mandatory.

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World Trade Center Attack

A terrorist attack catastrophically destroyed the twin towers of World

Trade Center in New York City. The two towers were unable to endure the

effects of a direct hit by two hijacked commercial jetliners on the morning of

September 11, 2001. Shortly after the attack, both towers collapsed, killing

nearly 3000 people.

Despite the fact that the towers were designed to withstand being hit by

an airplane, the explosions and fires that followed weakened the structure of

the building, collapsing the upper floors and putting too much strain on the

lower floors.

Once one story collapsed, all floors above began to fall. The huge mass

of falling upper structure gained momentum, crushing the structurally intact

floors below and resulting in catastrophic failure of the entire structure.

Building codes, fire prevention, evacuation plans, and firefighting tactics

in skyscrapers will undoubtedly be affected by this tragedy in the long run. As

a result, all high-rise commercial and residential buildings now have more

stringent emergency evacuation procedures and improved safety regulations.

The Station Nightclub Fire

On February 20, 2003, a one-story nightclub called The Station, in West

Warwick, Rhode Island, was engulfed in flames within 3 min after an on-stage
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pyrotechnics display spread to highly combustible soundproofing foam. This

led to 100 fire related deaths and 180 injuries in a few minutes. Fire officials

had inspected the nightclub two months prior to the tragedy, as part of a

reapplication for a liquor license. After the fire, they reported that no permit

had been granted to use the pyrotechnics. Although fire officials reported

that the club was below its occupancy limit of 300, films of the event show that

the club was crowded at the time of the fire. Eyewitnesses claimed that

patrons were late in reacting to the fire because they believed the flames

spreading along the walls of the stage were part of the pyrotechnics display.

Panic ensued when thick black smoke began spreading across the ceiling.

Many of the deaths were determined to be the result of occupants

becoming trapped at crowded exits, despite the fact that some were the

result of burns and smoke inhalation. A sprinkler system, according to

computer simulations conducted for a National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) investigation, would have contained the fire long enough

to allow the occupants to safely exit the building. Because of its age and small

size, the structure did not require an automatic fire sprinkler system. The lack

of automatic sprinkler protection and the use of highly combustible sound

deadening foam were both raised as concerns following the fire. The

rapid spread of fire in this incident supports the need for automatic sprinkler

systems in small commercial and residential buildings.

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FIRE

Fire is a combustion reaction that requires oxygen (air), heat, and a

fuel. Typically, a spark or flame ignites the fire, beginning the combustion

reaction. In order for combustion to continue, there must be sufficient heat

given off by the reaction and a proper blend of oxygen and fuel. The rate at

which a fire burns is dependent on the composition of the fuel, the surface area

of the fuel, the rate at which fuel absorbs heat, and the amount of oxygen that

is present.

We all know that in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, fire

is the rapid oxidation of a material, releasing heat, light, and various

reaction products.

A fuel must be in a gaseous state for combustion to occur. Heat

from ignition and later heat generated by the flames of the fire cause solid and

liquid fuel to decompose into volatile gases. These volatile gases enter the

flame, mix with oxygen in the surrounding air, ignite, burn to create heat,

causing more fuel to decompose and make additional gas that enters the

flame.

Different fuels ignite at different temperatures.

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This chain reaction will continue as long as the right combination of

oxygen (air), heat, and fuel is present. Combustible gases (such as natural gas,

propane, and other similar gases) mix easily with air and will burn continuously

as long as the proper air–gas mixture is present.

Piloted Ignition Temperature

The piloted ignition temperature of a fuel is the temperature at which

a fire can start when a flame or spark begins the combustion reaction. The fuel

is hot enough that it releases sufficient flammable gases for combustion to

occur but a catalyst is needed to begin ignition. A large mass requires a greater

rate of heating to reach the piloted ignition temperature than a small mass.

In short, the piloted ignition is a contact of a gaseous material with an

external high-energy source, such as a flame, spark, electrical arc, or glowing

wire, causes combustion to start accidentally.

AUTOIGNITION FIRE

The autoignition temperature, sometimes called the spontaneous

ignition temperature, is the lowest temperature at which a combustible material

ignites in air without a spark or flame. Some materials do not ignite

spontaneously because they break down into other substances at high

temperatures and never achieve a spontaneous ignition temperature.

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Spontaneous combustion often occurs in piles of oily rags, green hay, dust,

leaves, or coal; it can constitute a serious fire hazard.

The autoignition temperature, also known as the kindling point, is the

lowest temperature at which a substance spontaneously ignites in a

normal atmosphere without the use of an external source of ignition such as a

flame or spark. This temperature is needed to provide the activation energy

required for combustion to take place.

An uncontrolled fire can engulf an enclosed building space very

rapidly. A wastepaper basket full of combustible paper can turn into an

uncontrolled blaze in less than a minute.

PROGRESSION OF FIRE

There are four stages in the progression of a fire: ignition, flame

spread, flashover, and consumption.

 Ignition - Ignition requires the proper blend of oxygen (air), heat, and fuel.

 Flame spread - which is characteristic of rapid crawling tongues of fire

that lick across the surface of walls, ceilings, floors and supporting

timbers. The speed and intensity of flame spread are determined by the

material's nature and combustibility.

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 Flashover - As the fire intensifies, the heated material releases large volumes

of volatile gases into the air. When the mixture of gases and air reach

critical proportions, the material ignites in a great ball of fire called the

flashover stage. Flashover depletes the surrounding oxygen and can raise

the temperature of the premise to over 1500°F (816°C). The fire may reach

explosive proportions during the flashover stage.

 Consumption - The final stage in the burning sequence is the

fiery consumption of the material itself as it burns to ash. The rate of

destruction depends on the amount of oxygen-rich air reaching the burning

area and the combustibility of the fully ignited material.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES

 Group A- The fuel source for these types of fires is commonly

flammable material. The fuel source for these types of fires is commonly

flammable material. Class A fires are commonly caused by wood, fabric,

paper, trash, and plastics. This is the most common type of unintentional fire

that occurs in a variety of industries.

 Group B - Any liquid with an automatic ignition point or flash point below

38 °C or 100 °F is considered flammable. A flammable liquid is a combustible

liquid that can easily ignite in air at ambient temperatures and has a flash
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point below or equal to nominal threshold temperatures set by various

national and international standards organizations. Grease, oil, paint and

solvent are example of flammable liquid.

 Group C - Any machine that is powered by electricity is considered

electrical equipment. Any electrical equipment that is electrically live is

referred to as "live equipment”. Such as Electrical Panel, motor, wiring, etc.

 Group D - A combustible metal is any metal made up of distinct particles

or pieces that will burn, regardless of shape, size, or chemical composition.

A combustible metal is any metal made up of distinct particles or pieces

that will burn, regardless of shape, size, or chemical composition. Such as

magnesium and aluminium.

EXTINGUISHING A FIRE

Building fires typically begin with the ignition of building contents

(a smoldering cigarette sets fire to upholstered chair (or mattress). Fire will

spread throughout concealed spaces and cavities in walls, floors, crawl space,

and attic, and eventually to the outside of the building.

The fire will spread throughout the structure if it is not put out quickly (while

it is still in the content phase).

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Once ignited, fires become self-sustaining as the increase in

temperature heats the fuel above its flash point. Fires must be extinguished by

eliminating at least one of the constituents in the chemical reaction: fuel,

oxygen, or heat energy. Taking away the fuel, cutting the oxygen supply, and

lowering the temperature of the burning mass and surroundings are effective

methods.

A building fire is more difficult to put out than a content fire. In addition

to extinguishing the original content fire, the spreading flames that are

sometimes hidden must be located and disrupted. To do so effectively, the

firefighter must understand the various ways in which fire can spread

throughout a structure.

Performance of Materials in a Fire

Building materials exposed to the high temperatures in a fire can

fail rapidly. Structural collapse from high temperature is a real safety concern

in buildings, as evidenced by the collapse of the World Trade Center towers

after the terrorist attacks and resulting fires on September of 11, 2001.

The materials most commonly used in building structure assemblies

are steel, wood, brick, and concrete. Their performance in a fire varies

significantly:
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Steel - is a non-combustible material, yet it displays a significant loss in strength

at high temperatures. Structural steel loses about half of its strength at

a temperature of about 950°F (510°C).

As a result, structural steel is usually protected from fire by a fire-

resistant insulating layer. Steel's temperature rise in a fire is limited by a fire-

resistant material, which prevents it from losing strength. Steel can be

protected from fire by using light materials like gypsum plaster and wallboard.

Wood - is a good insulator, but when it is exposed to fire at temperatures as

low as 300°F (150°C), it will burn until it is destroyed. In a fire, wood loses

strength by charring. The reduction in effective cross-sectional area is

dependent on the number of faces exposed to the fire. In a fire, the depth of

surface charring of the wood surface is fairly consistent over time.

Brick - and other fired clay products are vitrified in a kiln (oven) at

high temperatures during their manufacture. As a result, fired clay masonry

units are relatively stable in a fire endurance test. Brick also displays

reasonably good thermal performance. The amount of solid material in the

wall thickness is one of the most important factors in the fire resistance of

hollow brick masonry. Stresses caused by unevenly distributed thermal

expansion are present in hollow clay masonry units with thin face shells and
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webs. Hollow clay tiles have been observed to have a tendency to spall and

shatter.

Concrete - which is similar to brick in thermal performance, loses

strength gradually during exposure to high temperatures. It retains about half

its original strength at 950°F (510°C) and one-third of its original strength at

about 1300°F (700°C). Because of deterioration of the cement binder and, in

some cases, degradation of the aggregate, this loss of strength is irreversible.

When evaluating the fire resistance of reinforced concrete, two factors must

be considered. The first is the thickness of concrete required to keep

the temperature rise on the unexposed surface below 250°F for the desired

period; the second is the cover required to keep the temperature of the

reinforced steel below the temperature at which it loses its effective strength.

Additionally, grout, a cementitious material that increases the

apparent thickness of the concrete and makes it perform like a thick

concrete member, is frequently used to fill concrete masonry units (CMU) cells.

In most materials, a fire assembly made up of small members is more

vulnerable than a fire assembly made up of large members.

Building Construction Types

There are five fundamental categories of building construction in

the United States known as types of building construction, as summarized in

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Table 21.1. Each type of building construction has fire-resistive strengths

and weaknesses—that is, some type burn much more readily than others. The

five building construction types are arranged in the form of a scale based on

the amount of combustible material used in their construction. For example, a

Type I fire-resistive building has the least amount of combustible material in its

structure, whereas a Type V wood-frame building has the most combustibles in

it.

The following are chronic problems that allow fire to develop in each one

of the five basic types of building construction.

1. Fire-Resistive (Type I) Construction

2. Non-combustible (Type II) Construction

3. Ordinary (Type III) Construction

4. Heavy-Timber (Type IV) Construction

5. Wood-Frame (Type V) Construction

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TABLE 21.1 TYPES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION THAT SERVE AS THE

FUNDAMENTAL CATEGORIES

OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES

TYPE CATEGORY COMBUSTIBILITY DESCRIPTION OF STRUCTURE

NAME

I Fire-Resistive Least Non-combustible wall, ceiling, and floor

assemblies; concrete, masonry, and protected

combustible
steel walls, floors, and structural framework. Roof

covering is non-combustible.

II Non- Non-combustible steel or concrete walls,

floors, and structural

combustible
framework. Roof covering

is combustible.

III Ordinary Non-combustible masonry-bearing walls, but

the floors, structural framework, and roof can

be made of wood or another

combustible material.

IV Heavy- Structure consists of large solid wood

timbers.
timber
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V Wood-frame Most Interior framing and exterior walls are

constructed of slender
combustible
repetitive wood studs, joists, rafters, and

trusses that burn very rapidly.

Fire-Resistive (Type I) Construction

Fire-resistive (Type I) construction, with its concrete and protected

steel walls, floors, and structural framework, was initially intended to confine a

fire by its method of construction—that is, by containing the fire with non-

combustible wall, ceiling, and floor assemblies so it is confined to one floor or

one space on a floor. However, fire does spread several floors in a modem fire-

resistive building through two paths: through duct-work in the central heating,

ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) system and by flames extending

vertically from window to window.

A system of HVAC ducts has the potential to spread fire and smoke

throughout a fire-resistant structure. A central HVAC system's air ducts deliver air

to interior spaces through walls, floors, partitions, and ceilings. They are able to

pass through fire barriers and separations.

Fire or hot gases in a room near a fresh air intake or return air duct will

be sucked into the duct system and be blown throughout the structure if the

system continues to operate. Fire can spread to other areas of the building.

Deadly smoke can also be distributed throughout the building. Therefore, the
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first action taken in a burning fire-resistive building should be to shut down the

HVAC air system.

Noncombustible (Type II) Construction

Non-combustible (Type II) construction is also built of non-

combustible steel or concrete walls, floors, and structural framework; however,

the roof covering is combustible, which can burn and spread fire. The roof

covering of a Type II building can be constructed of a combustible built-up roof

covering, a layered asphalt and felt paper covering, or an Ethylene Propylene

Diene Monomer (EPDM) or polyvinylchloride (PVC) thermoplastic

membrane. Combustible foams may be used as thermal insulation.

When a fire breaks out inside a Type II structure, flames can rise to the

steel roof deck's underside, conduct heat through the metal, and ignite the

combustible roof covering. The asphalt, felt paper, and foam insulation on the

roof may burn and spread fire.

Ordinary (Type III) Construction

Ordinary (Type III) construction is built of non-combustible

masonry bearing walls, but the floors, structural framework, and roof can be

made of wood or another combustible material. The major recurring fire spread

problem with Type III construction is concealed spaces and penetration. These

small voids, cavities, and openings through which smoke and fire can spread
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are found behind the partition walls, floors, and ceilings. Wood studs, floor joists,

and suspended ceilings create concealed spaces. Fire spreads inside

concealed spaces of a Type III building by convection, the transfer of heat by

motion of a liquid or gas. Heated fire gases and flames in a concealed space

can travel upwards several floors and break out in an attic space, engulfing the

entire building envelope.

Penetrations are caused by small utility openings. Fire can spread into

hidden spaces through these small openings around pipes and wires. Through

hidden spaces, flames can spread vertically several stories or horizontally to

adjoining occupancies.

Heavy-Timber (Type IV) Construction

Heavy-timber (Type IV) construction is built of a structure that consists

of large timbers. In this type of construction, a wood column cannot be less

than 8 in thick in any dimension and a wood beam cannot be less than 6 in

thick. The floor and roof decking can be thick wood planks. Exposed timber

beams, columns, and decks, if ignited in a fire, create large radiated heat

waves after the windows break during a blaze. A fully involved type IV building

requires large water supply sources to protect nearby buildings.

If a fire in a heavy-timber building is not extinguished by the initial

firefighting effort, a massive fire with flames shooting out the windows will spread

fire to adjacent buildings via radiated heat.

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Wood-Frame (Type V) Construction

Wood-frame (Type V) construction is the most combustible of the

five types of building construction. A wood-frame building is the only one of the

five types of construction that has combustible exterior walls. Flames can

spread out a window and then along the outside wood walls in addition to the

interior fire spread.

Slender repetitive wood studs, joists, rafters, and trusses are commonly

used for interior framing and exterior walls, and they burn quickly. Because a

Type 5 building is quickly engulfed in flames, it is only suitable for small structures

with few occupants.

Fire Damage in Buildings

Although heat alone can prove deadly to occupants, toxic gases

in smoke cause the majority of deaths and injuries. About half of all fatalities

from fires are from carbon monoxide poisoning, and more than a third are

from cardiopulmonary complications.

Fire is one of the greatest fears of any homeowner, business owner,

or director of an institution.

Despite the fact that the prime concern is always the loss of life in a

fire, more than half of all businesses never reopen after a fire.
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The United States has the sixth highest fire death rate among

all industrialized countries. According to the National Fire Protection

Association (NFPA), 75 to 80% of all deaths by fire happen in dwellings.

Automatic sprinkler systems in homes reduce the chances of dying in

a fire by more than half. When used in conjunction with smoke alarms,

they reduce the risk of dying in a fire by more than 80% compared to

having neither. Sprinklers also reduce property loss in a fire by one-third.

PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION

Passive protection refers to fire resistance measures. These systems are all

about preventing the spread of flame and resisting ignition in the first place. This

resistance is generally structural and designed to compartmentalize your

building and isolate a flame. Passive fire protection is valuable both for the

safety of building occupants and for the minimizing of building damage.

Through effective compartmentalization, you can maintain the structural

integrity of your building and ensure the safe evacuation of your team

members.
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FIRE-RESISTIVE CONSTRUCTION

A principle objective of fire-resistive construction is to use materials and

construction assemblies that contain the fire in a small area and confine the fire

in the room or area for a specific period of time.

FACTORS THAT PLAY A GREAT ROLE IN REDUCING THE FIRE RISK IN A BUILDING:

 COMPARTMENTALIZING – this requires fire separation barriers on floors,

walls, and ceilings for each zones of the building that serves as fire

compartment.

 FIRE WALL – They serve as the means of dividing a large structures into

compartments. Typically, a firewall must extend from the foundation and

 intersects a noncombustible roof surface or extend beyond the roof by a

specified vertical distance, usually 32 inches.

 FIRE SEPERATION – used to divide different occupancies in a building (e.g

garage from a residence) or enclose exit corridors and stairs.

 FIRE STOPS – needed to compartmentalize a fire.

In this type of construction the structural elements consist of non-

combustible materials, usually steel or concrete, that afford a fire-resistance

rating that provides a given fire protection performance endurance against the

effects of fire.
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FIRE PROTECTIVE MATERIALS

General Requirements of Fire Resistant Construction Materials

 It should be able to resist fire for such duration that occupants can

safely vacant the building

 It should not lose its strength considerably

 It should have a low coefficient of thermal expansion, i.e. it should

not expand when subjected to heat, preventing the generation of

additional stresses in the building

 Its thermal conductivity should also be less

 It is preferable if it has self-insulation properties.

Example:

 GYMPSUM WALL-BOARD

In a fire, large amount of energy is released to evaporate water in the

gypsum material, giving it excellent fire-protective qualities.

 INTUMESCENT MATERIALS

These intumescent coatings expand approximately 15 to 30 times their

volume when exposed to high temperatures in a fire, and thus provide a good

fire protective barrier.

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FIRE DOORS AND WINDOWS

Fire doors are typically made of steel or solid wood, and they are outfitted

with specially tested components such as closers, latching hardware, and fire-

rated glass lites (windows). Every component of the door and frame assembly

must contribute to the required level of performance.

Intumescent seals are fitted to the edge of the door leaf or in the frame

reveal and expand in a fire to seal the gap between the edge of the leap and

the frame preventing the passage of smoke and flame.

Fire doors allow time for people to leave the building via an escape route

if other routes are impacted by the effects of fire.

Fire-resistant glass can be classified in two categories: insulating and

transmitting glass. Fire-resistant heat-transmitting glass contains flames and

inflammable gas for a short period but does not prevent the transmission of heat

to the other side of the glazing Fire-resistant insulating glass contains flames and

inflammable gas for a longer period of time and prevents not only the

transmission of flames and smoke but also of heat to the other side of glazing.

FIRE AND SMOKE DAMPERS

Another common way for fire to spread from one compartment to

another is through the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)

ductwork.
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Fire Dampers

Automatically close to obstruct smoke and fire from a building blaze. Fire

dampers are installed in the plane of the firewall to protect these openings.

Upon detection of heat, the fusible link melts, closing the fire damper blades

and blocking the flame from penetrating the partition into the adjoining

compartment.

Smoke Dampers

Close upon detection of smoke, preventing the circulation of air and

smoke through a duct or a ventilation opening. They can be part of an

engineered smoke control system designed to control smoke migration using

walls and floors as barriers to create pressure differences. They are controlled by

a smoke or heat detector signal that is part of a fire alarm control system.

FIRE AND SMOKE RATINGS

Several fire and smoke ratings are used to classify the behavior and

performance in a fire.

Fire-Resistance Ratings

A fire-resistance rating, expressed in hours or minutes, is a measure of fire

endurance. It is assigned to building assemblies (walls, columns, girders, beams,

and composite assemblies for ceilings, floors, and roofs) based on results from
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laboratory testing that determine their ability to withstand the effects of a fire for

a period of time.

The amount of time it takes for material or assembly continues to be fire

resistant under specified conditions.

Flame-Spread Ratings

Another common measure used to evaluate the performance of material

in a fire is its flame spread. The flame-spread rating (FSR) describes the surface-

burning characteristics of a building material. The most widely accepted flame-

spread classification system is specified in the NFPA Life Safety Code, NFPA No.

101. The NFPA Life Safety Code primarily applies this FSR classification to interior

wall and ceiling finish material.

The FSR is expressed as a number on a continuous scale where inorganic

reinforced cement board is 0 and red oak is 100. The scale is divided into three

classes. The NFPA Life Safety Code groups the following classes in accordance

with their flame-spread and smoke development based on Classes A, B, and C.

Some older model building codes refer to the three categories as Class I, II, and

III, respectively.

Class A-B-C Roof Coverings

Roof coverings must meet a different set of test criteria. The roof-covering

classification test does not produce a flame-spread rating. Instead, it is a pass-

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fail test under which a product either passes the criteria as a Class A, B, or C

roof-covering system or it does not. The highest classification for a roof covering

is Class A and Class C is the lowest. Note that a Class C roof system is considered

fire-resistant while an FSR Class C (or III) building material is not. Non-classified

roof systems have no fire rating.

Smoke Developed Rating

The smoke-developed rating is a single-number classification of a building

material as determined by an ASTM E 84 test of its surface-burning

characteristics. It is expressed as a ratio of the smoke emitted by a burning

material to the smoke emitted by the red oak standard material.

INFLUENCE OF BUILDING DESIGN

An automatic fire sprinkler system and/or smoke control installation

influences the mainly allowable size and configuration of a building because it

extends the distance an occupant can travel when exiting the building.

Whereas; The maximum distance of travel from any point to an exterior exit door,

horizontal exit, exit passageway, or an enclosed stairway in a facility, building, or

structure not equipped with an automatic fire sprinkler system should not

exceed 150 ft. This distance is extended 200 ft in a facility, building, or structure

equipped with an automatic fire sprinkler system installation throughout. In a

single-story factory, warehouse, or airplane hangar (shelter, shed especially : a

covered and usually enclosed area for housing and repairing aircraft), the exit
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travel distance may typically be increased to 400 ft if the building is equipped

with an automatic fire sprinkler system installation throughout and provided with

an approved smoke control installation. In an open parking garage, the exit

travel distance may be increased to 250 ft with these installations.

Considering an automatic system like this on a building design means that

you can reduce other fire protection measures such as:

Fire restraint construction

Compartmentation

Fire resistance of external facades and glazed elements. To prevent fire

spread between buildings, a portion of the building’s facade should be fire-

resistant. Fire resistance is the property of a material (such as insulation) or

assembly to withstand fire and continue to perform its given function and/or

provide containment of a fire for a specified period of time. An example of a

fire-resistant material is one which is used in bunker gear worn by firefighters to

protect them from the flames of a burning building.

Fire-fighting access and facilities (buildings should be designed so that

fire-fighting personnel have access without delay & with a sufficient operating

base to allow effective action to be taken.

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Automatic Sprinkler Systems in Residences

Over 80% of fire deaths occur in the houses. Residential fire sprinklers can

save lives and property from fire. They respond quickly and effectively to fire,

often extinguishing the fire before the fire department arrives.

Automatic sprinkler systems installed in single-family residences are

simplified versions of the systems or usually a variation of the wet-pipe system.

The wet pipe systems are the most common fire sprinkler system. A wet pipe

system is one in which water is constantly maintained within the sprinkler piping.

When a sprinkler activates this water is immediately discharged onto the fire.

Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe is a thermoplastic that is produced

by chlorination of PVC resin and can withstand higher temperatures. CPVC pipe

is used in hot and cold water pipes, industrial liquid handling. It is being installed

as part of a sprinkler system for a dwelling unit in a high rise condominium

building. Specially designed sprinkler heads spray water on the walls as well as

the floor. They are sensitive to both smoldering and rapidly developing fires. Most

codes related to systems in residences require automatic sprinklers in all

habitable rooms, including the kitchen but excluding small bathrooms and

closets. Garages, underfloor crawl spaces, and attic spaces must also be

sprinklered. A residential sprinkler system typically uses a 1⁄2 in (12.7 mm) orifice,

standard sprinkler, with a maximum of 256 ft2 (23.8 m2) coverage, and a 25 gpm

(94.6 L/m) flow rate. If the system is not supplied by an adequate public water
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source, a installed as sprinkler pipe. It will be serving a dwelling unit in a high-rise

condominium building. (Used with permission of ABC) 250 gal (946.3 L) stored

water supply is required to provide a 10 min water supply. Sprinklers are required

in living rooms, bedrooms, or kitchen areas, but not required in bathrooms that is

40 ft2 (3.7 m2) or less, small closets, 24 ft2 (2.2 m2) or less, attics not used as a

living space, porches, carports, garages, and foyers. It is an entrance hall or

other open area in a building used by the public, especially a hotel or theater. A

multipurpose residential fire sprinkler system combines the domestic potable

cold water system with the residential fire sprinkler system. It uses the cold water

piping to serve as a supply for both the domestic fixtures (i.e. sinks, showers, and

so on) and the fire sprinklers. Given the likelihood for a reduced amount of pipe

and fittings, there is a potential for reduced system cost. Piping products

commonly accepted for use in these systems match those used in standard

plumbing systems, including copper, CPVC, and cross-linked polyethylene (PEX).

A minimum 3⁄4-in water meter will be required to ensure adequate flow. The two

most remote sprinklers in the structure must be designed to operate

simultaneously, which usually adds a flow requirement of 16 to 20 gal/min (65 to

75 L/min). Because multipurpose systems are potable water systems, they

eliminate the need for cross-connection control—that is, back-flow prevention is

not required.
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Portable Fire Extinguishers

Portable fire extinguishers generally provided as "first attack" units in fire-

fighting and should be used only in early stages of fire before the fire grows to a

stage that is beyond the capacity of the extinguisher. They are classified

according to their ability to handle specific classes and sizes of fires. Not all fuels

are the same, and if a fire extinguisher is used on the wrong type of fuel, it can

make matters worse. Labels on extinguishers indicate the class and relative size

of fire that they can be expected to handle.

Types of Portable Fire Extinguishers

These the five classifications of extinguishers.

Class A Extinguishers

Class A extinguishers the most common and identified by a green triangle

containing the letter A. It is suitable for use on fires in ordinary combustibles such

as wood, paper, rubber, trash, and many plastics, where a quenching-cooling

effect is required. The numeral indicates the relative fire extinguishing

effectiveness of each unit. They are rated from 1-A through 40-A. A 1-A fire

requires 11⁄4 gal (5 L) of water to extinguish. A 2-A fire needs 21⁄2 gal of water (10

L) or twice that of the 1-A fire and so on. Extinguishers rated for Class A hazards

are water, foam, and multipurpose dry chemical types.

Class B Extinguishers
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Class B extinguishers are identified by a red square containing the letter B.

It is suitable for use on fires in flammable liquids such as oils, solvents, paints,

gases, and greases, where an oxygen-exclusion or flame-interruption effect is

essential. Class B extinguishers are rated from 1-B through 640-B. For Class B

extinguishers, the numerical codes are even more complicated, and generally

this type of information is of most use to professional firefighters. Extinguishers

rated for Class B hazards are foam and carbon dioxide and multipurpose dry

chemical.

Class C Extinguishers

Class C extinguishers are suitable for use on fires involving energized

electrical equipment and wiring where the dielectric conductivity of the

extinguishing agent is of importance. For example, water-solution extinguishers

cannot be used on electrical fires because water conducts electricity and the

operator could receive a shock from energized electrical equipment via the

water. However, no extinguisher gets a Class C rating without a Class A and/or

Class B rating.

Class D Extinguishers

Class D extinguishers are suitable for use on fires in combustible metals

such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, and potassium. No numeral is

used for Class D extinguishers; the relative effectiveness of these extinguishers for

use on specific combustible metal fires is detailed on the extinguisher

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nameplate. In addition to the letter designations, Class A and B type

extinguishers also carry a numerical rating code. The numbers indicate the level

of effectiveness in extinguishing fires, with 10 rated 10 times more effective than

one.

Fire extinguishers may contain mixtures of water, but they are also

available with gases or dry chemicals. Some of the common types of fire

extinguishers are as follows.

Air-Pressurized Water Fire Extinguishers

Air-pressurized water (APW) fire extinguishers are designed for Class A

(wood, paper, cloth, trash, and plastics) fires only. These extinguishers are large,

silver tanks filled about two-thirds water, and then pressurized with air. An APW is

a giant squirt gun that stands about 2 ft tall and weighs approximately 25 lbs

when full.

Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguishers

Carbon dioxide (CO2) fire extinguishers are filled with non-flammable

carbon dioxide gas under extreme pressure. They are designed for Class B and

C fires only (flammable liquid and electrical). CO2 is a gas that extinguishes fire

by displacing oxygen. CO2 is also very cold as it comes out of the extinguisher,

so it also cools the fuel. CO2 extinguishers are used in laboratories, mechanical

rooms, kitchens, and flammable liquid storage areas. CO2 extinguishers are filled

with nonflammable CO2 gas under extreme pressure. A CO2 extinguisher can
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be recognized by its hard horn and lack of pressure gauge. CO2 cylinders are

red and range in size from 5 lbs to 100 lbs or larger. In the larger sizes, the hard

horn will be located on the end of a long, flexible hose. They are mainly used for

electrical fire risks and are usually the main fire extinguisher type provided in

computer server rooms. They also put out Class B fires. CO2 extinguishers

suffocate fires by displacing the oxygen the fire needs to burn.

Dry Chemical Fire Extinguishers

Dry chemical fire extinguishers put out fire by coating the fuel with a thin

layer of dust, separating the fuel from oxygen in the air. The powder also works

to interrupt the chemical reaction of fire, so these extinguishers are extremely

effective at putting out fire.

Dry chemical extinguishers come in a variety of types. “ABC” indicates

that they are designed to extinguish Class A, B, and C fires; “BC” indicates that

they are designed to extinguish Class B and C fires. Class ABC fire extinguishers

are considered multipurpose. They are usually filled with ammonium phosphate.

They are not ideal for electrical fires because they leave a hard residue that is

difficult to remove. Class ABC fire extinguishers are found in a variety of locations.

New buildings will have them located in public hallways. They may also be

found in laboratories, mechanical rooms, break rooms, chemical storage areas,

offices, and vehicles. ABC extinguishers are red and typically range in size from 5
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lbs to 20 lbs. Class BC extinguishers may be located in places such as

commercial kitchens or areas with flammable liquids.

Fire Extinguisher Location

Portable fire extinguishers known to be an effective early response to a

developing fire, if they are installed or used properly so as they must be placed

correctly to be accessed more quickly to help control a fire until the fire

department arrives. They are not intended to be a substitute for evacuating the

building safely and quickly.

Two key factors for locating extinguishers are that they should be

accessible and visible. Extinguishers should be placed where they are readily

accessible in the event of a fire, which typically includes normal paths of travel.

The travel distance is not more than 75 ft for Class A and Class D hazard areas,

and not more than 50 ft for Class B hazard areas. Extinguishers must be located

close to the likely hazards, but not so close that they would be

damaged/isolated by the fire. If possible, they should be located along normal

paths of egress from the building. Extinguishers must be visible and not be

blocked or hidden by stock, material, or machines. They should be located or

hung where they will not be damaged by trucks, cranes, and harmful operations,

or corroded by chemical processes, and where they will not obstruct aisles or

injure passers-by. All extinguisher locations should be made conspicuous. For

example, if an extinguisher is hung on a large column or post, a distinguishing

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red band can be painted around the post. Also, large signs can be posted

directing attention to extinguishers. Extinguishers should be kept clean and

should not be painted in any way that could camouflage them or obscure

labels and markings.

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) recommends that

locations such as offices, classrooms, and assembly halls that contain mainly

Class A combustible materials have one 2-A extinguisher for every 3,000 square

feet.

Locations that contain Class B flammables, such as workshops, storage

areas, research operations, garages, warehouses, or service and manufacturing

areas requires that all employees have access to an extinguisher within 50 feet

travel-distance.

Class C extinguishers are required where energized electrical equipment is

used. The extinguisher size and spacing is based on its Class A or B hazard

Locations where combustible metal powders, flakes, shavings, or similarly

sized materials are generated at least once every two weeks must install Class D

portable fire extinguishers not more then 75 feet from the hazard.
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Smoke Control Systems

We all know that fire brings extensive damage to any property, but what

about smoke alone? Can smoke cause damage even when there’s no flames?

Unfortunately, the answer is yes; it contains different chemical compounds that

can cause damage, including damage to TV’s, sound systems, etc. Smoke can

causes significant damage to interior spaces and equipment or by overheating

electronics, leading to failure.

Smoke migrates outside the fire area and through a structure during a fire

that can cause as much damage as burns. Exposed areas: stairways, corridors,

elevator hoist ways, atriums, openings in walls, etc.

For example, smoke can corrode electronic equipment, such as printed

circuit boards found in computers. By the time heat accumulates at the ceiling

and activates heat detectors or sprinkler heads, smoke could have already

done damage. As a result, smoke detectors are recommended in spaces

containing electronic equipment such as computer rooms and sound booths.

A smoke control system is an engineered system that uses mechanical

fans to produce airflows and pressure differences across smoke barriers to limit

and direct smoke movement. It is the part of a fire protection system that

manages and directs smoke to protect building occupants and property (both

the building and its contents). This system can also be used to assist firefighting

activities.
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In-duct smoke detectors can also be used but only in conjunction with

water flow indicators and/or area smoke detectors. A duct smoke detector is a

device or group of devices used to detect the presence of smoke in the

airstream of ductwork sections of the HVAC air handling systems typically used in

commercial buildings.

The concept of zoned smoke control requires a building to be divided into

a number of smoke control zones.

Physical barriers such as walls, floors, ceilings, and doors separate the

zones from each other.

In a fire scenario, the spread of smoke from the zone of fire origin (called

the smoke zone) to adjacent zones is limited by pressure differences and airflows.

Pressure differences across the barriers of the zone of origin can be

accomplished by supplying outside air to the other zones, by venting the smoke

zone, or by a combination of both.

In large buildings, each floor is typically a separate zone. However, the

system can also be designed so that a floor can have a number of zones, or a

single zone can consist of more than one level.

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There are two types of smoke control systems (from NFPA 92);

smoke management systems and smoke containment systems

Smoke management systems maintain tenable environments in the

means of egress from large volume spaces or prevent the movement of smoke

into surrounding spaces. Smoke management systems are typically found

installed in buildings with large multilevel atriums.

Types of Smoke Management Systems for larger areas such as warehouses or

atriums include:

 Mechanical Smoke Exhaust — it requires a way for makeup air to be

injected into the large space, otherwise the pressure could build up to be so

high that it starts to negatively affect other building systems. For example,

the pressure across a barrier must not result in a door-opening force that

exceed 30 lbf (133N) or it might be too heavy for occupants to use. It Is also

important to make sure the makeup air intake is clean fresh air and not

located adjacent to where smoke could be exhausted.

 Natural Smoke Ventilation — it removes smoke by taking advantage of the

buoyancy of the smoke while mechanical smoke exhaust uses propellers to

move the smoke and air outside of the building. Typically, the goal of these

systems is to keep the smoke layer interface above the highest occupiable

level that is open to the large space for a certain period of time
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 Smoke containment systems keep smoke from entering specific areas using

pressurization and are commonly found in enclosed stairwells.

There are several types of Smoke Containment Systems used for smaller

enclosed spaces.

 Stairwell Pressurization - The stairwell pressurization system is a mechanical

ventilation system. In order to pressurize the stairs of vertical buildings, it is

necessary to install sets of fans that suck air into the stairwell, keeping

pressure of 0.10 – 0.45 inch water gauge. The main purpose is to prevent

infiltration of smoke in the event of a fire.

 Zone Smoke Control — highly effective in that it creates a pressure

“sandwich” (divides the building into separate smoke control areas) around

the zone where the fire is present. However, these systems can become

quite complex as they have to coordinate with the HVAC system, controls

and operational matrices. Zoned smoke control system is only required for

egress corridors.

 Elevator Pressurization - is an alternative to enclosed elevator lobbiesusing a

system of ducts and powerful fans. These fans generate a positive differential

pressure such that smoke cannot enter a hoistway to spread freely from one

floor to another.

 Vestibule Pressurization - directly pressurizes vestibules of staircases to

prevent smoke infiltration into staircases is increasingly popular in Japan,

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particularly for high-rise office buildings, for which protection of staircases by

vestibules is required by the government order.

Many of these smoke containment systems act in similar ways. They

pressurize a certain area such as a stairwell, elevator, vestibule, or zone of a

building by using a mechanical fan. This pressure difference across a barrier

ensures that smoke does not migrate into certain areas of a building.

ACTIVE FIRE PROTECTION

Active fire protection systems include standpipe, sprinkler, and spray

systems designed to extinguish the fire outright or control the fire by delaying its

damaging effects. Active fire protection systems are extremely effective in

containing and fighting a fire if they are designed and maintained so they work

properly. Poor maintenance leads to a false sense of security and lack of proper

protection when the system is needed under an emergency situation.

Standpipe Systems

A standpipe system is an internal piping network connected to fire-hose

stations that are used to rapidly suppress a fire. Firefighters can use hoses

connected to the standpipe system or connect their hoses to valve outlets near

the fire.

For example, Firefighters have great difficulty fighting fires from the ground

when flames and smoke are visible above the fourth floor of a building. So,
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standpipe systems are mandated in buildings where it may be difficult for the

fire department to adequately pump water on the fire (e.g., in buildings that are

over six stories or 75 ft in height). A standpipe system also provides water that

trained occupants or employees can manually discharge through hoses until

the fire department arrives.

Piping in a standpipe system runs vertically (up and down) and

horizontally (side to side) throughout the building. The standpipes running

vertically are usually called risers. The risers are usually located in the staircase

enclosures or in the hallways in the building.

At selected locations in the building, the standpipe is connected to a

hose. The hose is usually stored on a quick release rack called a hose reel. Fire-

hose and reel stations are strategically positioned throughout the building. A

nozzle is attached at the end of the hose. The nozzle is used to direct the stream

of water from the hose. The hose and nozzle must be easy to reach at all times.

The hose outlets are located so that every part of the building may be reached

with a hose stream. The maximum length of a single hose line is 125 ft. Sometimes

the hoses are installed in cabinets. If the hose is installed in a cabinet, it must be

labeled “FIRE HOSE.”

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Types of Standpipe Systems

 Wet Standpipe

This system always has water in the piping. The water in the system is

always under pressure. The wet pipe system is the most commonly used

standpipe system. It is used in heated buildings where there is no danger of the

water in the piping freezing. Any part of the standpipe system that is exposed to

freezing temperatures should be insulated. It is very important that the water in

the piping does not freeze.

 Dry Standpipe with an Automatic Dry Pipe Valve

This system is usually supplied by a public water main. Under normal

conditions there is no water in the piping. Instead, there is air under pressure in

the piping. A dry pipe valve is installed to prevent water from entering the

standpipe system. The dry pipe valve is designed to open when there is drop of

air pressure in the standpipe. When a hose is opened it causes a drop in air

pressure in the standpipe system. Then the dry pipe valve automatically lets

water flow into the standpipe. A control valve is installed at the automatic water

supply connection. This valve should be kept open at all times to supply the

standpipe system. This system is usually installed in a building that is not heated.
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 Dry Standpipe with a Manual Control Valve

This system is supplied by a public water main. Under normal conditions

this system has no water in the piping. The water is not allowed into the

standpipe until a control valve is manually operated. The control valve remains

closed until a fire occurs. This system is usually used in a building that is not

heated.

 Dry Standpipe with No Permanent Water Supply

Under normal conditions, this system has no water in the piping. Water is

pumped into the standpipe system by the local fire department. The water is

pumped in through the Siamese connection (see Siamese connection as

follows). This system cannot be used unless water is supplied by the fire

department. A sign must be attached to each of the hose outlets. It should read

“Dry Standpipe for Fire Department Use Only.” This system is usually used in a

building that is not heated.

Classes of Standpipes Systems

Class I - This system is designed for use by professional fire fighters. The fire hoses

in these systems are 21 ⁄2 inches in diameter. The large hose diameter makes it

difficult to control the stream of water from the hose.

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Class II - This system is designed for use by the occupants of a building. The hose

and nozzle are connected to the standpipe. The hose is 11 ⁄2 inches in diameter.

The hose stream is easier to control than the Class I hose.

Class III - This system may be used by either professional firefighters or by

occupants of the building. The hosing may be adjusted to either 11 ⁄2 or 21 ⁄2

inches in diameter.

Automatic Fire Protection Systems

An automatic fire protection system provides a warning to occupants of

the building, notifies emergency personnel responding to the alarm, and

activates fire suppression systems to reduce the growth rate of a fire or the

movement of smoke. The fire control panel then sounds an alarm, shuts down

air-handling equipment, disconnects power from the protected equipment, and

then releases agent into the protected area.

Fire suppression systems are intended to extinguish or control a fire. These

include automatic water sprinkler systems and systems that use a gas agent or

foam to eliminate oxygen and suffocate the fire.

Smoke control systems are designed to limit the spread of smoke to

maintain passable occupant egress routes for a given period of time and to aid

firefighters in fighting the fire.

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Conventional Automatic Sprinkler Systems

An automatic sprinkler system consists of the sprinkler heads and a

network of pipes placed in a horizontal pattern near the ceiling and is designed

to automatically dispense water on a fire. The system is designed to extinguish

the fire entirely, or to prevent the spread of the fire. A conventional sprinkler

system is fitted with automatic devices designed to release water on a fire.

These devices are called sprinkler heads. A rise to a predetermined temperature

causes the sprinkler head to open. Water is then discharged in the form of spray.

An approved automatic sprinkler system is installed in accordance with fire or

building codes.

Types of Conventional Automatic Sprinkler Systems

 Wet-Pipe Automatic Sprinkler Systems

Wet-pipe automatic sprinkler systems have pressurized water in the pipe

and mains. Water is released when the sprinkler head is activated. Because of

the potential for freezing, this system is suitable for buildings where the indoor

ambient temperature is not lower than about 40°F (5°C). Wet-pipe sprinkler

systems are the most common in use today. In wet systems exposed to freezing

temperatures, pipes containing an antifreeze solution of water–glycerin or

water–propylene glycol are connected to a water supply.

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 Dry-Pipe Automatic Sprinkler Systems

Dry-pipe automatic sprinkler systems have pipes filled with compressed air

or nitrogen. When a sprinkler head is activated, the air will begin to be released

and the air pressure will drop. As air pressure drops, water will begin to advance

throughout the lines and flow through the activated head(s). The dry-pipe type

is typically used in unheated buildings where there is danger that the water in

the pipes would freeze and burst the pipes.

 Preaction Automatic Sprinkler Systems

Preaction automatic sprinkler systems are similar to dry-pipe except that

the water first fills the pipe as an alarm is set off, providing an opportunity to

extinguish the fire manually before the sprinklers open. Water will then flow to all

heads, but will only discharge through the activated heads. If there is an

accidental break of a sprinkler line, water will not immediately discharge

because the valve is holding back the water flow and not the sprinkler heads

(unlike the wet-pipe or dry-pipe systems). The preaction sprinkler system is often

used where the use of sprinklers could cause extensive material or equipment

damage, such as in retail stores and computer areas.

 Deluge Automatic Sprinkler Systems

Deluge automatic sprinkler systems allow all sprinkler heads to go off at

the same time. This system is very similar to the preaction system, except all

sprinkler heads are open. Once a heat-detecting device activates the valve,
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water will flow from all heads within the area. Deluge systems are generally

installed in hazardous areas where extremely rapid fire spread is anticipated

and that requires immediate application of water.

Sprinkler Operation and Layout

Sprinkler heads are usually positioned upright, pendent (pointing

downward), or sidewall (pointing sideways). Most commonly used is the

pendent type, which hangs below the pipes. This allows the piping to be

concealed above the suspended ceilings with only the pendent head showing.

Upright heads sit on top of the pipe and the entire system is exposed to view.

They are commonly used in warehouses and in retrofitting older buildings.

Sidewall sprinklers are often used in small rooms where they can throw a spray of

water across the entire room. In this manner, only one sprinkler is needed in the

room.

A network of pipe delivers water to the sprinkler heads. Types of pipe

approved for use include the following:

 Steel pipe are approved for use in all fire suppression sprinkler applications.

It is available in the following nominal diameters: 3 ⁄8, 1 ⁄2, 3 ⁄4, 1, 11 ⁄4, 11 ⁄2,

2, 21 ⁄2, 3, 31 ⁄2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, and 12 in. Threaded and flanged connections

are used to join pipes and fittings. Specialty compression strap-type fittings,

called Victaulic couplings, make system installation easier.

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 Copper tubing is the most popular water supply pipe material, but it is

used less frequently in fire sprinkler systems. The thin walls of copper tubing

are usually soldered to fittings. It is available in the following nominal

diameters: 3 ⁄8, 1 ⁄2, 3 ⁄4, 1, 11 ⁄4, 11 ⁄2, 2, 21 ⁄2, 3, 31 ⁄2, 4, 5, 6, and 8 in.

 Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) is a rigid plastic pipe generally

approved for use in fire suppression sprinkler systems in residential and

many light commercial applications. It is available in straight lengths in the

following nominal diameters: 1, 11 ⁄4, 11 ⁄2, 2, 21 ⁄2, 3, 31 ⁄2, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 10

in. CPVC pipe and fittings for fire sprinkler systems are orange in color

Alarm and Control Valves

An alarm valve and gate valve serve to control flow in the network of

sprinkler system. The alarm valve initiates an alarm signal when water flows

through the sprinkler system. The gate valve opens or closes flow to the system. It

should be maintained in the open position at all times. Large buildings must be

protected by multiple sprinkler systems, each having an alarm valve and gate

valve.

Primary Sources of Water Supply

A gravity storage tank may be located on the top of a building or on a

tall tower. The water in the tank is distributed throughout the sprinkler or

standpipe system by the force of gravity.

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Pressure tanks are often used where there is enough water from a supply

source, but the water pressure is too low or in tall buildings that need the extra

water pressure to supply the highest line of sprinklers or the highest line of hoses.

A fire pump is a part of a fire sprinkler system’s water supply in high-rise

installations where the local public water system cannot provide sufficient

pressure, where systems require high pressure at the fire sprinkler in order to flow

a large volume of water (large warehouse or manufacturing plant), and where

water is from a storage tank. It is designed to pump water into the fire

suppression system under high pressure. The pump intake is either connected to

the public water supply piping or a static water source (e.g., tank, reservoir,

lake).

Supplementary Sources of Water Supply

A Siamese connection is a Y-shaped inlet connection for fire department

use in supplementing or supplying water for standpipes and sprinkler systems. If a

firefighting unit arriving at a fire finds that the sprinkler or standpipe systems is not

receiving sufficient water and pressure, a fire (truck) pumper is connected to the

sprinkler system to supply additional water. Siamese connections should be

provided for all sprinkler and standpipe systems in commercial buildings. The

caps of each automatic sprinkler Siamese connection should be painted green.

The entire Siamese connection of a no automatic sprinkler system should be

painted aluminum. The caps of each Siamese connection used for combination
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standpipe and sprinkler systems should be painted yellow and signs should be

provided.

Backflow and Backflow Prevention

Poor water quality is found in most fire sprinkler systems because of

stagnation of water and contamination from cross connections that typically

occur in a fire. For example, most fire sprinkler systems are constructed with

piping material that is not approved for potable water. Stagnant water in piping

is subject to contamination from corrosion, which leaves a considerable amount

of particulate matter and metals (e.g., zinc, cadmium, iron, copper, and lead)

deposited in the water. Corrosion inhibitors and antifreeze solutions are toxic to

humans and animals. Microorganisms in stagnant water in piping create taste

and odor problems and can be hazardous to drink. Typically, a double check

valve assembly (DCVA) or a reduced pressure backflow prevention assembly

(RBPA) is required in residential, commercial, and industrial installations.

Alternative Fire Suppression Systems

1. Water Mist Automatic Sprinkler Systems

Water mist automatic sprinkler systems rely upon a fine spray of water to

suppress a fire. A typical system consists of cylinders of water under pressure,

heat/smoke detectors, and discharge nozzles connected to a network of pipes.

The mist, with its small droplets of water, is very efficient in absorbing a large

amount of heat as the droplets contact the fire and is converted to steam.
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Water mist systems must produce a directional mist or fog of fine water drops

through a nozzle. The optimum water droplet size ranges from 0.003 to 0.005 in

(80 to 200 m), although larger droplet sizes can be used. The ability of small

droplets to absorb heat and create steam at the fire source is key to the

effectiveness of fine mist systems in controlling and extinguishing fires. When

compared to conventional automatic sprinkler systems, the amount of water

required in a water mist system is significantly less. The principal advantages of a

water mist system are that the small water droplets are not harmful to occupants,

they are effective on flammable liquid fires, and they have minimal clean-up

problems.

2. Clean Agent Gas Fire Suppression Systems

Clean agent gas fire suppression systems discharge as a gas on the

surface of combusting materials. A typical system consists of cylinders of a liquid

agent under high pressure, heat/smoke detectors, and discharge nozzles

connected to a network of pipes. Clean agent gases can be released in a

building space without leaving residue. When released, they extinguish the fire

rapidly but do little harm to building occupants, firefighters, interior contents,

and equipment. Typical installations often protected by clean agent gas fire

suppression include art and historical collections, computer rooms, data

processing centers, telecommunications centers, telephone switching rooms,

electrical switchgear and transformer closets, vaults, tape storage areas, and
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raised floor spaces. Halogenated hydrocarbons, known as halons, have been

used in clean agent gas fire suppression systems for decades. The most

commonly used agent was Halon 1301, an inert gas. However, because of its

damaging effect on the earth’s ozone layer, production of Halon 1301 ceased

on January 1, 1994. Halon alternatives include FM-200® (heptafluoropropane),

Inergen® (a mixture of three gases: approximately 52% nitrogen, 40% argon, and

8% carbon) and FE-13® (trifluromethane). These are environmentally friendly with

no ozone depletion, no global warming potential, and zero atmospheric lifetime.

3. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Fire Suppression Systems

Carbon dioxide (CO2) fire suppression systems discharge a CO2 gas that

extinguishes fire by displacing oxygen or taking oxygen away from the fire. CO2

is also very cold as it comes out of the extinguisher, so it also cools the fuel. A

typical system consists of cylinders of liquid CO2 under high pressure,

heat/smoke detectors, and discharge nozzles connected to a network of pipes.

The principal problem with CO2 is that it must be used in fairly high

concentrations and because high CO2 concentrations deplete much of the

oxygen in a space, this type of system cannot be used with occupants or other

living beings present. As a result, it is usually used in confined areas such as

mechanical chases, unventilated areas, and display cases.

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4. Foam Fire Suppression Systems

Foam fire suppression systems discharge a high volume of gas-filled

bubbles that rapidly fill a space. Foam masses are lighter than water and

flammable liquids, and they may be either air or chemical gas bubbles. They

float on the surface of burning liquids to deplete oxygen and smother the fire

Foam is very effective on flammable liquid fires and most popular in areas where

flammable fuel is likely to be, such as airplane or jet hangars.

Automatic Sprinkler Testing and Maintenance

Active fire protection systems must be well maintained to ensure reliability.

In particular, systems using water and water based foam are prone to rust

deposits that can obstruct sprinkler heads and spray nozzles. The contractor

issuing the certificate must be licensed in installation of fire protection systems.

Systems are typically hydrostatically tested at a pressure of at least 200 psi (1380

kPa), which is well above street pressure.

FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS

FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS

Fire Alarm Systems are designed to alert us to an emergency so that we

can take action to protect ourselves, staff, and the public. Fire alarms are found

in Offices, Factories, and public buildings, they are a part of our everyday

routine but are often overlooked until there is an emergency at which point,

they might just save our lives. Whatever the method of detection is, if the alarm
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is triggered, sounders will operate to warn people in the building that there

may be a fire and to evacuate. The fire alarm system may also incorporate

a remote signal system which could then alert the fire brigade via a

central station. In a residence, a fire alarm system may consist of several

standalone devices. While in large buildings, these systems include smoke or

heat detectors, control panels, fire command centers, communication centers

and alarm horns or speakers. In this video, we will have a look at the structure

and types of the “Fire Alarm Systems.”

Fire Alarm Control Panel

The “Brain” of the system is the Fire Alarm Control Panel. It is the central

hub for all the detector signals to be wired to and provides a status indication

to the users. The unit can also be set up to simulate an alarm for use in routine

Fire and evacuation drills, so all staff knows what action to take in the event of

a real fire. At the core of a fire alarm system are the detection devices,

from sophisticated intelligent smoke detectors to simple manually operated

break glass units there are a wide array of different types, but we can divide

them into groups including Heat detectors, Smoke detectors, and the like.

Smoke Alarms

A smoke alarm is a fire-safety device that detects the products of

combustion and gives off an audible and/or visual warning to building

occupants. It is a smoke detector and alarm in one unit. They typically use an

audible alarm signal to alert and warn building occupants of a fire. Smoke
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alarms are typically used in single-family homes, multifamily dwelling. and in

some instances, light commercial applications. Ionization and photoelectric are

the types of commercially available smoke detectors used in these

applications. Smoke alarms are powered by battery or are hard-wired into the

building electrical system with a battery backup. In new construction, hard-

wired units are typically required in common spaces on each floor and in

bedrooms.

Smoke and Heat Detectors

A smoke detector is a sensing device that identifies products of

combustion in air. Heat detectors are a sensing device that recognizes a high

temperature or a rapid increase in temperature. In large buildings, smoke

and/or heat detectors are placed in building spaces and in the ductwork of air-

handling units. They are then connected to a fire alarm control panel, which is

designed to recognize the signal of the detector and alert building occupants

of the fire through a separate alarm system. Conventional detectors typically

use a signal that is electronically sent to a fire alarm/control panel, where the

signal is interpreted. The detector either reports an alarm condition or a

normal condition.

Smoke and heat detectors serve as the first line of defense against fire

in buildings. They provide an early warning to building occupants, allowing

them valuable time to escape a fire. They alert sleeping occupants who

would otherwise have been overcome by smoke and toxic gases in their sleep.
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Heat Detectors

Fixed Temperature Heat Detectors

A Heat Detector can work on a fixed temperature basis, where it will

trigger an alarm if the temperature reaches a set value. Fixed-

temperature detectors are more suitable for property protection rather than life

safety applications.

FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS 4

Rate-of-Rise Heat Detectors

They can also work on the rate of change in temperature. Rate-of-rise

heat detectors signal an alarm when the temperature at the detector

increases at a rate exceeding a preset value.

Flame Detectors

Flame detectors optically sense high levels of either infrared (IR)

radiation or ultraviolet (UV) radiation. A flame emits UV and IR radiation

in wavelength ranges that are not emitted by sunlight or artificial lights.

These detectors sense specific wavelength ranges of UV or IR radiation and

send an alarm signal. Although radiation travels in a straight-line path,

either reflector will detect reflected UV or IR radiation off of wall, floor, and

ceiling surfaces.
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Smoke Detectors

Ionization Smoke Detectors

An Ionization Smoke detector generally contains two chambers. The first

is used as a reference to compensate for changes in ambient

temperature, humidity, or pressure. The second chamber contains a

radioactive source,

FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS 5

Usually, alpha particle, which ionizes the air passing through the

chamber where a current flows between two electrodes. When smoke enters

the chamber, the current flow decreases. The drop in current flow is used

to initiate an alarm.

Photoelectric Smoke Detectors

Smoke produced by a fire affects the intensity of a light beam

passing through air. The smoke can block or obscure the beam. It can also

cause the light to scatter due to reflection off the smoke particles.

Photoelectric smoke detectors are designed to sense smoke by utilizing these

effects of smoke on light.

Photoelectric Light Scattering Smoke Detector

Most photoelectric smoke detectors are of the spot type and operate on

the light scattering principle. A light-emitting diode (LED) is beamed into an

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area not normally “seen” by a photosensitive element, generally a photodiode.

When smoke particles enter the light path, light strikes the particles and is

scattered onto the photosensitive device causing the detector to respond.

FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS 6

Photoelectric Light Obscuration Smoke Detector

Another type of photoelectric detector, the light obscuration

detector employs a light source and a photosensitive receiving device, such

as photodiode. When smoke particles partially block the light beam,

the reduction in light reaching the photosensitive device alters its output. The

change in output is sensed by the detector’s circuitry and when the threshold is

crossed, an alarm is initiated. Obscuration type detectors are usually of the

projected beam type where the light source spans the area to be protected.

Air Sampling Smoke Detectors

A sampling-type detector consists of piping or tubing distribution from

the detector unit to the area(s) to be protected. An air pump draws air

from the protected area back to the detector through the air sampling

ports and piping or tubing. At the detector, the air is analyzed for fire

particulate.
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Manual Pull Stations

A fire alarm pull station is a manually activated component of a fire alarm

system. Usually a red box mounted on a wall, these stations are clearly labeled

with instructions on how to use them. Though meant to accomplish the same

thing, there are two types of fire alarm pull stations.

Single-action Pull Stations

Single-action pull stations are simple in their design — they are fitted in a

wall without any coverings or special activation mechanisms. These pull stations

are activated by pulling the handle down.

Dual-action Pull Stations

Dual-action pull stations are activated through a two-step process, as the

designation suggests. They are similar to single-action pull stations except they

have safeguards in place, designed to discourage mischief or accidental

activation.

A dual-action pull station is usually encased in a glass box requiring the

person activating the alarm to break through the glass to get to the handle.

These pull stations may also feature a two-step alarm activation sequence, such

as lifting a cover over the handle before pulling it down to activate the alarm.
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Alarms

Electronic alarm systems are made up of three component parts

designed to detect, determine and deter criminal activity or other threatening

situations. An alarm system can detect an event such as an invasion, fire, gas

leak or environmental changes; determine if the event poses a threat; and then

send a notification about the event.

Detect

The component of alarm systems that detect activity is called a sensor

such as motion sensor, smoke detectors, shock sensor and so on.

Determine

The alarm system control panel is the brain of the system. It carries out the

decide function by processing the information it receives from various sensors

and responding accordingly.

Deter

An alarm panel responds to a triggered alarm by activating physical

alarms such as a siren and/or strobe light. These devices are used to scare an

intruder away from your premises or alert you of a threatening situation such as

a fire or the presence of carbon monoxide.

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Emergency Voice Communication System

An EVCS (Emergency Voice Communication System) is a fixed, monitored

and maintained, bidirectional, full duplex voice communication system to assist

the orderly evacuation of disabled or mobility impaired people and enhance

firefighter/s communication during emergencies.

Fire Detection and Alarm Systems

The most common types of Fire Alarm Systems are Conventional and

Addressable.

 Conventional Alarm System - A conventional system is the simplest type of

protected premises alarm system. When an alarm-initiating device, such as a

smoke detector, sends a signal to the FACU, all of the alarm-signaling

devices operate simultaneously. Fire-alarm system annunciation enables

emergency responders to identify the general location, or zone, of alarm

deviceactivation.

 Addressable Alarm Systems - Fire alarm systems display the location of each

initiating device on the FACU and an annunciator panel if provided. This

connection enables emergency responders to pinpoint the specific device

that has been activated. Addressable systems reduce the amount of time

that it takes to respond to emergency situations. These systems also allow

repair personnel to quickly locate and correct malfunctions in the system.

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Fire Detection and Alarm System is composed of the following:

 Fire Alarm Control Panel also called "FACU".

 Initiating Devices; pull stations, heat detectors, carbon monoxide

detectors, and smoke detectors.

 Manual Initiating Devices; Fire Alarm Full Station and Manual Call Point.

 Notification Devices; Bell, Siren, Horn, Strobe Lights, Speakers, etc.

BUILDING CONVEYING SYTEMS

ELEVATOR TECHNOLOGIES

ELEVATOR

An elevator is a conveying device used to move people or freight

vertically, usually between floors of a building.

Elevator, also called lift, a transportation that moves in a vertical shaft to

carry passengers or freight between the levels of a multistory building. Most

modern elevators are propelled by electric motors, with the aid of a

counterweight, through a system of cables and sheaves (pulleys).

TWO BASIC TYPES OF ELEVATOR

 HYDRAULIC ELEVATOR

 TRACTION ELEVATOR
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HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS

Uses a fluid-driven hydraulic jack to lift the elevator car. Hydraulic

elevators are elevators which are powered by a piston that travels inside a

cylinder. An electric motor pumps hydraulic oil into the cylinder to move the

piston. The piston smoothly lifts the elevator cab. Electrical valves control the

release of the oil for a gentle descent.

Unlike traction elevators, hydraulic systems don’t use overhead

hoisting machinery. Instead, these elevators use the compression of fluids

to generate movement. The elevator cab is lifted by an electric motor

that pumps oil into the cylinder to move the piston. Hydraulic elevators

also incorporate electrical valves to control the release of oil for a gentle

ride.The fluid needed to power a hydraulic elevator must be oil-based.

Vegetable oil or biodegradable oil can be used as environmentally

friendly options.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF HYDRAULIC ELEVATOR

 HYDRAULIC JACK (CYLINDER & PLUNGER) - a central working component

of an in-ground hydraulic elevator responsible for raising and lowering

the load

 PUMP - powered by an electric motor, that increases the pressure in the

hydraulic fluid
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 CONTROL VALVE - between the cylinder and reservoir that controls the

pressure in the jack

 TANK - fluid reservoir for oil

HOW DO HYDRAULIC LIFTS WORK?

It operates when the pump draws oil from the reservoir, pressurizes it,

pushing the oil through the oil line to the jack, and driving the elevator car

upward. A release of fluid through the control valve and back to the reservoir

decreases oil pressure, which allows the plunger and connected elevator car to

move downward.

In simple words, Hydraulic lifts work on a basic principle: to go up,

a pump pushes oil into the cylinder, pushing the piston (which pushes the lift car)

up. To go down, the valve opens and oil is allowed to flow back into the

reservoir, and is pushed back using the gravitational force of the lift car. When

the valve is closed, the oil can only go from the reservoir into the cylinder. When

the valve is open, the oil can only flow from the cylinder back into the reservoir.

The controls in the lift car make the pump operate, moving the oil. When a floor

is reached, the pump is switched off and the lift car sits on top of the piston, held

in position by the oil which is trapped in the cylinder.

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS

 CONVENTIONAL HYDRAULIC ELEVATOR (HOLED HYDRAULIC) - an inground

hydraulic jack lifts the elevator car. A long plunger requires a deep hole

below the bottom landing. The hole is usually drilled into the ground and

cased with a plastic or metal casing before the building is erected.

With this type of elevator, hydraulic cylinders extend into the

ground and are placed inside of a drilled hole. The car of the

elevator is mounted on a piston that travels inside of the cylinder,

allowing up to 60’ of travel.

 TELESCOPIC HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS - has a telescoping plunger

consisting of concentric tubes that slide within one another, allowing a

shallow hole below the lowest floor.

Telescopic hydraulic elevators have the telescoping pistons fixed

at the base of the pit and do not require a hole below the pit and has 2

or 3 pieces of telescoping pistons. Telescoping pistons allow up to 50 feet

of travel distance. Its load carrying capacity will be a little less than the

non-telescopic one.

 HOLELESS HYDRAULIC ELEVATOR - have one or two jacks situated beside

the rails that lift the platform. Because they do not require holes to be

dug for the hydraulic jack, they are referred to as “holeless”.

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Since a drilled hole isn’t necessary, existing buildings or areas

where drilling isn’t an option can benefit from a holeless hydraulic

elevator. However, these models aren’t suited for more than 40’ of

travel.

 ROPED HYDRAULIC ELEVATOR - uses a combination of both ropes and

hydraulic power to raise and lower cars. They typically consist of a

cantilevered car that is lifted by ropes that pass over a sheave (pulley)

fastened to the top of a hydraulic plunger. As the plunger rises, so does

the elevator car. Single rope configuration cannot have rear entrances.

Roped hydraulic elevators use cables and a piston attached to

a sheave to extend the rise of a holeless hydraulic elevator. Since a

rope is holding up the elevator cab, a governor is required. These

models are intended for 60’ of travel.

TRACTION ELEVATOR

Has a drive machine with an electric motor and pulley-like (grooved)

drive sheave that holds cables that move the elevator car up or down.

Traction elevators are lifted by ropes, which pass over a wheel attached

to an electric motor above the elevator shaft. They are used for mid and high-

rise applications and have much higher travel speeds than hydraulic elevators.
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A counter weight makes the elevators more efficient by offsetting the weight of

the car and occupants so that the motor doesn't have to move as much weight.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF A TRACTION LIFT

 CABLES / HOISTING ROPES - to support the elevator and counterweight

during normal operation. There are typically three to eight cables for

each elevator. The cables/ropes are usually a multi-strand steel material

for security, meaning that if one of the strands breaks, the cable still holds

the lift car up.

 SHEAVE / PULLEY - holds cables that move the elevator car up or down.

 COUNTERWEIGHT - it’s a set of steel or iron plates fastened to one end of

the hoisting rope that counterbalances the car.

 TRACTION MACHINE - an electric machine in which the friction between

the hoist ropes and the drive sheave is used to move the elevator car

with the cable. Traction machines are driven by AC (alternating current)

or DC (direct current) electric motors.

TYPES OF TRACTION ELEVATORS

GEARED TRACTION ELEVATOR

Are driven by low-speed (low rpm), high-torque electric motors. The

electric motor drives a reduction unit of the worm and gear type to
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mechanically control movement of elevator cars by rolling steel hoist ropes over

a drive sheave attached to a gearbox driven by a high-speed motor.

As the name implies, the electric motor in this design drives a worm-and-

gear-type reduction unit, which turns the hoisting sheave. While the lift rates are

slower than in a typical gearless elevator, the gear reduction offers the

advantage of requiring a less powerful motor to turn the sheave.

GEARLESS TRACTION ELEVATOR

Are high-speed, direct-drive electric motors. The drive sheave is directly

attached to the end of motor.

In gearless traction elevators, the sheave is attached directly to the

end of the motor. These models can reach speeds up to 2,000 ft./min.

These models have a high initial cost investment and average

maintenance costs. They are, however, more energy efficient than geared

traction elevators.

MACHINE-ROOMLESS ELEVATOR

Uses a gearless traction machine that is mounted within the hoistway itself

and is attached directly to the top of the car. It employs a smaller sheave. These

machines are attractive because the need for a machine room above or

adjacent to the elevator hoistway is eliminated, which saves floor area.

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Machine room less elevators do not have a fixed machine room on the

top of the hoistway, instead the traction hoisting machine is installed either on

the top side wall of the hoistway or on the bottom of the hoistway. The motor is

installed using a permanent magnet which "sticks" the motor permanently and

work with Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) drive. Some of the

hoisting machines are using gearless synchronous motors instead

conventional induction motors. This design eliminates the need of a fixed

machine room and thus saves much building's space. Almost all the traction

MRL elevators are gearless traction.

BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN ELEVATOR SYSTEM

An elevator consists of a car mounted on a platform that is connected to

the elevator drive.

 ELEVATOR CAR / CABIN

Also called a cage, is the load-carrying unit, including the frame,

enclosure, and car door.

This is the main part of Elevator which is designed for enclosed transport of

passengers & goods.

 PLATFORM is a flat, relatively horizontal framework to which a car is

mounted and on which passengers stand or the load is placed.

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 CAB is a decorative room in which occupants ride in a passenger

elevator.

 HOISTWAY

Where the elevator car moves vertically, and which is the shaft-like

space in which the elevator travels.

The space enclosed by fireproof walls and elevator doors for the travel of

one or more elevators, dumbwaiters or material lifts. It includes the;

 PIT - which is the space at the bottom of the hoistway under the car.

So, hoistway includes the pit and terminates at the underside of the

overhead machinery space floor or grating, or at the underside of the roof

where the hoistway does not penetrate the roof.

 PENTHOUSE - which is the space between the top of the elevator

hoistway and the underside of the roof.

 LANDING - where the elevator car stops at. It’s the portion of a floor,

balcony, or platform used to receive and discharge passengers or freight

 HOISTWAY DOOR - provide an opening in the hoistway to allow

passengers or freight to access the elevator car at a landing.

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These doors remain closed when the elevator car is not present at the

landing, which ensures occupant safety and maintains the fire enclosure.

 BLIND HOISTWAY - has no hoistway door openings or landings on the

lower part of a hoistway. It allows the elevator to service only the upper

floors of the hoistway. Most building codes require an access door every

three floors for rescue purposes.

 DRIVE UNIT - is an assembly of an electric motor, brake, and power

transmission or hydraulic system that supplies the power for movement of

a car.

Everything that works under electricity must have a motor attached for

the functioning & driven by VVVF drives.

 BUFFER - is an energy absorber located at the bottom of the hoistway to

soften the force with which a car runs into the pit during an emergency.

Buffers can be large springs or an oil damper spring combination.

The buffer is an apparatus located at the bottom of elevator designed to

protect people. Buffers can stop a descending car by accumulating or

dissipating the kinetic energy of the car.

 CAR OPERATING STATION - is a panel mounted in the car that contains:

the car operating controls, call register buttons, door open and close,
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alarm emergency stop, key switches, and other buttons that are required

for operation.

 HALL STATION - is a control panel located outside the elevator doorway

in the corridor that houses the call button.

Nearby, is the hall lantern, a corridor mounted signal light indicating that

an elevator car is approaching that landing and the direction in which the car is

to travel.

 TRAVELING CABLE - is a set of electric conductors that provide an

electrical connection between the car and outlet in the hoistway or

machine room.

 ELEVATOR CONTROLLER - is a microprocessor based system that directs

starting, acceleration, deceleration, and stopping of the elevator cab

It is designed to minimize average passenger wait time. Multiple elevators

have an integrated control system. The controller automatically compares the

location of all the cars in the elevator bank and sends the car to the nearest

one.
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ELEVATOR SAFETY DEVICES

 BRAKE - is a springloaded clamping mechanism that works to prevent car

movement when it is at rest or when no power is supplied to the hoist

motor.

 GOVERNOR - is a speed-monitoring device on traction elevators that

triggers the safety when the elevator moves too quickly.

 DOOR INTERLOCK MECHANISM - to prevent the operation of the elevator

unless the hoistway door is locked in the closed position.

The door interlock also prevents the opening of the hoistway doors

from the landing side unless the elevator is in the landing zone and either

stopped or coming to a stop.

 EMERGENCY POWER OPERATION - allows cars to return to a

predetermined landing in the event of a power failure.

These systems typically operate on generator power

 EMERGENCY EXIT - it is a removable panel. Removable only from the top

of the car, the emergency exit permits passengers to be evacuated from

the elevator during an emergency.

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 EMERGENCY STOP SWITCH - is a hand-operated switch in the car push

button station that, when thrown to the off position, stops the elevator

and prohibits its running.

All elevators are required to have communication connection to an

outside 24 hr emergency service, automatic recall capability in a fire

emergency, and special access for firefighters’ use in a fire.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEVATORS

Elevators fall into basic classifications based on use;

1. PASSENGER ELEVATOR

Are designed to carry people and small packages. They typically have

capacities from 1500 to 5000 lb (680 to 2300 kg), in 500 lb (230 kg) increments.

Passenger elevators are operated by the passenger and have attractive

interior finishes. They can also be used to move freight.

2. FREIGHT ELEVATOR

Are used to carry material, goods, equipment, and vehicles, rather than

people. Freight elevators are typically capable of carrying heavier loads than a

passenger elevator, generally from 5000 to 10 000 lb (2300 to 4500 kg), but can

be up to 13 tons/26 000 lb (11 700 kg) weight capacity.

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In many freight elevator installations, passengers often accompany the

freight, so they are governed by the same safety requirements. Elevators

designed to only carry freight (not passengers) are required to post a written

notice in the car that the use by passengers is prohibited. Freight elevators may

have manually operated doors, and often have sturdy interior finishes to prevent

damage during loading and unloading.

3. DUMBWAITERS

Small freight elevator used to transport lightweight freight such as food,

laundry, books, records, and other small items.They are generally limited to a

capacity of about 750 lb (340 kg).

Passengers are not permitted on dumbwaiters. Dumbwaiters are generally

driven by a small electric motor with a counterweight or may be hand operated

using a roped pulley.

4. MANLIFTS

An elevator installed in a variety of structures and locations to provide

vertical transportation of authorized personnel and their tools and equipment

only.Typically available in 300 lb (140 kg), 500 lb (230 kg), 650 lb (300 kg) and

1000 lb (467 kg) capacities.

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These elevators are typically installed in structures such as grain elevators,

radio antennas and bridge towers, underground facilities, dams, power plants,

and similar structures.

ELEVATOR DESIGN CRITERIA

Because of accessibility regulations, passenger elevators are often a

building code requirement in new buildings with multiple floors.

Model building codes require compliance with the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers (ASME) standards for the installation, maintenance, and

inspection of elevators.

One of the first elements to identify is the extent to which vertical transport

will be provided within the building. High-rise buildings require a set of elevators.

Selecting the technology to be used in new elevator installations depends on

many parameters.

Traction elevator motor size and power consumption is significantly lower

than hydraulic elevators, but elevator and building costs are higher. Traction

elevators are much quicker than hydraulic elevators. On the other hand,

hydraulic elevators have lower installed costs.

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Installing hydraulic jacks becomes impractical for tall hoistways because

of the height limitations of the plunger, so these elevators become more costly

beyond about 60 ft (20 m). Thus, hydraulic elevators are quite common in low-

and medium-rise buildings (2 to 5 stories). For high-rise buildings (775 ft/25 m)

traction elevators must be used.

Here, we have a table about the recommend capacity and design

strategies for passenger elevators in various occupancies.

Design criteria differ depending on the building type (i.e., hotel,

apartment, office).

For office buildings, one elevator group can generally serve all floors in

buildings up to 15 to 20 floors, depending on the building population. The

capacity should be 3500 pounds only. It’s design rules of thumb is that, first,

office building should have one elevator per 45000 usable ft2 , number in a single

group should not exceed eight, no single group should serve more than 16 levels,
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a separate service elevator should be considered above 4 floors, and additional

elevators for cafeterias, central supplies, and so on.

Also, when it comes to apartment buildings, or hotels, motels, dorms, the

elevator capacity should be 2500 pounds up to 3500 only. And, there should be

one elevator for every 60 to 75 rooms, it should not exceed 150 ft from farthest

room, and lastly, there should be one service elevator to move furniture.

For the service elevator, its capacity in pounds is 4500 and its requirements

vary by facility.

When there are more than 20 floors, single grouping is not efficient and

would normally result in long travel times and congestion in the elevator lobbies

during peak periods. The passenger elevators for buildings with more than 20

floors (up to about 35 floors) should be separated into low rise or local service

and high rise or express service. Elevators in the low-rise group should serve the

lower portion of the building while elevators in the high-rise group travel directly

from the main stop to the upper portions of the building. In large buildings,

groups of local and express (if necessary) elevators are located in the service

core and other elements (i.e., stairs, mechanical and electrical chases) are

designed around the core.

Elevator hoistways are sized according to car shapes and sizes and door

sizes, with consideration given to space requirements for guide rails and
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brackets, counterweight systems, running clearances, and ancillary equipment.

Sufficient space should be provided around cars and elevator counterweights

to minimize buffeting and airborne noise during operation.

RECOMMENDED PERFORMANCE OF ELEVATORS

The office building types of buildings, its average waiting interval is 25 to

30 seconds and its percentage of total population handled over (5 min period)

is 12 to 15%. Meanwhile, Apartment buildings should have 50 to 80 seconds of

average waiting interval and the percentage of total population is 5 to 8% only.

For the dormitories, the average waiting interval should be 50 to 70 seconds,

and the percentage of total population is 10 to 15% only. Lastly, for the hotels,

the average waiting intervals for the elevators is 40 to 70 seconds, and its

percentage of total population is the same with dormitories.

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ESCALATORS

An escalator is a power-driven, continuously moving stairway system used

for transporting people. They can move in a linear or spiral (curved) manner.

Escalators can be placed in the same physical space as stairs. They have

the capacity to move large numbers of people. In contrast to the elevator,

escalators have no waiting interval. As a result, they are typically used in

department stores, shopping malls, sporting arenas, stadiums, airports,

convention centers, hotels, subways, office complexes, and public buildings.

Factors that affect escalator design include physical requirements

(vertical and horizontal distance to be spanned), location, traffic patterns,

safety considerations, and aesthetic preferences.

TYPES OF ESCALATORS

 SPIRAL ESCALATORS are designed to match the curve of a building. They are

used to move pedestrian traffic in places where elevators would be

impractical or less efficient. Analysis typically shows that 15 to 20 elevators

are needed to move the occupant capacity of an escalator system.

 STEP TYPE ESCALATOR is the common type of escalator today. The steps are

usually metal, but very old step type escalators had wooden steps. Step type

escalators can also go up/down, flat, then up/down again. On Otis Next

Step escalators, the escalator steps are mounted on most likely hinged

circles, and the track appears to be besides the steps, visible from above the
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steps. This type of escalator is designed to be safer than other step type of

escalators.

 WHEELCHAIR ACCESSIBLE ESCALATORS are unique to Japan. They are usually

operated by two staff – one stops people from getting on the escalator by

roping off the top and bottom, while the other staff member uses a key to

change the escalator the wheelchair mode.

 CLEAT TYPE ESCALATOR had cleated metal, later wood treads that are

slanted.

 LEVYTATOR is a new type of escalator, the freeform escalator that can curve

multiple times, in either direction. There are 2 escalators, which share a

continuous loop of steps. The 2 escalators can curve differently. A working

prototype has been built, but currently the inventor is looking for a company

to mass-produce, and sell the new type of escalator. The steps are uniquely-

shaped.
 199

Standard dimensions and design capacities of escalators are

Listed in Tables 24.6 and 24.7.

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BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN ESCALATOR SYSTEM

Although expensive and large, escalators are basic machines. The

escalator drive unit is a machine that drives the escalator. It is comprised of an

electric motor, decelerator, electromagnetic brake, V belt, sprocket, and other

components. It is powered by constant speed AC electric motor.

The sprocket drive is comprised of wheels installed at top and bottom

(each end) to drive the steps (pallets). The top sprocket drives the moving steps,

while the Bottom sprocket turns the steps.

The steps (pallets) are made from one-piece, die-cast aluminum or steel.

They serve as the moving platform on which an escalator passenger rides.

Individual steps move up or down on tracks, which keep the topside of the steps

(treads) horizontal. Steps are attached to a continuously circulating belt or

pallet system.

The balustrade is the side of an escalator system. It extends above the

steps and includes skirt panels, interior panels, decks, and handrails.

A moving handrail provides a handhold that riders use for balance and

safety on their ride up or down. The handrail is powered by the same system that

powers the steps. It moves along the top of the balustrade in synchronization

with the steps.

The truss is an assembly of structural steel that serves to support the

escalator load. Ends of the truss are attached to top and bottom landing

platforms. The machinery of an escalator is hidden beneath its steps and within
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the truss. At the top of the escalator, housed in the truss, is an electric motor that

runs the drive gears.

There are two drive gears on either side at the top and two return gears

on either side at the bottom. These gears have chains that loop around the

gears and run down each side of the escalator. Connected to each step, these

chains help the steps make their way up, or down, the escalator. Escalators are

powered by constant-speed alternating current motors and are designed to

move at approximately 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) per second.

A single passenger (24 in> 600 mm) escalator traveling at 1.5 feet (0.45 m)

per second can move about 170 persons per 5-min period. The carrying

capacity of an escalator must match the expected peak traffic demand.

The maximum angle of inclination of an escalator, measured from the

horizontal floor level, is typically 30°. A standard total rise for a commercial

escalator can be up to about 60 ft (18 m). Transit escalators can have a total

rise up to 164 ft (50.0 m).

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Escalator Arrangement

A single escalator takes passengers up one floor; that is, it travels up but

there is no downward travel. A single noncontinuous arrangement is a set of

interrupted escalators, all traveling up from floor to floor; it has no downward

travel. It requires a passenger traveling multiple floors to get off, walk a distance

to the other side of the escalator system to get on the next escalator before

traveling to the next upper floor.

A single continuous arrangement is a set of up-only escalators that zigzag

back and forth as they move floor to floor; a passenger traveling multiple floors

gets off one escalator, takes a few steps, and gets on the next escalator to

travel to the next upper floor.

 203

Single escalators are energy efficient because they only travel upward,

saving the energy consumed to take passengers downward. They are popular in

many areas of the world but not in the United States.

 204

In the United States, escalators are typically installed in pairs with one

going up and the other going down. The arrangements used are the crisscross,

continuous parallel, and non-continuous parallel systems.

Travel on the non-continuous parallel arrangement is less efficient than the

crisscross and continuous parallel arrangements because it requires a passenger

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traveling multiple floors to get off, walk a distance to the other side of the

escalator system to get on the next escalator before traveling to the next upper

floor. Although crisscross and continuous parallel arrangements move

passengers efficiently, the non-contiguous parallel arrangement is preferred in

shopping centers and malls. It makes shoppers get off and walk to the next

escalator, forcing them to peruse merchandise as they walk on between

escalators.

WALKWAYS AND RAMPS

Moving Walkways

A moving walkway is a power-driven, continuous, slow-moving conveyor

belt that transports people horizontally. We can usually see or use this in airports.

It is like an escalator without the steps. They are also called moving sidewalks,

moving pavement, walkalator, and travelators. An inclined moving walkway

also called a moving ramp or power ramp, is a moving walkway that transports

people on an incline, up to a 12° angle of inclination. Moving walkways are

more accessible to those in wheelchairs, as it is much easier to use than getting

in and out of small elevators.

 206

Components of moving walkways are shown in Photos 24.12 through 24.14.

Inclined moving walkway Horizontal moving walkway

There are two types of walkway technologies: pallet type and moving belt.

The pallet-type walkway is a continuous series of flat metal plates, called pallets,

that are joined together to form a walkway. Usually, there is a metal or rubber

surface (extra traction). Moving belt walkway systems are comprised of a mesh

metal or rubber belt with a rubber walking surface that moves over metal

rollers.

Once on the walkway, riders can stand or walk. Some riders complain that

the rollers below the belt tend to cause a “bouncy” feel. Walkways are typically
 207

installed in pairs, with one for each direction of travel. Walkways typically

operate at 90 to 120 fpm (27 to 37 m/min) and are up to 500 ft (~150 m) long.

Capacities and design strategies for moving walks and moving ramps are shown

in Table 24.8.

Ramps

Ramps are sloped pathways used both inside and outside of the building

to provide access between vertical levels. Ramps provide an alternative to stairs

for wheelchair users, people with mobility issues, and people with prams,

bicycles, and other wheeled items.

These ramps, which can be permanent installations or portable and

modular models, can enable people to access different areas in their house

without asking other individuals for help. Aside from providing easy access,

ramps also help make sure that people with disabilities can freely move around

safely.
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The ramp’s gradient, slope, or steepness is the angular relationship

between its rise (vertical height) and its horizontal projection or length (run),

often expressed as a ratio. The rise may be set at a unit of one, so that, for

example, a slope of 1:20 means that as each dimensional unit of height rises or

falls, the dimensional unit of length runs out by 20 units. A ramp that is too steep

a slope will be difficult for people to use and could even be unsafe, whilst a

ramp with too shallow a slope can require excessive length.

There are a wide range of issues that must be considered in the design of

ramps, including;

1. The appropriate steepness, length and width.

2. The distance between landings.

3. The users and the mode of assistance they are likely to require.

4. Surface materials.

5. Approach and access onto the ramp.

6. The position of handrails and barriers.

7. Placement of door handles and the swing direction of doors.

8. Impact of a ramp on available space, existing trees, vegetation, and so

on.
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OTHER SYSTEMS

WHEELCHAIR LIFT

A wheelchair lift is a mechanical device used to lift wheelchairs,

allowing easy access to people who use wheelchairs or have trouble stepping

up. These devices are powered by electricity or hydraulics, but are designed

to operate manually in the event that one of the power sources fails.

The wheelchair lift does not operate until all gates are secure and

the wheelchair and its passenger are in place.

A wheelchair lift is a type of Platform lift that can be use in the home

or the business. Any wheelchair lifts that we provide are guaranteed to

comply with the current regulations , ensuring that individuals with disabilities

have the same opportunities to access facilities and utilize services.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF WHEELCHAIR LIFTS

 Inclined Platform lift

Are manufactured for indoor or outdoor applications. An

inclined platform lift moves along the angle of the stairs to carry a person in

a wheelchair up a staircase, or even on a fold out seat on the platform, if

equipped.
 210

It can be found in residences, schools, churches and public

buildings. These are very useful for people who have difficulty in climbing stairs.

 Vertical Platform lift

Are customized to suit any commercial building application or it can

be installed as a home elevator.

Are elevator like mobility solutions which can transport a

wheelchair, power chair, power scooter, or other mobility device vertically

between levels. They are available in a range of lifting heights, from a few

inches to 14 feet.

Vertical platform lifts work like an elevator to raise a wheelchair and

its passenger smoothly and effortlessly straight up and down. Most rise

about 4.5 feet, but some will go as high as 14 feet, enough to reach a

second floor. They take up less than 30 square feet and can avoid the

space problems of long ramps

 Portable Wheelchair lift

The Portable Wheelchair lift or the Mobilift is specially designed for

easy functionality in school stages, outdoor bleachers, vertical raised platforms,

and also in numerous other applications.

 211

Portable wheelchair lifts are an excellent solution when ADA access is

required but a permanent installation is not feasible or desired.

Not only are these portable wheelchair lifts perfect for use at homes, but

they are especially useful and practical in transit applications including boats,

ferries, commuter trains, and aircraft. They’re also useful for temporary use such

as music, entertainment, and other events. Because the portable wheelchair

lift relies on manual operation, they do not require a power source and can

be used virtually anywhere.

 Stairway chair lift

A stair lift is a mechanical device for lifting people, typically those

with disabilities, up and down stairs. For sufficiently wide stairs, a rail is

mounted to the treads of the stairs. A chair or lifting platform is attached to the

rail. A person gets onto the chair or platform and is lifted up or down the

stairs by the chair which moves along the rail.

Describes electric chair lifts used to move between building floors

by riding on a chair operated by controls on the chair arm or on the

building wall.
 212

 Emergency Evacuation Device

Transportation device with rubber-tracked wheelbase that

transports persons with disabilities down stairways and out of buildings that may

be under threat of fire, hurricane, earthquake, or bombing.

Available to help remove individuals with mobility impairments

from buildings.

These devices typically help individuals quickly move people with

mobility limitations down the stairs or across rough terrain.

 Limited use / Limited application (lula) Elevator

The LULA (Limited Use Limited Application) elevator provides

vertical transportation for low rise buildings when a full sized passenger elevator

is not required or practical.

Small-scale fully automatic elevators with shallow pits that can be

utilized in limited use applications.

These products have extended travel compared to a vertical platform lift

but are much less expensive than a full passenger elevator.

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 CAR LIFTS

A car lifts installed in a small parking garage were ramps are not

feasible . The platforms are raised and lowered hydraulically and are

connected to steel chain gears. In addition to the vertical motion, the platforms

can rotate about its vertical axis (up to 180°) to ease driver access and/or

accommodate building plans.

All car parking lifts are made to elevate a vehicle on a platform in order

to create a space for a second car to park underneath. They can also safely

lower that platform once the second car moves back out as well. However, the

means by which car lifts achieve their movements may vary. Hydraulic power is

a mechanism you might frequently see used in car lifts.

 PEOPLE MOVERS

An automated people mover (APM) is a fully automated, grade

separated mass transit system. The term is generally used only to describe

systems serving relatively small areas such as airports, downtown districts or

theme parks.

People movers are ideal for carrying more passengers than you can fit in

a sedan or wagon. They tend to have at least seven seats, and the third

row generally has more room than a large SUV. Most modern people movers
 214

are based on a regular passenger car chassis, which makes for a more

comfortable and dynamic driving experience than the early people movers

that were based on commercial vans.

MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENTS

Is a mechanical device used to move and store materials and goods.

This equipment consists of trolleys, conveyors, forklifts, automated

storage/retrieval systems, cargo and baggage handlers, carousels, rail-guided

vehicles, automated guided vehicles, and intelligent flexible modular

conveyors. Facilitate the reduction in material damage as to improve quality.

Reducing overall manufacturing time by designing efficient material movement.

Improve material flow control. Creation and encouragement of safe and

hazard-free work condition.

4 TYPES OF MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

 Storage and Handling Equipment

Is usually limited to non-automated examples, which are grouped in

with engineered systems. Storage equipment is used to hold or buffer

materials during “downtimes,” or times when they are not being transported.

These periods could refer to temporary pauses during long-term

transportation or long-term storage designed to allow the buildup of

 215

stock. The majority of storage equipment refers to pallets, shelves or racks

onto which materials may be stacked in an orderly manner to await

transportation or consumption.

 Engineered Systems

It is a cover of a variety of units that work cohesively to enable

storage and transportation. They are often automated.

A good example of an engineered system is an Automated Storage

and Retrieval System, often abbreviated AS/RS, which is a large

automated organizational structure involving racks, aisles and shelves

accessible by a “shuttle” system of retrieval. The shuttle system is a mechanized

cherry picker that can be used by a worker or can perform fully

automated functions to quickly locate a storage item’s location and quickly

retrieve it for other uses.

 Industrial Material Handling Trucks

Refer to the different kinds of transportation items and vehicles used

to move materials and products in materials handling. These

transportation devices can include small hand-operated trucks, pallet jacks,

and various kinds of forklifts.

 216

These trucks have a variety of characteristics to make them suitable

for different operations. Some trucks have forks, as in a forklift, or a flat

surface with which to lift items, while some trucks require a separate piece

of equipment for loading. Trucks can also be manual or powered lift

and operation can be walk or ride, requiring a user to manually push them

or to ride along on the truck.

 Bulk Material Handling Equipment

Refers to the storing, transportation and control of materials in loose

bulk form. Generally, these pieces of equipment deal with the items in loose

form, such as conveyor belts or elevators designed to move large quantities

of material, or in packaged form, through the use of drums and hoppers

 PATERNOSTER

A paternoster is a special type of elevator consisting of a con stantly

moving chain of boxes. A similar concept moves only a small platform, which

the rider mounts while using a handhold and was once seen in multistory

industrial plants. It is a passenger elevator which consists of a chain of

open compartments (each usually designed for two people) that move slowly

in a loop up and down inside a building without stopping. Passengers can step

on or off at any floor they like. The same technique is also used for filing

cabinets to store large amounts of (paper) documents or for small spare parts.
 217

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