AP Chemistry Mid-Term Review:

1. Domocritus- (460-370 B.C) All matter is made up of various imperishable, indivisible elements which he called
atom or "indivisible units", from which we get the English word atom.

2. Antonie Lavoisier- (1743-1794) Father of modern Chemistry; was a French nobleman, law of conservation of
mass, oxygen, hydrogen, Phlogiston theory, list of elements, beheaded because of being a tax collector.

3. Joseph Proust- (1754-1826) Law of definite proportions

4. John Dalton (1766-1844) Atomic Theory

The Four postulates:

1.) Each element is composed of tiny particles called atoms.

2.) All atoms of a given element are identical, and all atoms of different elements are different.

3.) Atoms are not created or destroyed in chemical reactions. They are dissociated, combined, or
recombined.

4.) Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with one another. A given
compound always contains the same relative numbers and types of atoms.

5. J.J Thompson- Found that there is a negatively charged particle in an atom though the use of a caulton ray tube
where a beam of light was pushed toward a positively charged electric field. He is also known for the plum pudding
model, one of the figures of an atom.

6. Earnest Rutherford (1871-1937) Rutherford model, the nucleus is a very small positively charged core containing
protons and neutrons. Negatively charged electrons are extremely tiny and occupy the vast majority of the atoms
volume (free space). This model was based off of the Gold foil experiment where he sent alpha partials though an
atoms and notice that not all the partials when through but rather some bounded back. He made a conclusion based
on this saying that there must be a small positively charged center.

7. Isotope- Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons. Ex. C14 and
C12

8. Nuclear Symbol- The nuclear symbol consists of three parts: the symbol of the element, the atomic number of the
element and the mass number of the specific isotope.

Ex:

9. Atomic Mass- The mass of a single atom, which can only be one isotope at a time and is not an abundance-
weighted average

10. Average Atomic Mass- To find the average atomic mass of an atom, we take into account all of the isotopes that
exist and the percentage of each type. The calculation of the average atomic mass is a weighted average. The atomic
mass given to you on the periodic table is an average of all the isotopes of that element.
 
Average atomic mass = Σ (mass of isotope × relative abundance)
Average atomic mass of copper = (62.93 amu × 0.6909) + (64.94 amu × 0.3091)= 63.55

11. % Abundance - the percentage of each type of isotope that exists in a given sample of an element
12. Molecular Formula – the exact formula of a molecule, giving the types of atoms and the number of each type

13. Empirical Formula – the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound

14. Wavelength – the distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave

15. Frequency – the number of waves (cycles) per second that pass a given point in space

16. Speed of Light – 3.0 X 10^8 ms^-1 – the speed at which light travels in a vacuum

17. Continuous Spectrum – a spectrum that exhibits all the wavelengths of visible light; results when a white light is
passed through a prism

18. Atomic Spectrum - a spectrum of radiation caused by electron transitions within an atom; the series of spectrum
lines is characteristic of the element 

19. Plank’s Constant – 6.626 X 10^-34 Js – used to determine the changes in energy for a system along with n and
frequency

20. Energy of an Electron - 2.18 x 10 - 18 J

21. DeBroglie- said all particles in motion exhibit wave like properties and the wavelength of a moving particle is
inversely proportional to its mass according to the equation, λ = h / mv.

22. Heisenberg- it is impossible to know the exact position and momentum of an electron at any time, you can
measure one but not both.

23. Principle quantum number- (n) energy level of the shell- 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

24. Angular momentum quantum number- (l) defines the shape of type of orbital- s, p, d, f and can be no more then
n-1.

25. Magnetic quantum number- (m) denotes the energy levels available within a sub shell and is an orientation in
space.

Ex- -2, -1, 0, 1, 2

26. Electronic spin quantum numbers- (ms) which way the electron spins- +1/2, -1/2

27. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle- No two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers in the same atom.

28. Orbital- the area where an electron will be found 95% of the time.

29. Electron configuration- arrangement of electrons in an atom (1 s 2, 2 s 2, 2 p 6, 3 s 2, 3 p6, 4 s 2, 3 d 10, 4 p 6, 5 s 2,

10 6 2 14 10 6 2 14 10 6
4 d , 5 p , 6 s , 4 f , 5d , 6 p , 7 s , 5f , 6d , 7 p
30. Orbital notation- There are 4 orbital’s; the s, p, d, and f. The s is round shaped and holds 2 electrons; the p is
dumbbell shaped and holds 6 electrons. The d and f are complex shaped and hold 10 and 14 electrons respectively.

31. Noble Gas Configuration-

How do we construct the noble gas configuration of an element?

1. Spot the element being configured on the periodic table.

2. Find the noble gas in the row before it. This is the element that will go in brackets.
3. From the noble gas, follow down to the next row to state the electron configuration up until the element
desired.
4. Put the bracketed noble gas and the electron configuration together.
i.e.- Ca: (Ar)4 S 2

32. Aufbau Principle- Orbital’s occupy the lowest energy levels first.

33. Hunds’ Rule- Split up before pairing them up

34. Paramagnetic-

 An induced magnetism, which causes a substance to be attracted into the inducing magnetic field.
 associated with unpaired e-

35. Diamagnetic-

 Causes the substance to be repelled from the inducing magnetic field.

 Associated with paired e-

36. Periodicity-

 Predictable physical and chemical trends that occur as one moves across a period or down a group in the
periodic table.
+ Atomic Radii + Ionization energies + Electronegativity + Ionic Radius + Electron Affinities

37. Atomic Radius-

 ½ the distance between the nuclei of identical atoms that are bonded together
 More protons = more pull
 Down a group- radius increases- shielding
 Left to right- radius decreases- PPPP

38. Ionic Radius-

 Group of atoms having negative or positive charge.

 Cations(+)- loose electrons, radius gets smaller.
 Anions(-)- gain electrons, radius gets larger.

39. Ionization Energy-

 Amount of energy required to remove 1 electron.

 Always positive
  1st ionization energy is always smaller than the 2nd.
 Increases from left to right, decreases from top to bottom on a periodic table.

40. Electron Affinity-

 How much an element wants an electron.
 Energy change that occurs when electron is acquired.
 If the value is negative, it releases energy
- It wants to accept the electron…the more negative, the more it wants to accept.
 If the energy value is positive, it requires energy and does NOT want to accept the electron.
 Increases left to right, decreases from top to bottom on a periodic table.

41. Electronegativity- the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself.

42. Isoelectronic Species - a group of ions, atoms, or molecules that have the same arrangement of electrons.

43. PPPP - Positive proton pulling power, protons pull electrons in towards the nucleus more tightly and with more
protons, the atomic radius decreases.

44. Shielding - a process in which inner electrons at lower energy levels block the proton's force of attraction
towards the nucleus, removing outer electrons becomes easier.

45. Naming Ionic Compounds - If an element forms cations with different charges, the charge must be specified
with roman numerals. ex) CuS is written as Copper(II) Sulfide

Polyatomic ions

Oxoanions - Hypo__ite - 2 less oxygens than -ate

____ite - 1 less oxygen than -ate

____ate

Per___ate - 1 more oxygen than -ate

46. Variable Charge Land - The d-block of the periodic table, charges cannot be determined simply by period.

47. Magic Triangle - The triangle of Zn, Ag, and Cd. Zn has a charge of +2, Ag has a charge of +1 and Cd has a
charge of +2.

48. Stealth Bomber – The elements B, C, N, O, F, Cl, Br, F, I, and At make the wings. They all have an -ate ending
with 3 oxygen. The elements Si, P, S, As, Se, and Te make up the cabin. They all have an –ate ending with 4
oxygens. The charges on the ions also go as follows: -3, -2, -1, -3 (which would be on the same column as -1), -2, -
1. The reason for this is because the Nitrogen is -1. For more information though please see the hand out from
summer.

49. Naming Covalent Compounds - Two words with prefixes - mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona,
deca

- the first word takes the name of the element with the suitable prefix (prefix mono is not used on
the first element)

- the second word takes the name of the element with the -ide suffix and the suitable prefix

50. Naming acids-oxygen containing - oxygen containing acids have polyatomic anions, write the name of the
polyatomic anion but change -ate to -ic and -ite to -ous, then add the word acid.
 Non-oxygen containing - write the name of the anion but change -ide to -ic, add the prefix hydro-
and the word acid.

51. Naming Hydrates – AB • nH2O, where AB is the compound and n is the number of water molecules present per
molecule/formula unit of the compound.

52. % H2O in a Hydrate – Similar to Mass%, only using water instead of an element.

53. Molecular Weight vs. Formula Weight – Molecular weight: mass of a single molecule of a covalent compound;
Formula Weight: mass of one formula unit of an ionic compound.

54. Mass % - Percentage by mass of an element in a substance.

(atoms of element)(element’s atomic mass)

(formula weight of compound)

55. Mole – unit of amount (of anything), equal to approximately 6.022x1023

56. Limiting Reagent – The reactant completely reacted in a reaction

57. Excess Reagent – The reactant(s) not used up in a reaction

Calculate for both the amount of a product formed by the reactant; the one which forms less is the
limiting reagent.

58. %Yield – actual amount yielded divided by amount theoretically yielded multiplied by 100%; never equal to
100%

59. Calculating Empirical Formula –

1.Convert grams to moles for all elements. If given percents, assume a 100g sample.
2.Divide all by the lowest number of moles, and round. If a number is close to x.33 or x.67,
multiply all by 3; if it’s close to x.25 or x.75, multiply by 4; and if it’s close to x.5, multiply
by 2.
3. These numbers are the subscripts for the compound.
60. Calculating Molecular Formula – Everything for molecular formula first. Then:

1.Determine the formula weight of the empirical formula.

2.Divide the molar mass of the compound by this, and round it.
3.multiply all subscripts in the empirical formula by this number; this will give you the
molecular formula.
61. Empirical Formula from Combustion-

 Calculate the mass of C in the compound by converting the grams of CO2 to moles of CO2. 
When we get the moles of CO2 we have the moles of C because the moles of C equals the moles
of the CO2.  We get the grams of C by multiplying the moles of C by 12.0(the atomic mass of C.)

 Calculate the mass of H by converting the grams of H2O to moles of H2O.  When we get the
moles of H2O we get the moles of H by multiplying the moles of H2O by two (because each mole
of H2O contains two moles of H). We get the grams of H by multiplying the moles of H by 1.01
(the atomic mass of H.)

 Calculate the mass of O by finding the sum of the grams of C and H, and subtracting this number
from the total grams of compound
62. Octet Rule- the observations that atoms of nonmetals tend to form the most stable molecules when they are
surrounded by eight electrons

63. Ionic Bond- the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions

64. Lattice Energy- the energy change occurring when separated gaseous ions are packed together to form an ionic
solid

65. Endothermic- refers to a reaction where energy (as heat) flows into the system

66. Exothermic- refers to a reaction where energy (as heat) flows out of the system

67. Electrostatic Equation- F= (kq1q2 )/r2

68. Properties of Ionic Solids-

 Ionic solids are poor conductors of electricity and heat.

 Ionic solids are generally high melting (more than 150 degrees C).
 Ionic solids are hard and brittle.
 Ionic solids melt to form liquids that are an electrical conductors.
 Ionic solids that are water soluble, dissolve to form solutions that are electrical conductors. ( Not all ionic
substances are water soluble.)

69. Covalent Bonds- a type of bonding in which electrons are shared by atoms

70. Bond Polarity-

 Identical non-metallic atoms have identical electronegativities and form non-polar covalent bonds since the
bonding electrons will be shared equally between the atoms in the molecule.
 When atoms of similar, but different, electronegativities (a difference < ~1.7) bond, the more
electronegative atom has a greater share of the bonding electrons than the less electronegative atom. The
more electronegative atom has a partial negative charge, and the less electronegative atom has a partial
positive charge. The resulting covalent bond is called a polar covalent bond.
 Non-metals are more electronegative than metals. When an extremely electronegative atom, like fluorine,
bonds with an electropositive atom, like sodium, the resulting bond is ionic due to the huge difference in
electronegativity (difference > ~1.7). The electronegative atom's pull on the bonding electrons is so strong
that it pulls the bonding electron off the electropositive atom resulting in two oppositely charged ions
which are held together by electrostatic attraction (an ionic bond).

71. Dipole Moment- a property of a molecule whose charge distribution can be represented by a center of positive
charge and a center of negative charge

72. Lewis Structure- a diagram of a molecule showing how the valence electrons are arranged among the atoms in
the molecule

73. Resonance Structure- a condition occurring when more tan one valid Lewis structure can be written for a
particular molecule. The actual electronic structure is not represented by any one of the Lewis structures but by the
average of al of them

74. Exceptions to the Octet Rule- Boron and Beryllium have incomplete octets; and atoms in periods 3-7 may
expand their octets due to the fact that they have an empty D-shell

75. Formal Charge- the charge assigned to an atom in a molecule or polyatomic ion derived from a specific set of
rules; the difference between the number of valence electrons on the free atom and the number of valence electrons
assigned to the atom in the molecule

76. Bond Energy- the energy required to break a given chemical bond

77. Bond Energy v. Bond Length- as the number of bonds between two atoms increases the bond length decreases
and the bond energy increases; as the atomic radii of bonding atoms increases, the bong length increases and the
bond energy decreases; a closer proximity to the shared electrons for a stronger force of attraction between protons
and bonding electrons therefore requiring more energy to break the bond

78. Effective Bonds- I have no idea, so pleas ask and write down something in the space below…and this goes for
the next one also.
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79. Effective Bond v. Bond Length-

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80. VSEPR- Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion; a model whose main postulate is that the structure around a
given atom in a molecule is determined principally by minimizing electron-pair repulsions.

81. Valence Bond Theory- Also know as the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory; it is where the charge
clouds repel each other and the terminal atoms move as far away from one another as possible resulting in
distinctive geometrics shapes.
 Step 1: Count the number of charge clouds, bonds and lone pairs around the central atom. (Coordination #)
Step 2: Predict the shape

It is a combination of the Lewis Theory of filling octets by sharing pairs of electrons with the electron
configuration of atomic orbitals. This theory states that bonding occurs when atomic orbital overlap.

82. Hybridization- Though the valence bond theory has problems with the shape this is where hybridization comes
in. Valence bond theory says 90 degrees and a random angle for the fluorine bonded to the s-orbital. VSEPR theory
says 120 degrees. The solution for this is Hybrid Orbital’s. When an electron is promoted; the 2s, 2px; 2py orbitals
of boron morph into three separate sp2 hybrid orbital’s that are identical in shape and size.

83. Sigma bonds- (σ bonds) are the strongest type of covalent chemical bond In this formal approach, a σ-bond is
symmetrical with respect to rotation about the bond axis.

84. Pi bonds- (π bonds) are covalent chemical bonds where two lobes of one involved electron orbital overlap two
lobes of the other involved electron orbital. Only one of the orbital's nodal planes passes through both of the
involved nuclei.

85. Solution- is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is
dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.

86. Electrolytes- An electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that behaves as an electrically conductive
medium. Because they generally consist of ions in solution, electrolytes are also known as ionic solutions.

87. Non-Electrolyte- A substance that does exist in an ionic form in aqueous (water) solution.

Ex. Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is a non-electrolyte because it does not ionize when dissolved in water.

88. Weak Electrolyte- Weak Acids, some dissociation (Low conductivity). Ex. Acidic acid

89. Strong Electrolyte- Strong Acids, complete dissociation (High conductivity). Ex. Hydrochloric acid

90. Solvent- A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution. A
universal solvent is water.

91. Solute- In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent. Or in Mrs. Carson’s
words, the thing you have less of. A common example is a solid, such as salt or sugar, dissolved in water, a liquid.
Gases may dissolve in liquids, for example, carbon dioxide or oxygen in water.

92. Aqueous Solution- It is a solution in which water is the solvent.

93. Dissolving (Reaction) – Not exactly sure what she is looking for so here is a space for writing and math work.

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94. Ionic Size vs. Velocity in Solution- Smaller ions have stronger electric fields so they drag more water molecules
around with them.

95. Like Dissolves Like- Non-Polar Molecules Dissolve in Non-Polar solvents. Polar molecules dissolve in polar
solvents. Ex: H 2 O and Methanol.

96. Single Replacement Rxn- Is when an element or ion moves out of one compound and into another. (One element
is replaced by another in a compound.) This is usually written as A + BX → AX + B. Some examples are:

1. Cu + 2AgNO3 → 2Ag + Cu(NO3)2

2. Fe + Cu(NO3)2 → Fe(NO3)2 + Cu
3. Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2
4. Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

97. Activity Series- A stronger oxidizing agent will oxidize a weaker oxidizing agent. Elements can be listed, one
on top of the other, in order of increasing or decreasing activity. Which ever element is most reactive stays as an ion.
Strong Oxidizing Agents are least reactive while Weak Oxidizing Agents more reactive. Oxidizing Agents like to
steal electrons.
2+¿ ¿
2+ ¿→ Zn +Cu ¿
2+ ¿not Cu s +Zn s
¿
2+¿→ Cus + Zn ¿
This will happen Zns +Cu

98. Double Replacement Rxn (Precipitation Rxn)- It occurs between two ionic compounds; in this reaction, the positive
ion, or cation, of one compound combines with the the negative ion, or anion, of the other compound. A precipitation
reaction is a double replacement reaction in which the soluble ions from two separate compounds produce one soluble and
one insoluble compound. The insoluable compound settles out of the solution as a solid called a precipitate. The generic
equation for a precipitation is as follows:

99. Net Ionic Equation - Net ionic equations are equations that show only the soluble, strong electrolytes reacting
(these are represented as ions) and omit the spectator ions, which go through the reaction unchanged. When you
encounter net ionic equations on the SAT II Chemistry test, you’ll need to remember the following solubility rules,
so memorize them! Also keep in mind that net ionic equations, which are the bare bones of the chemical reaction,
usually take place in aqueous environments. Here are those solubility rules:

1. Most alkali metal compounds and compounds are soluble.

2. Cl-, Br-, I- compounds are soluble, except when they contain Ag+, , or Pb2+.
3. F- compounds are soluble, except when they contain group 2A metals.

4. , , , and CH3COO- compounds are soluble.

5. compounds are soluble, except when they include Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Ag+, Pb2+, or .
6. , , , , S , OH , and O compounds are insoluble.
2- - 2-

7. Group 2A metal oxides are classified as strong bases even though they are not very soluble.

100. Colors of Precipitates-

Solid Precipitant Formed Color

 PbI 2 Bright Yellow
CdS Dark Yellow
PbS Black
Ag2 S Black
Ni(OH )2 Green
Al(OH )3 White
PbSO 4 White
BaSO 4 White
Ca 3 ( PO¿ ¿ 4)2 ¿ White
AgCl White

101. Oxidation State- Provides a way to keep track of electrons in oxidation-reduction reactions. Numbers are
arbitrarily assigned to electrons.

102. Oxidation- An increase in oxidation state (a loss of electrons).

103. Reduction- A decrease in oxidation state (a gain of electrons).

104. Redox Balancing in Acid- A reaction that takes place in an acidic solution. It involves the addition of hydrogen
ions and water molecules to balance out charges.

105. Redox Balancing in Base- A reaction that takes place in a basic solution. It involves the addition of hydrogen
ions, water molecules, and hydroxides to balance the reaction.

106. Oxidizing Agent- A reactant that accepts electrons form another reactant.

107. Reducing Agent- A reactant that donates electrons to another substance to reduce the oxidation state of one of
its atoms.

108. Disproportionation Reaction- A reaction in which a given element is both oxidized and reduced.

109. Synthesis Reaction- A reaction between two or more simple substances that combine to form a more complex
compound.

110. Combustion Reaction- The vigorous and exothermic reaction that takes place between certain substances,
particularly organic compounds and oxygen.

111. Decomposition Reaction- A reaction in which one reactant breaks down into multiple, smaller products.

112. Thermodynamics- The study of energy and its interconversions.

113. System- The part of the universe on which attention is being focused.

114. Surroundings- Everything in the universe surrounding a thermodynamic reaction.

115. Enthalpy (ΔH) of Reaction- the change in heat of a system in a thermodynamic reaction.

116. Heat vs. Temperature- Temperature is a measure of the heat contained in any system, whereas heat is energy
transferred between two objects as a result of a temperature difference.
117. Calorimetry- The science of measuring heat flow.

118. Specific Heat Capacity- The energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree
Celsius.

119. Bomb Calorimetry vs. Water- Bomb calorimetry takes place in a highly insulated “bomb” where the substance
is combusted, and the change in temperature of the bomb is noted. In water calorimetry, the substance is
combusted chemically in water, and the change in temperature of the water is noted.

120. Hess’ Law- In going from a particular set of reactants to a particular set of products, the enthalpy change is the
same whether the reaction takes place in one step or in a series of steps; in summary, enthalpy is a state
function.

121. Enthalpy of formation- amount of energy required to form compounds; ΔHof

o- standard state (25oC, 1atm)

ΔH

f- formation

122. Enthalpy from Bond Energies- method for finding change in enthalpy.

ΔH= ΣBE(bonds broken) – ΣBE(bonds formed)

123. q vs. H- q- heat lost or gained by water; H- heat released or absorbed in the reaction; H=-q; H in KJ; q in J;

q=mcΔT; ΔH= ΔH(products)- ΔH(reactants).

124. Entropy- amount of chaos; positive entropy is favorable

125. Spontaneous Reaction- ΔG must be negative.

126. Non-spontaneous Reaction-ΔG is positive.

127. 1st law of thermodynamics- energy in the universe is constant.

128. 2nd law of thermodynamics- entropy of the universe is constantly increasing. ΔH ΔS Spontaneity

129. Gibbs Free Energy- maximum amount of energy that can be used to do work.

ΔG=ΔH-TΔS - + Spontaneous at all

temperatures
130. Temperature of Spontaneity-
+ - Non-spontaneous at
all temperatures

- - Spontaneous at low
temperatures

+ + Spontaneous at high
temperatures