Section 3.

6
Consolidation Settlement
Calculations

3.6-1
1.1-1
 Introduction to Consolidation Settlement Calculations

• In this subsection, we will look at how we can perform calculations

to estimate the consolidation settlement of a clay or silt layer under
one-dimensional loading conditions.

• In order to estimate one-dimensional consolidation settlement, the

value of either (a) the coefficient of volume compressibility mv or (b)
the compression index Cc of the soil layer is required.
(a) the coefficient of volume compressibility mv or
(b) the compression index Cc of the soil layer is required.
of the soil layer is required.
• We have come across these two parameters in parts of Section 3.5,
which describes how the values of these parameters can be derived
from the oedometer test results. See Slide 3.5-15/16 for the mv
parameter and Slide 3.5-18/19 for the Cc and Cs parameters.
• In this subsection, we will see how we can make use of either of
these parameters to perform soil settlement calculations.

3.6-2
 Introduction to Consolidation Settlement Calculations

• Consider a layer of saturated soil of thickness H.

• Say we have a uniform pressure loading ’ applied to the top of
the soil layer over a very large area, and we want to calculate how
much the soil layer would compress (or settle) under this loading.
• Let this settlement of the soil be denoted as H, as shown on the
figure below.
’

H

3.6-3
 Consolidation Settlement Due to Void Ratio Change
• If a clay layer of total thickness H is subjected to an increase of average
effective overburden pressure ’, so that its effective stress increases
from ’0 to ’1, (that is, ’ = ’1 - ’0), then it will undergo a consolidation
settlement of H.
• We can look at the settlement by considering (i) the entire layer in the field
(left hand side) or (ii) the equivalent phase diagram in which the volume of
the solids is taken as 1.
• In the phase diagram, the initial volume of voids = e0 corresponding the
effective stress level = ’0. The change in volume due to the load
application ’ (= ’1 - ’0) is reflected as the change in void ratio e.
Field Phase Diagram
Initial average effective pressure = ’0 Initial average effective pressure = ’0
Final average effective pressure = ’1 Final average effective pressure = ’1

H e

H Volume of
void = e0

Volume of
solids = 1
3.6-4
 Consolidation Settlement Due to Void Ratio Change
• If we consider the field representation of the soil layer on the left
hand side, then the strain in the soil layer is given by
 = H/H (1)
• If we consider the equivalent phase diagram of this layer where the
volume of solids = 1, the initial volume of voids = e0 (when
effective stress = ’0) and the change in the volume of voids = e
(due to the application of  = ’1 - ’0), then the strain in this layer
is given by
 = e/(1+e0) (2)
Field Phase Diagram
Initial average effective pressure = ’0 Initial average effective pressure = ’0
Final average effective pressure = ’1 Final average effective pressure = ’1

H e

Volume of
void = e0
H

Volume of
solids = 1
3.6-5
 Consolidation Settlement of a Normally Consolidated Soil
• Combining Eqs 1 and 2 from the previous slide
e H e
=  H = H (3)
1 + e0 H 1 + e0
• For a normally consolidated clay in the field, the e-log ’ curve is
shown below:
void ratio e
initial
e0 virgin compression
slope, Cc
e
final
e1

log ’0 log ’1 log ’

• It can be seen from the figure that

e
= Cc  e = C c (log '1 − log '0 ) (4)
(log '1 − log '0 ) 3.6-6
 Consolidation Settlement of a Normally Consolidated Soil

• Substituting Eq. 4 into Eq. 3 :

The consolidation settlement for a normally
consolidated soil is given by

C c (log '1 − log '0 )

H = H
1 + e0

C cH  '1 
 H = log 
1 + e0  ' 0 
C cH  ' 0 +  ' 
 H = log  (5)
1 + e0  ' 0 
3.6-7
 Consolidation Settlement of an Over-consolidated Soil

• The e - log ’ curve of an over-consolidated soil looks as follows:

swelling /
void ratio e recompression
A initial
e0 slope, Cs

B
ec
virgin compression
slope, Cc

log ’0 log ’p log ’

• The initial starting point of an over-consolidated soil will be on the
A-B portion of the e – log ’ curve.
• Note that ’p is the pre-consolidation pressure of the soil.
• Depending on the magnitude of the applied load ’, the final point
of the soil can be located either along A-B or B-C. 3.6-8
Consolidation Settlement of an Over-consolidated Soil : ’0 + ’ < ’p

• If the applied loading ’ is such that ’0 + ’ = ’1 < ’p , then the
final state of the soil will fall on the portion A-B.

swelling /
void ratio e recompression
A initial
e0 slope, Cs
e final
e1 B
ec
virgin compression
slope, Cc

log ’0 log ’1 log ’p log ’

• Since the change from initial to final state takes place fully along
the swelling / recompression line with slope Cs :
e = C s (log '1 − log '0 ) (6)
3.6-9
Consolidation Settlement of an Over-consolidated Soil : ’0 + ’ < ’p

• Substituting Eq. 6 into Eq. 3 :

The consolidation settlement for a over-
consolidated soil in which ’0 + ’ < ’p is
given by
C s (log '1 − log '0 )
H = H
1 + e0

C sH  '1 
 H = log 
1 + e0  ' 0 
C sH  ' 0 +  ' 
 H = log  (7)
1 + e0  ' 0 
3.6-10
Consolidation Settlement of an Over-consolidated Soil : ’0 + ’ > ’p

• If the applied loading ’ is such that ’0 + ’ = ’1 > ’p , then the
final state of the soil will fall on the portion B-C.
swelling /
void ratio e recompression
A initial
e0 slope, Cs
e1 B
ec
e virgin compression
slope, Cc
e2
final
e1

log ’0 log ’p log ’1 log ’

• In this case, the change from initial to final state takes place along
both portions A-B and B-C.

e = e1 + e2 = C s (log 'p − log '0 ) + C c (log '1 − log 'p ) (8)
3.6-11
Consolidation Settlement of an Over-consolidated Soil : ’0 + ’ > ’p

• Substituting Eq. 8 into Eq. 3 :

The consolidation settlement for a over-
consolidated soil in which ’0 + ’ > ’p is
given by

H =
(
C s log 'p − log '0
H+
) (
C c log '1 − log 'p
H
)
1 + e0 1 + e0
C sH  'p  C cH  '1 
 H = log  + log 

1 + e0 
 0' 1 + e 0 
 p'

C sH  'p  C cH  ' 0 +  ' 

 H = log  + log 

(9)
1 + e0 
 0' 1 + e 0   'p 
3.6-12
 Calculation of Consolidation Settlement : Single vs Multiple Layers
• All the equations presented above (Eq. 5, 7 and 9) were for a single
compressible layer.
• The use of a single layer is reasonable if
(a) the properties of the layer does not change with depth
(b) the initial effective stress ’0 is constant throughout the
depth of the layer

• Condition (b) above is likely to break down for a thick soil layer.
This is because, due to self-weight effect, the initial effective
stress ’0 (= sat h) will vary quite significantly with depth for a
thick soil layer.
• Hence, for a thick soil layer, it may be necessary to sub-divide the
single layer into several sublayers of smaller thicknesses.
• The initial effective stress ’0 is then calculated at the mid-depth
of each sublayer, and the appropriate settlement equation (Eq. 5,
7 or 9) is then applied to that sub-layer.
• The settlement of the whole layer is then calculated by summing
up the settlements of all the sublayers. 3.6-13
 Introduction to Secondary Compression
• Secondary compression is a continuation of the volume change
that started during primary consolidation.
• It occurs at a much slower rate compared to primary consolidation.
• Secondary compression is different from primary consolidation in
that it takes place at a constant effective stress, that is, after
essentially all the excess pore pressure has dissipated.
• This component of settlement seems to result from compression
of the bonds between individual clay particles, as well as other
effects on the microscale which are not yet clearly understood.
• Another complicating factor is that, in the field, it is difficult to
separate secondary compression from consolidation settlement,
especially if the consolidating clay layer is relatively thick.
• Parts of the layer near the drainage surfaces may be fully
consolidated, and therefore undergoing “secondary”
compression, while portions near the centre of the layer are still
in “primary”.
• Both types of settlements contribute to the total surface settlement,
and separating the effects is not a simple matter. 3.6-14
 Secondary Compression Index C

• Mesri and Godlewski (1977) define secondary compression index

C as
e e
C = = (10)
log t 2 − log t1 log(t 2 t1 )
where e = the change in void ratio associated with the occurrence
of secondary compression from time t1 to time t2.
• This definition is analogous to the primary compression index Cc,
except that, instead of the change in effective stress in the
denominator, we now have the change in time (since there is no
change in effective stress during secondary compression).
• The secondary compression index C can be determined from the
slope of the straight line portion of the settlement vs log time
curve which occurs after primary consolidation is complete.
• This is illustrated on the next slide.

3.6-15
 Secondary Compression : Determination of C value from Lab Test

• The figure below shows the variation of void ratio e with log time
under a given load increment ’ and how the secondary
compression index is calculated from the curve.

void ratio

void ratio at
the end of
e
primary
C =
consolidation ep
log(t 2 t1 )
e

log tp log t1 log t2 log t

time at the
end of primary
consolidation
3.6-16
 Calculation of Settlement due to Secondary Compression

• For a soil layer of thickness H, the magnitude of

secondary compression can be calculated as:

C H  t2 
Hsec = log  (11)
1 + ep  t 1 

where ep is the void ratio at the end of primary

consolidation (see figure on previous slide).

3.6-17
 Secondary Compression : Typical Values of C

• Mitchell and Soga (2005) recommended values of the

secondary compression index for different types of
soils as

Soil type C/Cc

Sands (low fines content) 0.01-0.03

Clays and silts 0.03-0.08
Organic soils 0.05-0.10

• It can be seen that the secondary compression is typically

between 1% and 10% of the primary compression,
depending on the soil type.
3.6-18
 Example Calculation 1 on Consolidation Settlement
A soft, normally consolidated clay layer is 15m thick with a natural water
content of 45%. The clay has a saturated unit weight of 17.2 kN/m3 and a
particle specific gravity of 2.68. The compression index Cc is 0.5. A
foundation load will subject the center of the layer to a vertical stress
increase of 10.0 kN/m2.
Determine an approximate value for the settlement of the foundation.

Solution: 10 kN/m2

Initial vertical effective stress at center of

layer (element A): A 15m

p’1 = (17.2 – 9.8) kN/m3 x (15/2) m = _________

55.5 kN/m2

Final vertical effective stress p’2 = ____________________

55.5 + 10 = 65.5 kN/m2
wGs = 0.45 x 2.68 = 1.21
Initial void ratio e1 = ______________________
CcHlog ( p '2 / p '1 ) 0.5 x 15 x log ( 65.5 / 55.5 )
The settlement  = =
1 + e1 1 + 1.21

= 0.244 m = 244 mm
3.6-19
 Example Calculation 1 on Consolidation Settlement
A More Refined Solution:
Subdivide 15m layer into 5 sublayers, and calculate stress changes at the
middle of each layer.
10 kN/m2
1
Initial void ratio e1 assumed unchanged with 2
depth, i.e., e1 = 1.21 3 15m
4
Compression index Cc also assumed 5
unchanged with depth, i.e., Cc = 0.5

Layer Mid-Depth (m) Initial Stress p'1 (kPa) Applied Load (kPa) Final Stress p'2 (kPa) Settlement (m)
1 1.5 11.1 10 21.1 0.19
2 4.5 33.3 10 43.3 0.08
3 7.5 55.5 10 65.5 0.05
4 10.5 77.7 10 87.7 0.04
5 13.5 99.9 10 109.9 0.03

Total Settlement = 0.38

Hence, settlement calculated using 5 sublayers = _______

0.38 m
(note: settlement is 0.24 m if only one layer is used, see previous slide)
3.6-20
 Example Calculation 2 on Consolidation Settlement
A wide fill will apply a uniform pressure of 100 kN/m2 to the surface of a
soil profile consisting of 3 m of weathered clay over 7 m of marine clay.
The water table is 3 m below the ground surface. Compute the settlement
resulting from primary consolidation of the clay layers.
100 kN/m2
weathered clay
 = 17.6 kN/m3 , eo = 1.2 3m
A
Cc = 0.5 p’c /’vo = 5
Cs/Cc = 0.2
marine clay
 = 16.0 kN/m3 , eo = 1.8
B 7m
Cc = 1.5 p’c /’vo = 1.8
Solution: Cs/Cc = 0.1

(a) Weathered Clay

Existing effective overburden stress at A, ’v = h = 17.6 x 1.5 kN/m2
= 26.4 kN/m2
Preconsolidation pressure at A, p’c = 5 x ’v = 132 kN/m2
After applied load, the new stress level at A ’1 = _______________
26.4 + 100 kN/m2
= 126.4 kN/m2 < p’c3.6-21
 Example Calculation 2 on Consolidation Settlement

Therefore, settlement of weathered clay occurs in the

overconsolidated zone
Cs = 0.2 x 0.5 = 0.1
CsHlog (  '1 /  'vo ) 0.1 x 3 xlog ( 126.4 / 26.4 )
settlement s = =
1 + eo 1 + 1.2
= 93 mm

(b) Marine Clay

Existing effective overburden stress at B, ’v = 17.6 x 3 + (16-10) x 3.5
= 73.8 kN/m2

Preconsolidation pressure at B, p’c = 1.8 x ’v = 133 kN/m2

After applied load, the new stress level at B, ’1 = 73.8 + 100 kN/m2
______________
= 173.8 kN/m2 > p’c
Therefore, settlement of marine clay occurs in both the
overconsolidated and the normally consolidated zone

Cc = 1.5 Cs = 0.1 x 1.5 = 0.15

3.6-22
 Example Calculation 2 on Consolidation Settlement

CsHlog ( p 'c /  'vo ) CcHlog (  '1 / p 'c )

settlement s = +
1 + eo 1 + eo
0.15 x 7 xlog ( 133 / 73.8 ) 1.5 x 7 x log ( 173.8 / 133 )
= +
1 + 1.8 1 + 1.8

= 96 mm + 436 mm

= 532 mm

Total settlement = sett. of weathered clay + sett. of marine clay

= 93 mm + 532 mm

= 625 mm

3.6-23