electronics
Article
Partial Discharge Detection Technology for Switchgear Based
on Near-Field Detection
Chunguang Suo 1 , Jingjing Zhao 1 , Xuehua Wu 1, * , Zhipeng Xu 2 , Wenbin Zhang 2 and Mingxing He 1
Citation: Suo, C.; Zhao, J.; Wu, X.; Xu,
Z.; Zhang, W.; He, M. Partial
Discharge Detection Technology for
Switchgear Based on Near-Field
Detection. Electronics 2023, 12, 336.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
electronics12020336
Academic Editor: Andrea Randazzo
Received: 30 November 2022
Revised: 23 December 2022
Accepted: 3 January 2023
Published: 9 January 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Electronics 2023, 12, 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12020336
1 College of Science, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650504, China
2 College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology,
Kunming 650504, China
* Correspondence: xhwu@kust.edu.cn
Abstract: In view of the fact that the partial discharge (PD) signal energy is mainly concentrated below
hundreds of megahertz, the ultra-high frequency part of the energy is weak, and the interior space of
the switchgear is narrow, this paper proposes a new method for PD detection of the switchgear based
on near-field detection. Firstly, based on the principle of PD, the field characteristics of the signal in
the switchgear are analyzed. After that, the probe is designed with an electric small loop structure.
Based on its equivalent circuit, its measurement principle and amplitude frequency characteristics are
analyzed. The influence of probe size and material on amplitude frequency characteristics is obtained
by using simulation software High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS), and the probe parameters
suitable for PD detection in the switchgear are determined. Finally, the performance of the probe is
measured by network analyzer, and the PD signal is tested on the simulated PD test platform. The
results show that the probe works in the frequency band of 10–200 MHz and can receive PD signals
containing more energy information. In the operating frequency band, the reflection coefficient of the
probe port is very large, and its interference to the signal near field is particularly small. The probe
also has good frequency response characteristics, and the fluctuation in the frequency band is less
than 5 dB, which can obtain more accurate PD signal characteristics in subsequent processing. In
addition, the probe is passive, with dimensions of 166 mm in length, 104 mm in width, and 2 mm in
thickness, which is suitable for placing in the switchgear with small internal space. The results of PD
receiving test show that the probe can reflect the occurrence of PD remarkably and accurately.
Keywords: partial discharge detection; near-field detection; switchgear; magnetic field probe
1. Introduction
Switchgear is an important electrical equipment that is widely used in power systems
and directly supplies power to distribution network and users. When its failure causes
power failure, it brings serious economic losses and social losses. Most of the faults in the
switchgear are caused by internal insulation faults [1]. Insulation defects are often accom-
panied by partial discharge (PD). Therefore, carrying out PD detection on the switchgear
can effectively evaluate the insulation status of the equipment, find its latent discharge
fault, improve the test and maintenance efficiency of the switchgear, and ensure the safe
and reliable operation of the equipment [2].
When PD occurs in the insulation medium, many electrical (such as electric pulse,
increase of dielectric loss, and electromagnetic wave emission) and non-electrical (such
as light, heat, noise, chemical change, and change of gas pressure) phenomena will occur.
Therefore, the detection methods can be roughly divided into electrical detection method
and non-electrical detection method. Generally, the non-electrical detection method has
low sensitivity. The electrical detection method mainly includes pulse current method [3]
and ultra-high frequency (UHF) detection method [4]. The pulse current method measures
the pulse current caused by PD at the coupling capacitor side or from the neutral point
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics
Electronics 2023, 12, 336 2 of 18

or grounding point of power equipment through the Rogowski coil by measuring the
impedance, so as to obtain the discharge information such as the apparent discharge
quantity and discharge phase. It is also the only method with international standards
IEC 60270:2000 and GB/T 7354-2003 that can quantify PD in PD detection. However,
it is generally contact measurement, and the lower frequency part of the measured PD
signal spectrum is generally from several kHz to tens of MHz [5,6]. The signal contains
little information, which is commonly used in the type test, factory test, and other offline
tests of electrical equipment such as switchgear. UHF detection method is a non-contact
measurement of UHF 300–3000 MHz far-field electromagnetic wave signal radiated by
PD through UHF antenna. It has the advantage of avoiding field interference below
300 MHz and has strong anti-interference performance. It has become the most popular and
widely used online monitoring method for PD of switchgear at present [7–12]. However,
it also avoids PD signal with rich information frequency band [13]. The UHF part of
the signal has very weak energy, and complex refraction and reflection will occur when it
propagates in the switchgear under the influence of the environment, with a large amplitude
attenuation [14,15]. It is difficult to carry out quantitative and pattern recognition of PD.
Although many substations have established perfect condition monitoring systems based
on UHF detection technology, insulation failures continue to occur [16,17], which means
that many PD have not been monitored. This is because [18,19] some submillimeter cracks
may also appear in the insulator, and the discharge caused by it is mainly glow discharge.
The discharge frequency is basically below 150 MHz, which cannot reach the UHF frequency
band. In addition, as a common type of PD, tip discharge signals are mainly distributed
below 200 MHz [20,21].
Based on the above analysis, combined with the actual space in the switchgear, this
paper proposes a new method of PD detection of switchgear based on near-field detection.
This method uses magnetic field probe to couple magnetic field generated by PD signal,
which can realize non-contact online monitoring of PD. The probe is small in size, and its
working frequency band is below 200 MHz. It can be placed in the switchgear to obtain
signals in the energy concentrated frequency band, which is expected to achieve the goal
of quantifying the PD signal, estimating the PD state of the switchgear and diagnosing
the insulation.
Firstly, based on the generation principle of PD pulse current, combined with the
actual environment and size of the switchgear, this paper analyzes the field characteristics
of pulse current generated in the switchgear, and verifies the rationality and necessity of
PD near-field detection. Then, combined with the application environment, it is proposed
that the probe adopts a plane electric small loop structure, and its measurement principle
and amplitude frequency characteristics are analyzed according to its equivalent circuit.
On this basis, how to broaden the working frequency band of the probe on the basis of
miniaturization of the probe is discussed, and the corresponding solutions are proposed.
The influence of parameters such as probe size on its frequency characteristics is analyzed
through simulation, and the corresponding parameters of the probe are finally determined.
Finally, the network analyzer is used to measure the performance parameters of the probe,
and the probe receiving PD signal is tested on the simulated PD platform built in the
laboratory to verify the performance of the probe.

2. Principle of Near-Field Detection of PD in Switchgear

2.1. PD Principle of Switchgear
This paper takes Schneider SM6 medium voltage switchgear as an example, and its
basic internal environment is shown in Figure 1. It can be seen that the internal space of
the switchgear is narrow, the structure is complex, the components are various, and the
insulation pressure is large. Therefore, it is more prone to insulation failure than other
power equipment, which brings huge hidden trouble to the safe operation of equipment.
There are often some weaknesses in the insulation of switchgear equipment, such as air
gaps or bubbles in some casting, extrusion, or layer wound insulation. The breakdown field
 Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20
power equipment, which brings huge hidden trouble to the safe operation of equipment.
There are often some weaknesses in the insulation of switchgear equipment, such as air
Electronics 2023, 12, 336 gaps
powerorequipment,
bubbles in which
some casting, extrusion,
brings huge hiddenortrouble
layer wound insulation.
to the safe operation The
of breakdown
3 of 18
equipment.
field strength and dielectric constant of air are smaller than those of solid
There are often some weaknesses in the insulation of switchgear equipment, such as air medium, so
under
gaps orthe action in
bubbles ofsome
applied voltage,
casting, these air
extrusion, or gaps
layerand bubbles
wound will discharge
insulation. first. In
The breakdown
addition,
strength there are some
and dielectric
field strength edges and
constantconstant
and dielectric burrs, metal
of air areofsmaller protrusions,
air arethan thosethan
smaller and
of solidmetal tips
medium,
those in the busbar
of solidsomedium,
under theso
and
actioncomponents
underofthe
applied in the
actionvoltage, switchgear [22],
thesevoltage,
of applied which
air gapsthese are
and bubbles also
air gapswill easy to discharge.
anddischarge
bubbles first.
will In addition,first.
discharge thereIn
are some edges
addition, thereand
are burrs, metal and
some edges protrusions, and metal
burrs, metal tips in the
protrusions, andbusbar and in
metal tips components
the busbar
inand
thecomponents
switchgear [22], which
in the are also[22],
switchgear easywhich
to discharge.
are also easy to discharge.

Figure 1. Internal environment of the switchgear.

The principle of PD is often explained by the three-capacitance model [23], as shown

Figure1.1.Internal
Figure Internalenvironment
environmentofofthe
theswitchgear.
switchgear.
in Figure 2, where C g represents the capacitance of the air gap or bubble, Cb1 and Cb 2
Theprinciple
The
represent principle ofofPD
the capacitance PDisisoften
ofoften explained
theexplained
medium inby
by thethe three-capacitance
three-capacitance
series model
with C g , respectively,
model [23],
[23],
and as shown
C
as shown in
a is the
Figure 2, where
in Figure 2, where C g C g represents the capacitance of the air gap or bubble,
represents the capacitance of the air gap or bubble, C b1 and Cb2
C b1 and Cb 2
represent
capacitance
the capacitance of the remaining
of the mediumpart of thewith
in series medium. Adding an and
Cg , respectively, Ca is theucapacitance
AC voltage t between the of
represent
electrodes:
the remainingthe part
capacitance of the medium
of the medium. Addingin anseries with Cug ,between
AC voltage respectively,
the and Ca is the
electrodes:
t
AC voltage ut between the
= max ωtωt
capacitance of the remaining part of the medium. Adding an
ut u=t U U maxsinsin (1)
(1)
electrodes:
U maxis the
max sin ωt
whereUmax
where is the maximum
maximum valuevalue of the
utAC
of the = UAC voltage
voltage applied
applied across
across the electrodes
the electrodes and ωandis
(1)
ω angular
the frequency.
is the angular frequency.
where U max is the maximum value of the AC voltage applied across the electrodes and
ω is the angular
C frequency. Cg
b1 ug
Ca
Ca Cbg1 Ca ut Cg
ug
Ca ub Cb
Ca C
Cbg2 Ca ut
ub Cb
Figure Cb 2
Figure2.2.Three-capacitance
Three-capacitance modelfor
model forPD.
PD.

Figure the voltage gugmodel

2. Three-capacitance appearing C g is:
Then, the voltage u appearing across the air gap or bubble C is:
Then, for PD.across the air gap or bubbleg
CbCb
Then, the voltage u gu= = across
ug appearing Uair
Umax ωtω
sinsin ortbubble C g is: (2)
g Cg + C the maxgap (2)
Cg +bCb
Cb larger than C , so u is much smaller than
AsAsthe theair
airgap
gapisisvery
verysmall, CgC=
small,u g g is muchUlarger
is much ωtb Cb , gso ug is much smaller
max sinthan (2)
ut . The applied voltage, the voltage in the + Cgap,
Cg air b and the current change during PD are
than uint .Figure
shown The applied
3. The voltage, the voltage
applied voltage in the
ut rises andair
thegap, and uthe
voltage g incurrent change
the air gap risesduring
with
As the air gap is very small, C is much larger than C , so u is much smaller
it,PD are shown in Figure 3. The applied voltage ut rises and the voltage ug in the air gap
when u t rises to the starting dischargeg voltage Us , i.e., u g reaches
b the gdischarge voltage

g of Cug , .CThe
Uthan g discharges and the the
applied voltage, voltage on it
voltage inquickly dropsand
the air gap, theUcurrent
from g to Ur , change
completing
duringa
t
discharge. Afterwards, as the applied voltage ut rises, the voltage u g on the air gap also
PD are shown
continues in Figure
to rise, when it3.rises
The applied
again tovoltage ut rises andagain,
Ug , Cg discharges the voltage ug in the
the discharge goesairout
gap
again, the voltage on the air gap drops to Cr again, and so on, the voltage on Cg changes
between Ug and Ur , at this time, there is a pulse current generation on the external circuit
through Cg .
 to U r , completing a discharge. Afterwards, as the applied voltage ut rises, the voltage
ug on the air gap also continues to rise, when it rises again to U g , C g discharges again,
the discharge goes out again, the voltage on the air gap drops to Cr again, and so on, the
Electronics 2023, 12, 336
voltage on C g changes between U g and U r , at this time, there is a pulse current4 of
gen-
18
eration on the external circuit through Cg .

ut
Us
ug
Ug
Ut
t

(a)

i
t

(b)
Figure3.3.Changes
Figure Changesin
inthe
theair
airgap
gapduring
duringPD.
PD.(a)
(a)Voltage;
Voltage;(b)
(b)current.
current.

2.2.
2.2.Near-Field
Near-FieldCharacteristics
CharacteristicsofofPD
PDPulse
PulseCurrents
CurrentsininSwitchgear
Switchgear
When
When a PD occurs in the switchgear, it is also accompaniedby
a PD occurs in the switchgear, it is also accompanied byaapulse
pulsecurrent,
current,which
which
according to Maxwell’s first equation:
according to Maxwell’s first equation:

 →  ∂→
→ ∂D
D
∇H
∇× ×H
= =J J+ + (3)
(3)
∂t∂t
  
where→ HHis the J isJtheisconduction D
→ →
where is the magnetic
magnetic field
field strength,
strength, the conduction current
current density,
density, and D and
is the
is the electric
electric displacement
displacement vector. vector. According
According to Equation
to Equation (3), conducting
(3), conducting currentcurrent and
and time-
time-varying electric field can generate magnetic field, so that time-varying magnetic
varying electric field can generate magnetic field, so that time-varying magnetic field will field
will
be be generated
generated in theinswitchgear.
the switchgear.
To analyze the field characteristicsgenerated
To analyze the field characteristics generatedby bythe
thepulse
pulse current
current in
in the
the switchgear,
switchgear,
the current element can be used for equivalent analysis, and the magnetic field
the current element can be used for equivalent analysis, and the magnetic field distribution distribu-
tion characteristics generated by the current elementcancan
be be solved accordingtotothethewave
wave
characteristics generated by the current element solved according
→

equation.In
equation. In order
order to
to simplify
simplify the
the analysis
analysis process
process of
of this
this problem,
problem, the
the vector
vectorpotential A
potential A
and the scalar potential ϕ can be introduced. Combining the definition of vector poten-
and the scalar potential ϕ can be introduced. Combining the definition of vector potential
→ 
andAscalar
Atial and potential
scalar potential ϕ identity
ϕ, vector , vector and
identity and condition,
Lorentz Lorentz condition,
the wave the wave satisfied
equation equation
→ 
satisfied
by by the
the vector vector A
potential potential A can be obtained:
can be obtained:

 ∂
→
2
A 
→ A − με →μ J
2
∇ ∂ 2A
2
= − (4)
∇2 A − µε 2∂t= −µ J (4)
∂t
where µ is the magnetic permeability and ε is the dielectric constant. From Equation (4),
→ →
the relationship between the vector potential A and the current source J is known. Com-
bining the solution method of the wave equation [24], i.e., first obtain the general solution
of the equation, and then combine the conditions of the definite solution to obtain the
→
electromagnetic vector potential A of the current element:

→ Z → − jkr
µe
A= J dv (5)
v 4πr
 (4), the relationship between the vector potential A and the current source J is known.
Combining the solution method of the wave equation [24], i.e., first obtain the general
solution of the equation, and then combine the conditions of the definite solution to obtain

the electromagnetic vector potential A of the current element:
  μ e− jkr
A= J
Electronics 2023, 12, 336 5 of 18
dv (5)
v 4π r
In Equation (5), k = √ ω με is the wave number. As can be seen in Figure 4, the
In Equation (5), k = ω µε is the wave number. As can be seen in Figure 4, the length
length
of of the element
the element is l, the is l , the
vector vector potential
potential of theelement
of the current currentis:
element is:
  μ0 Ile− jkr
→ A =
→ eµ0 Ile− jkr
A = e z z 4π r
(6)
(6)
4πr

l θ
y

φ
x
Figure4.4.Schematic
Figure Schematicof
ofpulse
pulsecurrent.
current.
→ 
The
Theconversion
conversiongives
givesthe
theexpression
expressionfor forthe vector
the potential
vector potentialA inAthe
in spherical coordi-
the spherical co-
nate system as:
ordinate system as:
→ → µ Il e− jkr → µ Il e− jkr
A=  e r 0μ0 Il· e− jkrcos θ − e θ 0μ0 Il· e− jkrsin θ (7)
A = e 4π ⋅ r cos θ − e 4π ⋅ r sin θ
r θ
(7)
4π r 4π → r
Combined with the definition of the vector potential A and  the constitutive relations
Combined
of linear with media,
and isotropic the definition of the vector
The expression potential
of magnetic field A and the
intensity constitutive
generated rela-
by pulse
tions ofcan
current linear and isotropic
be obtained media, The expression of magnetic field intensity generated
as follows:
by pulse current can be obtained
→
as follows:
→ Il 1 − jkr
H = e φ j Ilsin θ (1 + )1e (8)
H = eφ j 2λr sin θ (1 +
jkr )e− jkr (8)
2λ r jkr
From Equation (8), the magnetic field generated by placing the pulsed current on the
z-axisFrom Equation
has only (8), the magnetic
the φ-directional field generated
component by placing
of the magnetic field the pulsedIncurrent
strength. general,onthe
the
z -axis has only the φ -directional component of the magnetic field
region of r  λ is called the near field [25]. Combined with the analysis in the previous strength. In general,
section,
the regionthe of  λ energy
PD rsignal is mainly
is called the nearconcentrated below 200with
field [25]. Combined MHz, theand its wavelengths
analysis in the pre-
are all
λvious greater
section, thethan
PD 1.5 m. energy
signal For some common
is mainly models [26]:
concentrated SM6,200
below GG-1A
MHz,(F),andXGN2-12,
its wave-
lengths λ are all greater than 1.5 m. For some common models [26]: SM6, GG-1A1 (F),
JYN6-12, KYN1-10 switchgear, the cabinet width and depth are generally below m,
and the width of SM6 model switchgear can be up to 0.5 m, combined
XGN2-12, JYN6-12, KYN1-10 switchgear, the cabinet width and depth are generally below with the actual
environment
1 m, and the inside
width of theSM6
switchgear. Figure 1 shows
model switchgear can bethat
up the discharge
to 0.5 m, combinedposition reaches
with the
the actual
position
environmentwhereinside
the built-in sensor ofFigure
the switchgear. the PD is placed
1 shows thatatthe discharger position
a distance far less than 1.5 the
reaches m.
That is, forwhere
position the signals in these
the built-in energy-concentrated
sensor of the PD is placed frequency bands, rthefar
at a distance entire
less switchgear
than 1.5 m.
isThat
in the
is, near-field regioninofthese
for the signals theseenergy-concentrated
signals. Neglecting secondary
frequencyfactors,
bands,the
thestrength of the
entire switch-
magnetic field generate by the near field of the pulsed current is:
gear is in the near-field region of these signals. Neglecting secondary factors, the strength
of the magnetic field generate by the→near field of the pulsed current is:
→ Il sin θ
H = eφ (9)
4πr2
From Equation (9), it can be seen that in the near-field region, the magnetic field gener-
ated by the pulsed current in the switchgear is the same as the constant current element
expression calculated by Biot–Savart Law in the static magnetic field. The time-varying
electric field generated by the time-varying magnetic field can be obtained by calculation:
→ → Il cos θ → Il sin θ
E = − e rj · 3 − e θj · 3 (10)
2πωε r 4πωε r
Electronics 2023, 12, 336 6 of 18

→
Therefore, in the near-field region, the average energy flow density vector S av of the
electromagnetic field generated by the pulsed current is:
→ 1 → →∗
S av = Re[ E × H ] = 0 (11)
2
As can be seen from Equation (11), if the result caused by minor factors in the field
representation is ignored, it can be regarded as there being no electromagnetic power
output in the near field area of the pulse current, that is, the energy is bound around the
pulse current. Therefore, in order to obtain most of the energy information of the PD signal,
the near-field detection should be studied. It is expected to realize the goal of on-line
detection of PD, quantification of PD signal, estimation of PD state of switchgear, and
insulation diagnosis.

3. Magnetic Field Probe Design

3.1. Design Requirements
The magnetic field probe designed in this paper will be placed in the switchgear
to detect the PD signal. In view of the characteristics of the detected signal and the
application environment, and in order to be able to quantify and identify the pattern of the
local discharge signal in the subsequent study, the following design requirements are put
forward for the magnetic field probe:
1. Combined with the above analysis of the PD signal in the switchgear, the operating
frequency band of the probe is set at 10–200 MHz;
2. Since the magnetic field probe designed in this paper is a near-field receiving antenna,
its role is to couple the electromagnetic energy from the point to be measured to
output, but does not have electromagnetic energy input from the probe because the
signal from the port into the probe will be radiated out through the probe. Since it is
a relatively weak PD signal, the probe of this radiation is a kind of interference; this
interference should be as small as possible, so the reflection coefficient in the probe
input is as large as possible;
3. In order to get the accurate characteristics of the PD signal in the subsequent data
analysis, the probe is required to have a smooth response to the measured magnetic
field in the working band, that is, for signals of different frequencies, theoretically,
as long as the field strength amplitude is equal, the data output by the probe should
be equal, but the actual design process is not able to achieve absolute equality, so it
is required to be as smooth as possible, and hopefully its frequency characteristics
fluctuate less than 5 dB [27] as far as possible, which is conducive to the subsequent
processing of the signal.
4. There are many components in the switchgear, and the structure is complex. The
size of the built-in sensor is too large, which has a great impact on the electrical
environment in the switchgear, and will introduce new insulation defects. This
requires the magnetic field probe to be as small as possible without abandoning the
above performance requirements.

3.2. Working Principle

From the above design requirements, the probe needs to detect the PD signal wave-
length range of 1.5–30 m. In the common resonant antenna design probe, the probe size is
generally λ2 or λ4 , the size is very large, it is difficult to be placed in the switchgear, And
the size will be too large for the electrical environment. In the switchgear has a greater
impact, so this paper uses the electric small loop structure to design the magnetic field
probe. In general, the maximum geometry of the antenna is much smaller than the working
 ing wavelength of the antenna, i.e., satisfying Equation (12) can be called an electric small
loop antenna, which is defined by H.A. Wheeler [28] as follows:
l 1
≤ (12)
λ 2π
Electronics 2023, 12, 336
where l is the maximum geometric size of the antenna, λ is the working wavelength. 7 of 18

The schematic diagram of the operation of the magnetic field probe is shown in Fig-
ure 5, and its basic principle is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:
wavelength of the antenna, i.e., satisfying Equation (12) can be called an electric small loop
∂ B 
antenna, which is defined by H.A. Wheeler
 s ∂t
Vm = −[28] as follows:
⋅ dS (13)
 l 1
≤ S is the area through which the magnetic
where B is the magnetic induction intensity, (12)
λ 2π
induction lines pass, and Vm indicates the magnitude of the induced electric potential.
where l is the maximum geometric size of the antenna, λ is the working wavelength.
For
Thethe magnetic
schematic field probe,
diagram of thetheoperation
total length of the
of the wire wound
magnetic aroundisthe
field probe loop in
shown is
much smaller than its operating wavelength, so it can be assumed that the
Figure 5, and its basic principle is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: magnetic field
through the loop area A is uniformly distributed, which further gives:
→
∂ B ∂H→
I
= −μ A · d S
VmV=m − (13)
(14)
s ∂t ∂t

where → μ is the magnetic permeability of the medium where there are magnetic induc-
where B is the magnetic induction intensity, S is the area through which the magnetic
tion lines passing
induction through
lines pass, and Vtheindicates
electric small loop antenna.
the magnitude of the induced electric potential.
m

z
B
B B
induced electromotive
force
I0 O
y

x
Figure 5.
Figure Schematic diagram
5. Schematic diagram of
of magnetic
magnetic field
field probe.
probe.

For thethe
When magnetic fieldprobe
size of the probe,
is the total
small length of
compared tothe
thewire wound
operating around theitloop
wavelength, is
is es-
much smaller than its operating wavelength, so it can be assumed that the magnetic
sentially an inductor with a small amount of radiation, a capacitor, or some combination field
through
of the loop
both [29]. area Athe
Therefore, is uniformly
magnetic distributed,
field probe which
can be further gives:
analyzed using the lumped pa-
∂H [30] is shown in Figure 6, where Vm
rameter theory, and its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
Vm = −µA (14)
is the probe induced voltage, R0 is the internal resistance,
∂t L0 is the self-inductance, C0
where
is µ is the
the stray magneticand
capacitance, U 0 is theofoutput
permeability the medium
voltagewhere
at thethere
load are
side.magnetic induction
lines passing through the electric small loop antenna.
When the size of the probe is small compared to the operating wavelength, it is
essentially an inductor with a small amount of radiation, a capacitor, or some combination
of both [29]. Therefore, the magnetic field probe can be analyzed using the lumped
parameter theory, and its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit [30] is shown in Figure 6, where Vm
is the probe induced voltage, R0 is the internal resistance, L0 is the self-inductance, C0 is
the stray capacitance, and U0 is the output voltage at the load side.
Based on the above circuit, combined with Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) and Kirch-
hoff’s current law (KCL), the equation can be obtained:

∂2 U0
   
L0 ∂U0 R0
Vm = L0 C0 + R C
0 0 + + + 1 U0 (15)
∂t2 R L ∂t RL

Under zero initial conditions, the combined Equation (14) and the Equation (15) after
Laplace transformation can obtain:
    
2 L0 R0
− µApH ( p) = L0 C0 p + R0 C0 + p+ 1+ U0 ( p) (16)
RL RL
Electronics
Electronics2023,
2023,12,
12,x336
FOR PEER REVIEW 8 8ofof2018

L0
R0
+

Vm RL
U0
C0

-
sensor load
Thevenin’sequivalent
Figure6.6.Thevenin’s
Figure equivalentcircuit
circuitofofmagnetic
magneticfield
fieldprobe.
probe.

This leads
Based on thetoabove
the transfer
circuit,function
combined of the
withprobe:
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) and Kirch-
hoff’s current law (KCL), the equation
U ( p) can be obtained:
−µAp  
T ( p) = H0( p) = h 
L R
i
∂ U0 
2
L  ∂ U L 
L0 C0 p2 + R0 C0 + R0 p+ 1+ R 0
R L  (17)
Vm = L0C0 + R C−µAp + 0
2 = L C0 ( p0− p )( p−p )
0
+  0 + 1 U 0 (15)
∂t 0 0 1 RL  2 ∂t  RL 
R0(15) after
p
where Under
p iszero initial conditions,
a complex the combined
variable and p1,2 = −δEquation
± δ2 −(14) ω 0 0and the Equation
2 , where δ = 2L 0
+ 2R1L C0 ,
Laplace transformation
r  can obtain：
 √
ω 0 0 = √ L1 C 1 + RRL0 = p1 · p2 , when δ > ω 0 0 , p1 and p2 are two different real roots.
0 0
  L   R 
− μ ApH
The frequency ( p ) =  L0Cof
characteristic 2
0 p +  R0 C0 +
the  p + 1steady-state
system is a0 certain ( p)
+ 0   U 0 characteristic
(16)of
the system under the excitation  of the 
sinusoidal R L 
signal 
[31], as R L 
long as the p in the system
function is replaced by jω, the expression of the system frequency response can be obtained:
This leads to the transfer function of the probe：
U ( p ) jϕ(ω) µA · R L − μ Ap jω
T T( (pjω
) =) = 0|T ( jω)|= = − RL + R0 ·  jω − 1 jω − 1 (18)
H ( p)  2  p1 
L p2 R0  
 L0C0 p +  R0C0 +  p + 1 +
0

µA · R L   ωRL   RL   (17)
| T ( jω )| = ·s (19)
+μRAp
RL − 0
 2 s  2
= 1+ √ ω
1 + √ω
L0C0 ( p − p1 )( p − p2 ) δ− δ2 −ω0 0 2 δ + δ2 − ω 0 0 2

where ω is the angular frequency and ϕ(ω ) is the phase angle. The general representation
R 1 of
where p is a complex
the logarithmic variable
amplitude p1,2 = −δ ± δof2 the
and characteristics
frequency ′0 2 , where
− ωsystem δ = can0 be
function + obtained
from Equation (19): 2 L0 2 RL C0
1  R0  µA· R L
ω0′ = ω0′ R, 
1G+(ω ) =
 =20log
p1|⋅Tp( jω dB) =δ20>log pR10 +  p2 are two different
, ,)|(
when L+ and 20 log ω
2 
L0C0  −10R L  (20)

 2 2
log 1 + ω L ω − 10 log 1 + ω
H ω (dB)
real roots.
The frequency characteristic of the system is a certain steady-state characteristic of
In Formula (20), ω L , ω H are respectively the upper and lower cut-off angular frequency
the system under the excitation of the sinusoidal signal [31], as long as the p in the sys-
points of the probe, and the probe p operates between these two cut-off frequencies, the
tem function is replaced by jω , the expression
bandwidth is ∆ω = ω H − ω L = 2 δ − ω 0 . The
2 0 2 of the system
larger the δ,frequency
the widerresponse can be
the region.
obtained: 0 a
When δ >> ω 0 , the joint equivalence infinitesimal (1 + x ) − 1 ∼ ax, the lower
cutoff frequency: jϕ (ω ) μ A⋅ R jω
T ( jω ) = T ( jω") r = −  ω 2 #L ⋅ R + R
1 − RL + R0 ≈ jω  jω 
0 L 0
ωL = δ 1 − (18)
(21)
δ  L− 1
0  − 1
 p1  p2 
R L + R0
fL ≈ (22)
2πL0
Electronics 2023, 12, 336 9 of 18

Also at δ >> ω 0 0 , the upper cutoff frequency of the measuring circuit is:
 s 
 0 2
ω0  1
ω H = δ 1 + 1 − ≈ (23)
δ R L C0

1
fH ≈ (24)
2πR L C0
From Equation (24), it is known that the upper cut-off frequency of the probe is mainly
affected by the stray capacitance of the probe, i.e., the equivalent size of the electric small
loop, i.e., for a single-turn electric small loop probe, there is the following relationship [32]
between the frequency f max of the highest measurable signal and its loop radius b:
Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 0.2c 10 of 20
f max = (25)
2πb
where, c is the speed of light in vacuum.
ground plane are located in the same plane, the signal line is located in the middle, the
ground plane
3.3. Design andisSimulation
located on the left and right sides. Based on the principle of electric small
loop, the signal line of the magnetic field probe is wound into a loop structure, which is
In order to facilitate the placement of the probe in the switchgear, the overall structure
used
of thetoprobe
couple the magnetic
adopts an electricfield
smallenergy. In addition,
loop structure thecoplanar
fed by end of the signal line
waveguide, as that
shown is
wound into a loop structure is shorted to the ground plane, and the other
in Figure 7, where a is the line radius, b is the loop radius. the probe is mainly composedend forms a
coplanar waveguide transmission line structure with the ground plane,
of two parts: the signal line and the ground plane, the signal line and the ground planethus forming a
closed loop.
are located in the same plane, the signal line is located in the middle, the ground plane is
Combined
located with
on the left andtheright
design requirements
sides. Based on theof principle
the magnetic field probe,
of electric this section
small loop, fo-
the signal
cuses
line ofonthe
establishing
magnetic thefieldprobe
probe model in High
is wound Frequency
into Structurewhich
a loop structure, Simulator (HFSS)
is used sim-
to couple
ulation software, obtaining the frequency characteristics of the probe port, analyzing
the magnetic field energy. In addition, the end of the signal line that is wound into a loop the
law, and thus determining the probe parameters that meet the design requirements
structure is shorted to the ground plane, and the other end forms a coplanar waveguide of this
paper.
transmission line structure with the ground plane, thus forming a closed loop.

Schematicdiagram
Figure7.7.Schematic
Figure diagramof
ofmagnetic
magneticfield
fieldprobe
probe structure.
structure.

Combined with the design requirements of the magnetic field probe, this section
3.3.1. Effect of Line Radius on Frequency Characteristics
focuses on establishing the probe model in High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS)
The magnetic
simulation field
software, probe is modeled
obtaining on HFSS
the frequency according to
characteristics ofFigure 7. The
the probe initial
port, radius
analyzing
of
thethe probe
law, and is set determining
thus to 33 mm, and thethe substrate
probe material
parameters thatismeet
epoxy
theresin
designwith relative per-
requirements of
mittivity ε
this paper. r of 4.4. The material properties of the probe and the ideal and radiation
boundary conditions were set up and a piece to be tested was established. The distance
between the piece to be tested and the probe was 0.1 m. the input port of the object to be
tested was set as 2 ports and wave excitation added, then a pulse current was generated
on the object to be tested, and magnetic field was generated in its surrounding space. The
probe torus was perpendicular to the magnetic field direction, and the output port of the
probe was set as port 1. S12 is the transmission parameter from port 2 to port 1:
Electronics 2023, 12, 336 10 of 18

3.3.1. Effect of Line Radius on Frequency Characteristics

The magnetic field probe is modeled on HFSS according to Figure 7. The initial
radius of the probe is set to 33 mm, and the substrate material is epoxy resin with relative
permittivity ε r of 4.4. The material properties of the probe and the ideal and radiation
boundary conditions were set up and a piece to be tested was established. The distance
between the piece to be tested and the probe was 0.1 m. the input port of the object to be
tested was set as 2 ports and wave excitation added, then a pulse current was generated
on the object to be tested, and magnetic field was generated in its surrounding space.
Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11The
of 20
probe torus was perpendicular to the magnetic field direction, and the output port of the
probe was set as port 1. S12 is the transmission parameter from port 2 to port 1:

According to the design requirements ofb1the  probe, in the working band of the probe,

the probe should have a smooth dataSoutput 12 =
a2  a1 =0 receiving the magnetic field signal of
when (26)

the same field strength. It can be seen form Figure 8 that within 5 dB of frequency charac-
teristicbfluctuation,
where 1 representsthe thelower cut-off frequencies
normalized outgoing wave of probe corresponding
voltage at port 1, ato1 ,different wire
a2 represent
radius
the of 2 mm,incoming
normalized 7 mm, and 12 mm
wave are 18.00
voltage MHz,
at ports 27.75
1 and 2, MHz, and 39.00
respectively. S12MHz,
can berespec-
used
tively.
to Therefore,
represent when the response
the frequency probe loop radius and other
characteristics settings
of the probe.areWithin
fixed, the lower
300 MHzcut-
frequency
off frequencyrange, the probe
of the magnetic field probes
gradually withasline
decreases theradius of 2 mm,
line radius 7 mm, Considering
decreases. and 12 mm
were simulated,
the designed andcut-off
lower then the frequency
frequency response
is 10 MHz, the characteristics
line radius isof
setthe
to probe
2 mm in under the
the sub-
three linedesign.
sequent radius sizes were obtained as shown in Figure 8.

-40

-45

-50

-55
S(1,2)/dB

-60

-65

-70
2mm
-75 7mm
12mm
-80
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
f/MHz
Figure8.8. Frequency
Figure Frequencycharacteristics
characteristicsof
ofprobes
probeswith
withdifferent
differentline
lineradius.
radius.

3.3.2.According to theRadius
Effect of Loop designon requirements of the probe, in the working band of the probe,
Frequency Characteristics
the probe
The probe model with a line radius of 2when
should have a smooth data output mm receiving the magnetic
was established, field
and the signal
probe of the
material
same field strength. It can be seen form Figure 8 that within 5 dB of frequency
properties, boundary conditions, and parts to be measured were set with reference to the characteristic
fluctuation, the lower cut-off
previous subsection. Withinfrequencies of probe
the frequency rangecorresponding
of 300 MHz, theto different
magnetic wire radius
field of
probes
2with
mm,loop 7 mm, and 12 mm are 18.00 MHz, 27.75 MHz, and 39.00 MHz, respectively.
radius of 33 mm, 39 mm, and 45 mm were simulated, and the frequency re- Therefore,
when the probe loop radius
sponse characteristics of theand otherunder
probes settings
theare fixed,
three loopthe lowersizes
radius cut-off frequency
were shown in of Fig-
the
probe
ure 9. gradually decreases as the line radius decreases. Considering the designed lower
cut-off frequency is 10 MHz, the line radius is set to 2 mm in the subsequent design.
Within 5 dB of the fluctuation of frequency characteristics, the lower cut-off frequen-
cies of the probes
3.3.2. Effect of Loopcorresponding to different
Radius on Frequency loop radius of 33 mm, 39 mm, and 45 mm
Characteristics
were 18.00 MHz, 16.50 MHz, and 15.00 MHz, respectively, i.e., as the loop radius in-
The probe model with a line radius of 2 mm was established, and the probe material
creases, the low-frequency characteristics of the probes become better and better, and their
properties, boundary conditions, and parts to be measured were set with reference to the
lower cut-off frequencies gradually decrease. However, if the probe size is too large, it
previous subsection. Within the frequency range of 300 MHz, the magnetic field probes
will have a great impact on the electrical environment inside the switchgear. With refer-
ence to the above simulation results and the currently available dimensions of the switch-
gear built-in UHF PD sensors [33,34], the loop radius of the probe was set to 45 mm.
 Electronics 2023, 12, 336 11 of 18

Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20

with loop radius of 33 mm, 39 mm, and 45 mm were simulated, and the frequency response
characteristics of the probes under the three loop radius sizes were shown in Figure 9.

-40

-45

Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW -50 12 of 20

-55
S(1,2)/dB

-40-60

-45-65

-50-70
33mm
-55-75 39mm
S(1,2)/dB

45mm
-60-80
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-65 f/MHz
Figure
Figure9. Frequency characteristics of the probe at different loop radius.
-70 9. Frequency characteristics of the probe at different loop radius.
33mm
Within 5 dB ofwith the fluctuation
-75 Combining Equation (25), of frequency characteristics,
it can be obtained 39mm the lower
that when cut-off
the loop frequencies
radius is set to
of the probes corresponding to different loop radius45mm of 33 mm, 39 mm, and 45 mm were
45 mm, the frequency f max of the highest measurable signal of the probe is 212.31 MHz,
18.00
-80MHz, 16.50 MHz, and 15.00 MHz, respectively, i.e., as the loop radius increases, the
which0 meets the
low-frequency 50 required
100 frequency
characteristics of150 range
the probes of 200
200 become MHz in
250better 300
andthis paper.
better, and their lower cut-off
frequencies gradually decrease. f/MHz
However, if the probe size is too large, it will have a great
3.3.3. Effect
impact on the ofelectrical
Ferrite onenvironment
Frequency Characteristics
inside the switchgear. With reference to the above
Figure 9. Frequency characteristics of the probe at different loop radius.
Combined
simulation resultswithandEquation
the currently(22),available
it is known that the of
dimensions lower cut-off frequency
the switchgear built-incan
UHF be
reduced
PD Combining by increasing
sensors [33,34],withthe the inductance
loop radius
Equation (25), of of the
the be
it can probe probe. In
was set
obtained order
to 45
that not to continue to increase
mm.the loop radius is set to
when the
size Combining
of the probe, witha high
Equationpermeability
(25), it canmaterial can be
be obtained used
that whenon the
the loop
probe to collect
radius is set the
to
45 mm, the frequency f max of the highest measurable signal of the probe is 212.31 MHz,
45magnetic
mm, theflux, considering
frequency f max ofthe
theoperating frequency band
highest measurable signal ofof
the
theprobe,
probethe Ni-Zn MHz,
is 212.31 ferrite
which
which meets
material,
meets the
therequired
which is widely
required frequency range
used in the
frequency high
range ofoffrequency
200
200MHz
MHzin inthis
thispaper.
range. The structure of the probe is
paper.
shown in Figure 10, and the permeability characteristic curve of the material used is
3.3.3.
3.3.3.Effect
shown in of
Effect ofFerrite
Figure 11.on
Ferrite onFrequency
FrequencyCharacteristics
Characteristics
Combined
Combinedwith withEquation
Equation(22),
(22),it itisisknown
knownthatthatthe
thelower
lowercut-off
cut-offfrequency
frequencycan canbebe
reduced
reducedbyby increasing
increasing thethe
inductance
inductance of the probe.
of the In order
probe. not to
In order notcontinue to increase
to continue the
to increase
size
the of theofprobe,
size a high
the probe, permeability
a high permeability material cancan
material be beused onon
used thethe
probe
probe totocollect
collectthe
the
magneticflux,
magnetic flux,considering
consideringthe theoperating
operatingfrequency
frequencybandbandofofthe
theprobe,
probe,thetheNi-Zn
Ni-Znferrite
ferrite
material,which
material, whichisiswidely
widelyused usedininthe
thehigh highfrequency
frequencyrange.
range.The
Thestructure
structureofofthetheprobe
probeisis
shownin
shown in Figure
Figure 10,
10, and
andthe thepermeability
permeability characteristic curve
characteristic of the
curve of material used used
the material is shown
is
in Figure 11.
shown in Figure 11.

Figure 10. Probe structure with Ni-Zn ferrite sheets.

Figure10.
Figure Probestructure
10.Probe structurewith
withNi-Zn
Ni-Znferrite
ferritesheets.
sheets.
Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 2
Electronics
Electronics2023,
2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
12, 336 12 of 18 13 of 2

Figure 11. Magnetic permeability characteristic curves of Ni-Zn ferrite materials.

Figure
Figure 11.11. Magnetic
Magnetic permeability
permeability characteristic
characteristic curvescurves of ferrite
of Ni-Zn Ni-Znmaterials.
ferrite materials.
The probe model with a line radius of 2 mm and a loop radius of 45 mm was estab
Theand
probe
themodel withproperties
a line radius of
the2 probe,
mm andthe
lished,
The probe material
model with a line of
radius of 2 mma andloop
aradius
boundary of 45 mm was
loop conditions,
radius of 45and estab-
mm the
wasparts to
estab
lished, and the material properties of the probe, the boundary conditions, and the parts to
be measured
lished, and the were also set
material up. The of
properties magnetic
the probe,field
theprobe with conditions,
boundary and without Ni-Zn
and ferrite
the parts t
be measured were also set up. The magnetic field probe with and without Ni-Zn ferrite
sheet
sheet wassimulated
be measured
was simulated in
thethe
wereinalso setfrequency
up. The
frequency range
magnetic
range of 300ofMHz,
300 MHz,
field probe
and and
the theand
with magnetic
magnetic without
field field
Ni-Zn
intensity intensity
ferrit
distribution
sheet was of the
simulated probe
in with
the and without
frequency range Ni-Zn
of 300 ferrite
MHz, sheet
and was
the obtained
magnetic
distribution of the probe with and without Ni-Zn ferrite sheet was obtained as shown in as
fieldshown in
intensit
Figure
Figure 12,and
12, and
distribution ofthe
thethe frequency
frequency withresponse
probe response characteristics
andcharacteristics
without Ni-Zn are shown
are ferrite
shown sheet in 13.
was
in Figure Figure 13. as shown i
obtained
Figure 12, and the frequency response characteristics are shown in Figure 13.

Figure12.
Figure 12.Magnetic
Magnetic field
field distribution
distribution at theattop
theoftop
theof the magnetic
magnetic fieldwith
field probe probe
andwith andNi-Zn
without without Ni-
Zn ferrite
ferrite
Figure 12.sheet.
sheet. (a) Without
(a) Without
Magnetic ferrite;
field ferrite;
(b) with(b)
distribution with
theferrite.
ferrite.
at top of the magnetic field probe with and without Ni-
Zn ferrite sheet. (a)
From Figure 12,Without
it can beferrite; (b) the
seen that withmaximum
ferrite. magnetic field intensity generated
around From Figure
the probe loop12,without
it can and
be seen
with that the maximum
the addition of Ni-Znmagnetic
ferrite sheetfield
was intensity
0.2265 A/m generated
around
and 0.2327the
From probe
Figure
A/m, loop
12, it without
respectively, canandbethe and
seen withthe
that
addition ofthe addition
maximum
Ni-Zn of Ni-Zn
ferrite magnetic
sheet ferrite
field
increases sheet
intensity
the was
magnetic 0.2265
generate
field
A/m intensity
andthe
around on
0.2327 the
probeA/m, probe
loop loop. Observing
respectively,
without andand with Figure
thethe 13,
additionthe
addition lower
of Ni-Zn cut-off
of Ni-Zn frequencies
ferrite sheet
ferrite of
increases
sheet the
was 0.226
the
A/mprobe
andwith
magnetic fieldand
0.2327 without
intensity
A/m, onNi-Zn ferriteand
the probe
respectively, sheet
loop. correspond
Observing
the to 9.75
additionFigure
of MHz
13,
Ni-Zn the and 15.00
lower
ferrite MHz,
cut-off
sheet frequen
increases th
respectively,
cies
magnetic within
of the field 5 dB
probeintensity
with and of the fluctuation
onwithout
the probe Ni-Znof frequency
loop.ferrite characteristics.
sheetFigure
Observing correspond Therefore,
13, thetolower the
9.75 MHz use
and
cut-off 15.00
frequen
of Ni-Zn ferrite sheet with high permeability can reduce the lower cut-off frequency point
MHz,
cies ofrespectively,
the probe with withinand5without
dB of the fluctuation
Ni-Zn of frequency
ferrite sheet correspondcharacteristics.
to 9.75 MHzTherefore
and 15.0
of the probe with the same probe structure size.
the userespectively,
MHz, of Ni-Zn ferrite
withinsheet
5 dBwith high
of the permeability
fluctuation can reduce
of frequency the lower cut-off
characteristics. fre
Therefor
quency
the usepoint of theferrite
of Ni-Zn probesheet
with the
withsame
highprobe structurecan
permeability size.reduce the lower cut-off fre
quency point of the probe with the same probe structure size.
Electronics 2023, 12, 336 13 of 18

In addition, according to the design requirements, the larger the reflection coefficient
of the probe input is required in the operating band, the probe port is still set to port 1 and
S11 is the transmission parameter from port 1 to port 1:

b 
S11 = 1  (27)
a 1 a2 =0

S11 (dB) = −20 log|Γ L | (28)

where b1 represents the normalized outgoing wave voltage of port 1, a1 represents the
normalized incoming wave voltage of port 1, and Γ L is the reflection coefficient of port 1.
According to the design requirements, the larger the reflection coefficient at the probe
input, the better, i.e., the closer S11 is to 0 dB, the better. The probe model with line radius
of 2 mm, loop radius of 45 mm, and Ni-Zn ferrite plate was established in HFSS simulation
Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20
software. Within the frequency range of 300 MHz, S11 of the probe is obtained as shown in
Figure 14.

-40

-45

-50

-55
S(1,2)/dB

-60

-65

-70

-75 without ferrite sheet

with ferrite sheet
-80
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW f/MHz 15 of 20
frequency characteristics
Figure 13. Probe frequency characteristics with
with and
and without
without Ni-Zn
Ni-Zn ferrite.
ferrite.

In addition, according to the design requirements, the larger the reflection coefficient
4
of the probe input is required in the operating band, the probe port is still set to port 1 and
S11 is the transmission parameter from port 1 to port 1:
2
b1
0 S11 = (27)
a1
S(1,1)/dB

a2 = 0
-2
S11 ( dB ) = −20 log Γ L (28)
-4
where b1 represents the normalized outgoing wave voltage of port 1, a1 represents the
-6
normalized incoming wave voltage of port 1, and Γ L is the reflection coefficient of port
1.
-8
According to the design requirements, the larger the reflection coefficient at the probe
input,
-10the better, i.e., the closer S11 is to 0 dB, the better. The probe model with line radius
of 2 mm,0loop radius
50 of 45100 150
mm, and 200
Ni-Zn ferrite 250 was established
plate 300 in HFSS simulation
f/MHz
software. Within the frequency range of 300 MHz, S11 of the probe is obtained as shown
Figure
in 14. Transmission
14.
Figure
Figure Transmission parameters
14. parametersof
ofthe
theprobe
probeport S11
portS11 . .
It can be seen from Figure 14 that in the operating band, the return loss of the probe
shows
4. Probe a good flat characteristic,
Performance and very close to 0 dB; that is, in the probe port, most of
Verification
the signals are reflected,
According and it is analysis
to the simulation difficultin
tothe
have the signal
previous radiated
section, through thethat
it is determined probe.
the
It is also difficult to cause interference to the field to be measured.
probe size that meets the design requirements is the line radius of 2 mm and the loop
 -8

-10
Electronics 2023, 12, 336 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 14 of 18
f/MHz

Figure 14. Transmission parameters of the probe port S11 .

It can be seen from Figure 14 that in the operating band, the return loss of the probe
shows a good flat characteristic, and very close to 0 dB; that is, in the probe port, most of
the
4. signals
Probe are reflected, andVerification
Performance it is difficult to have the signal radiated through the probe. It
is also difficult to cause interference to the field to be measured.
According to the simulation analysis in the previous section, it is determined th
4.probe
Probe size that meets
Performance the design requirements is the line radius of 2 mm and the
Verification
radius of 45 mm, and Ni-Zn ferrite sheets
According to the simulation analysis need tosection,
in the previous be pasted
it is on the top and
determined bottom su
that the
probe sizeprobe.
of the that meets
Thisthesection
design requirements
focuses on the is theactual
line radius of 2 mm andof
measurement thethe
loopprobe
radiusperform
ofas45well
mm,as and Ni-Zn ferrite sheets need to be pasted on the top and
the verification of the probe performance on the simulated PDbottom surfaces of testbed.
the
probe. This section focuses on the actual measurement of the probe performance, as well as
the verification of the probe performance on the simulated PD testbed.
4.1. Probe Performance Testing
4.1. Probe
The Performance Testingwas fabricated as shown in Figure 15, and the dimensions
actual probe
probeThewere
actual166
probe
mmwas fabricated
long, 104 mm aswide,
shownand
in Figure
2 mm15, and AV3656
thick. the dimensions
vectorofnetwork
the an
probe were 166 mm long, 104 mm wide, and 2 mm thick. AV3656 vector network analyzer
wasused
was used to to measure
measure theand
the S 12
S12S11and S11 parameters
parameters of thisfield
of this magnetic magnetic fieldtest
probe. The probe. Th
schematic
schematic is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 16.
16. The Thetest
actual actual testareresults
results shownare shown17inand
in Figures Figures
18. 17 and

Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure
Figure 15.15. Physical
Physical picture
picture of probe.
of probe.

Vector Network Analyzer

Port1 Port2 Magnetic field probe

50Ω

Object to be tested

Figure 16. Schematic diagram of S12 and S11

Figure 16. Schematic diagram of S12 and S11 parameters measured in practice.
parameters measured in practice.

2
 50Ω
50Ω
Object to be tested
Object to be tested
Electronics 2023, 12, 336 15 of 18
Figure 16. Schematic diagram of S12 and S11 parameters measured in practice.
Figure 16. Schematic diagram of S12 and S11 parameters measured in practice.

4
4

2
2

0
0
S(1,1)/dB
S(1,1)/dB -2
-2

-4
-4

-6
-6

-8 simulation
-8 simulation
measured
-10
measured
-100.0 50.0M 100.0M 150.0M 200.0M 250.0M 300.0M
0.0 50.0M 100.0M 150.0M 200.0M 250.0M 300.0M
f/MHz
f/MHz
Figure 17. Comparison of test of the SS11parameters
simulations of parametersofof the magnetic field probe.
Figure 17. Comparison
Figure 17. Comparison of
of test
test simulations the S
simulations of the 11 the magnetic field probe.
11 parameters of the magnetic field probe.

-40
-40

-50
-50
S(1,2)/dB
S(1,2)/dB

-60
-60

-70
-70
simulation
simulation
measured
measured
-80
-800.0 50.0M 100.0M 150.0M 200.0M 250.0M 300.0M
0.0 50.0M 100.0M 150.0M 200.0M 250.0M 300.0M
f/MHz
f/MHz
Figure 18. Comparison of test simulations of
Figure 18. Comparison of test simulations the SS
of the 12 parameters of the magnetic field probe.
12 parameters of the magnetic field probe.
Figure 18. Comparison of test simulations of the S12 parameters of the magnetic field probe.
Figure 17 shows the test and simulation comparison results of the S11 parameters of
the magnetic field probe. From Figure 17, it can be seen that the port reflection coefficient
of the probe is very large, which makes its interference with the near field of the PD signal
of the switchgear particularly small, and its test results are in good agreement with the
simulation results.
Figure 18 shows the test and simulation comparison of the S12 parameters of the
magnetic field probe. As can be seen from Figure 18, the trends of the test and simulation
results of the S12 parameters are the same, with an error within 2 dB, but within the
operating band of 10–200 MHz, the amplitude and frequency characteristics still fluctuate
less than 5 dB, with good flatness.
Analysis of the causes of the error may have the following three points:
1. The errors caused by the machining process of the actual probe. Due to the limita-
tions of the processing machine, the processing accuracy is limited and errors are
inevitably introduced during the process; in addition, the SubMiniature version A
(SMA) connector needs to be connected during the actual test and the influence of the
 less than 5 dB, with good flatness.
Analysis of the causes of the error may have the following three points:
1. The errors caused by the machining process of the actual probe. Due to the limitations
of the processing machine, the processing accuracy is limited and errors are inevita-
Electronics 2023, 12, 336 bly introduced during the process; in addition, the SubMiniature version A (SMA) 16 of 18
connector needs to be connected during the actual test and the influence of the SMA
connector is not taken into account during the simulation process, which may also
result
SMA in certain errors.
connector is not taken into account during the simulation process, which may
2. Errors in theinplacement
also result of the part to be tested and the probe in the actual measure-
certain errors.
2. ment
Errors in the placementactual
will also affect the of theresults
part toofbethe probe.
tested and the probe in the actual measure-
3. The mentsimulation
will also software
affect theitself
actualis results
subjectoftothe
some errors, resulting in measured results
probe.
3. that
Thedo not exactly
simulation match itself
software the simulation results.
is subject to some errors, resulting in measured results
that do not exactly match the simulation results.
4.2. Probe Detection PD Test
4.2. Probe Detection
The probe PD Test
detection PD test platform is built in the laboratory, and its wiring sche-
maticThe probe is
diagram detection
shown PD test platform
in Figure is builtthem,
19. Among in the1laboratory,
is 220 V ACandpower
its wiring schematic
supply, 2 is
diagram is shown
TDGC2-3KVA in Figure
voltage 19. Among
regulator, them,dry-type
3 is GTB-5/50 1 is 220 test
V AC power supply,
transformer, and 42isisground-
TDGC2-
3KVA
ing tip. voltage
The PD regulator, 3 is GTB-5/50
signal is collected dry-type
by magnetic fieldtest transformer,
probe and 4ofis20grounding
5 at a distance cm from
tip. The PD signal is collected by magnetic field probe 5 at a
the discharge source and obtained on oscilloscope 6. The oscilloscope modeldistance of 20 is
cmTektronix
from the
discharge source and obtained on oscilloscope 6. The oscilloscope
MDO3024. The time-domain and frequency-domain waveforms of the received PD signal model is Tektronix
MDO3024.
are shown inThe time-domain
Figure 20. and frequency-domain waveforms of the received PD signal
are shown in Figure 20.

Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18

Figure19.
Figure Schematicdiagram
19.Schematic diagramof
ofthe
theprobe
probedetection
detectionpartial
partialdischarge
discharge test
test platform.
platform.

0.8

0.6

0.4
Amplitude/V

0.2

0.0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6
0.0 1.0x10-6
Time/s
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 20. Magnetic field20. Magnetic
probe fieldPD
received probe received
signal. PD domain;
(a) time signal. (a)(b)
time domain;domain.
frequency (b) frequency domain.

As can be seen As canFigure

from be seen20,
from theFigure
rising20, the of
edge rising
the edge of the is
PD signal PDvery
signal is very
steep, steep, with
with
the peak value peak value by
measured measured by the magnetic
the magnetic field probe field probe approximating
approximating 0.65 V, followed b
0.65 V, followed
gradual
by a gradual decay decay to background
to background levels
levels after approximately 0.25 µs. 0.25 µs.
after approximately The show
The results results show t
the signal received by the magnetic field probe has significant
that the signal received by the magnetic field probe has significant characteristics, which characteristics, wh
proves that the output signal of the magnetic field probe designed
proves that the output signal of the magnetic field probe designed can accurately reflect the can accurately ref
occurrence of PD.theAccording
occurrencetoofthe
PD.spectrum
According to the spectrum
analysis analysis
of the received of theit received
signal, signal, it can
can be seen
seenthe
from Figure 20 that from Figure
signal 20 that the
is mainly signal is mainly
distributed below 200distributed
MHz. below 200 MHz.

5. Conclusions 5. Conclusions
In this
In this paper, based on paper, basedof
the analysis onPD
thesignal
analysis of PD
in the signal inathe
switchgear, switchgear,
near-field a near-field m
magnetic
netic field probe suitable for PD detection in switchgear is designed
field probe suitable for PD detection in switchgear is designed and a series of tests are and a series of t
are
carried out, with carried
the out, with
following the following conclusions.
conclusions.
1. Based on the principle of PD pulse current generation, combined with the actual
vironment in the switchgear, the field characteristics are analyzed. and a new meth
of PD detection in the switchgear for near-field detection is proposed. The probe
be placed in the switchgear to realize online monitoring of PD and obtain the
quency band of PD signal energy concentration. It is expected to achieve quantita
and pattern recognition of PD in subsequent research.
Electronics 2023, 12, 336 17 of 18

1. Based on the principle of PD pulse current generation, combined with the actual
environment in the switchgear, the field characteristics are analyzed. and a new
method of PD detection in the switchgear for near-field detection is proposed. The
probe can be placed in the switchgear to realize online monitoring of PD and obtain
the frequency band of PD signal energy concentration. It is expected to achieve
quantitative and pattern recognition of PD in subsequent research.
2. The probe adopts the electric small loop structure, and its measuring principle and
the factors affecting the amplitude frequency characteristics are analyzed in detail.
On this basis, the HFSS software was used to simulate and discuss how to broaden
the working frequency band of the probe on the basis of miniaturization of the probe.
Finally, the structure and size of the probe meeting the design requirements were
determined, and the performance of the probe was verified through actual testing. The
results show that the designed magnetic field probe can accurately and significantly
reflect the occurrence of PD.
3. The new method proposed in this paper can provide some reference for the follow-up
research of PD near field detection. Later, the collected signals will be processed, that
is, the noise separation of the probe and the quantitative study of the PD signal.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.Z. and W.Z.; methodology, J.Z. and W.Z.; software, J.Z.;
validation, J.Z. and Z.X.; formal analysis, J.Z.; investigation, J.Z.; resources, J.Z. and M.H.; data cura-
tion, J.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, J.Z.; writing—review and editing, J.Z.; visualization, J.Z.
and Z.X.; supervision, C.S. and W.Z.; project administration, C.S., X.W. and W.Z.; funding acquisition,
C.S. and W.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: “Research and development of new smart sensor technology to promote the development of
green energy” (202104BN050011), and “Research and development of key technologies for conformal
implantation of new intelligent power sensing for power grid main equipment” (YNKJXM20210075).
Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the “Research and development of new smart
sensor technology to promote the development of green energy” (202104BN050011), and “Research
and development of key technologies for conformal implantation of new intelligent power sensing
for power grid main equipment” (YNKJXM20210075) funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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