2.

 Lithosphere:-
Composition and internal structure of the Earth, Rocks-origin, formation, and
types ( igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic), plate tectonics, mountain
building geomorphic processes internal and external, earthquakes, volcanic
activity, weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition, the cycle of erosion;
landforms produced by surface water, groundwater, wind, and glaciers.

Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the solid outermost layer of the Earth, which includes the crust and
the uppermost part of the mantle. It is composed of a variety of rocks and minerals and
is divided into tectonic plates that move and interact with each other. The lithosphere is
relatively rigid and brittle, and it is broken into numerous large and small pieces known
as plates that float on the underlying, more fluid asthenosphere.

The lithosphere is significant because it is the site of many geologic processes, including
the formation of mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes. It is also the source of many
natural resources, including minerals, fossil fuels, and groundwater. The study of the
lithosphere and its interaction with other Earth systems, such as the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere, is known as geology, and it is a crucial area of scientific
inquiry.

Composition and internal structure of the Earth

The Earth is composed of several layers that have different chemical and physical
properties. The internal structure of the Earth can be divided into four major layers,
based on the differences in their composition and physical properties.

1. Crust: The Earth's crust is the outermost layer of the Earth and is composed of a variety
of rocks and minerals. It is divided into two types: continental crust, which is thicker and
less dense, and oceanic crust, which is thinner and denser. The crust makes up only
about 1% of the Earth's volume.
2. Mantle: The mantle is the layer of the Earth that lies beneath the crust and makes up
about 84% of the Earth's volume. It is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and
magnesium. The mantle is divided into two layers: the upper mantle and the lower
mantle.
3. Outer core: The outer core is a liquid layer of the Earth that lies beneath the mantle and
is composed mostly of iron and nickel. It is the source of the Earth's magnetic field.
4. Inner core: The inner core is a solid layer that lies at the center of the Earth and is also
composed of iron and nickel. It is under extremely high pressure, which keeps it solid
despite its high temperature.
The Earth's internal structure is determined by seismic waves, which are waves of energy
that travel through the Earth's interior. By analyzing how seismic waves propagate
through the Earth, scientists have been able to determine the size, shape, and
composition of the Earth's layers

Rocks-origin, formation and types ( igneous, sedimentary and

metamorphic)

Rocks are naturally occurring solid substances composed of one or more minerals. They
are classified based on their origin, formation, and physical properties. There are three
main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
1. Igneous rocks: Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification of magma or lava.
Magma is molten rock that is located beneath the Earth's surface, while lava is magma
that has erupted onto the Earth's surface. Igneous rocks can be classified into two types
based on their texture: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive rocks, also known as plutonic
rocks, form when magma cools and solidifies beneath the Earth's surface. Examples of
intrusive rocks include granite and diorite. Extrusive rocks, also known as volcanic rocks,
form when lava cools and solidifies on the Earth's surface. Examples of extrusive rocks
include basalt and pumice.
2. Sedimentary rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and
consolidation of sedimentary materials such as sand, silt, and clay, as well as the remains
of living organisms. Sedimentary rocks can be further classified into three types: clastic,
chemical, and organic. Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and
cementation of broken fragments of pre-existing rocks. Examples of clastic sedimentary
rocks include sandstone and shale. Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed when
dissolved minerals precipitate out of water and become cemented together. Examples
of chemical sedimentary rocks include limestone and halite. Organic sedimentary rocks
are formed from the accumulation of organic debris, such as the remains of plants or
animals. Examples of organic sedimentary rocks include coal and fossiliferous limestone.
3. Metamorphic rocks: Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks that are
subjected to heat, pressure, or chemical processes that alter their mineralogy, texture, or
composition. Metamorphic rocks can be classified into two types: foliated and non-
foliated. Foliated metamorphic rocks are characterized by a layered or banded
appearance due to the alignment of mineral grains caused by pressure. Examples of
foliated metamorphic rocks include slate, schist, and gneiss. Non-foliated metamorphic
rocks do not have a layered or banded appearance and are formed by the
recrystallization of minerals in the original rock. Examples of non-foliated metamorphic
rocks include marble and quartzite.

The study of rocks and their properties is known as petrology, and it is a crucial area of
geological research.
Plate tectonics

Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that explains the movement and behavior of the
Earth's lithospheric plates. The lithosphere is divided into several large and small
tectonic plates that move and interact with each other. These plates are constantly
moving due to the motion of the underlying, more fluid asthenosphere.

Plate tectonics is driven by several processes, including the motion of convection

currents in the mantle, which cause the plates to move apart at divergent boundaries,
come together at convergent boundaries, or slide past each other at transform
boundaries.

Divergent boundaries occur when two plates are moving away from each other, and
new crust is created as magma rises to fill the gap. This process is responsible for the
formation of mid-ocean ridges, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Convergent boundaries occur when two plates are moving toward each other, and one
plate is forced beneath the other in a process known as subduction. This process can
create deep ocean trenches, volcanic arcs, and mountain ranges, such as the Andes in
South America.

Transform boundaries occur when two plates slide past each other horizontally. This
process can cause earthquakes, such as the San Andreas Fault in California.

The theory of plate tectonics has many practical applications, including the prediction
and mitigation of earthquakes, the exploration for natural resources such as oil and gas,
and the study of the history of the Earth's geologic processes. It is a crucial area of
scientific research and has helped to shape our understanding of the Earth and its
dynamic processes
mountain building geomorphic processes internal and external
Mountain building, or orogenesis, is a process that involves a combination of internal
and external geomorphic processes. Internal processes refer to tectonic forces and
volcanic activity that cause uplift and deformation of the Earth's crust, while external
processes refer to the action of weathering, erosion, and sedimentation on the surface
of the Earth.

Internal processes involve the movement of large tectonic plates, which can collide,
move apart, or slide past each other. When two plates collide, one plate is typically
forced underneath the other in a process called subduction. This can cause uplift and
folding of the crust, leading to the formation of mountain ranges. Alternatively, two
plates may collide and buckle upward, creating a mountain range without subduction.
Volcanic activity associated with tectonic activity can also contribute to mountain
building by adding new material to the Earth's crust.
 External processes involve the gradual wearing down of the Earth's surface by
weathering and erosion. Weathering refers to the breakdown of rocks and minerals by
physical or chemical means, while erosion involves the movement of this material by
wind, water, or ice. As rocks and sediment are eroded from high elevations and
deposited in lower elevations, they can contribute to the formation of new mountain
ranges. Over time, the accumulation of sediment can also create pressure that
contributes to uplift and deformation of the Earth's crust.

Overall, mountain building is a complex process that involves a combination of internal

and external geomorphic processes. While tectonic forces and volcanic activity are the
primary drivers of uplift and deformation, weathering, erosion, and sedimentation can
also contribute to the formation and shaping of mountain ranges.

Earthquake
An earthquake is a sudden shaking of the Earth's surface caused by the release of
energy stored in rocks beneath the Earth's crust. The energy is released in the form of
seismic waves, which travel through the Earth's interior and cause the ground to shake.
Earthquakes can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

1. Tectonic activity: Most earthquakes are caused by the movement of tectonic plates,
which make up the Earth's crust. When two plates move past each other or collide, it can
create a build-up of stress and pressure that is eventually released in the form of an
earthquake.
2. Volcanic activity: Some earthquakes are caused by volcanic activity, such as the
movement of magma beneath the Earth's surface.
3. Human activity: Human activities such as mining, drilling, or the construction of large
dams can also trigger earthquakes by changing the stress and pressure on rocks
beneath the Earth's surface.

The severity of an earthquake is measured using a scale called the Richter scale, which
measures the amount of energy released by the earthquake. The scale ranges from 0 to
10, with each increase of one representing a tenfold increase in the magnitude of the
earthquake.

Earthquakes can cause a wide range of damage, from minor shaking to widespread
destruction of buildings and infrastructure. They can also trigger other natural disasters,
such as landslides, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions. In areas prone to earthquakes, it is
important to have emergency plans in place and to take steps to minimize the risks
associated with earthquakes, such as securing heavy objects and buildings, and avoiding
building on unstable ground

weathering

Weathering is the process by which rocks and minerals on or near the Earth's surface
break down into smaller pieces through physical and chemical means. There are two
main types of weathering: mechanical (or physical) weathering and chemical weathering.

Mechanical weathering involves the physical breakdown of rocks and minerals into
smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition. This can occur through
processes such as frost wedging, where water seeps into cracks in rocks and freezes,
causing the ice to expand and break the rock apart. Other mechanical weathering
processes include abrasion from wind and water, as well as the expansion and
contraction of rocks due to changes in temperature.

Chemical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and minerals through chemical
reactions, which can alter their composition. This can occur through processes such as
oxidation, where oxygen reacts with minerals in the rock to form new compounds. Other
chemical weathering processes include carbonation, where carbon dioxide reacts with
minerals to form new compounds, and hydrolysis, where water reacts with minerals to
form new compounds.

Weathering plays an important role in the Earth's carbon cycle, as it releases carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere through chemical weathering reactions. It also contributes
to the formation of soil, as weathered rock material mixes with organic matter to form
the basis of fertile soil.

Weathering can have both positive and negative impacts on the environment. Positive
impacts include the formation of soil and the release of nutrients that can support plant
growth. Negative impacts include the breakdown of cultural heritage sites and the
release of contaminants from weathered rocks, such as heavy metals, which can have
harmful effects on ecosystems and human health.

VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

Volcanic activity refers to the various processes and phenomena associated with the
movement and eruption of magma from the Earth's interior. Volcanic activity is a major
 geological process that can shape the Earth's surface and has significant impacts on the
environment and human populations.

Volcanic activity is generally classified into two main types:

1. Effusive eruptions: These occur when magma flows out of a volcano and spreads over
the surrounding landscape. Effusive eruptions are characterized by the slow movement
of lava, which can sometimes solidify into volcanic rock. Examples of effusive eruptions
include the Hawaiian eruptions and the Icelandic eruptions.
2. Explosive eruptions: These occur when magma is expelled from a volcano with great
force and intensity. Explosive eruptions are characterized by the ejection of volcanic ash,
rock, and gas into the atmosphere, which can have far-reaching impacts. Examples of
explosive eruptions include the Mount St. Helens eruption in 1980 and the eruption of
Mount Pinatubo in 1991.

Volcanic activity can also lead to the formation of various landforms, including:

1. Volcanoes: These are cone-shaped mountains that form from the accumulation of lava,
ash, and other volcanic materials.
2. Calderas: These are large, bowl-shaped depressions that form when the top of a volcano
collapses during an eruption.
3. Lava fields: These are large areas of solidified lava that can cover extensive stretches of
land.
4. Pyroclastic deposits: These are deposits of ash, rock, and other volcanic materials that
are ejected during an eruption and settle on the surrounding landscape.
5. Hot springs and geysers: These are created when groundwater is heated by magma and
rises to the surface, often forming pools of hot water and steam vents.

Volcanic activity can have significant impacts on the environment and human
populations, including the destruction of property and infrastructure, loss of life, and
changes to the climate and air quality. However, volcanic activity can also have positive
effects, such as creating fertile soil and providing geothermal energy

MASS WASTING

Mass wasting, also known as slope movement or mass movement, refers to the
downslope movement of rock, soil, and debris under the influence of gravity. This can
 occur as a slow creep or as a rapid landslide, and can be triggered by a variety of factors
such as earthquakes, heavy rain, erosion, and human activities.

There are several types of mass wasting, including:

1. Rockfalls - the rapid falling of rock fragments from a steep slope or cliff.
2. Landslides - the sudden movement of a mass of soil, rock, or debris down a slope.
3. Mudflows - the movement of a mixture of water, soil, and rocks down a slope.
4. Debris flows - the movement of a mixture of water, rocks, soil, and other debris down a
slope.
5. Creep - the slow, gradual movement of soil and rock downhill.

Mass wasting can cause significant damage to property and infrastructure, as well as
posing a serious threat to human life and the environment. It is important to monitor
and manage the risks associated with mass wasting in areas where it is known to occur.

EROSION AND DEPOSITION

Erosion and deposition are geological processes that involve the movement
and transformation of earth materials such as soil, rock, and sediment. Erosion
refers to the process of wearing away and transporting earth materials from
one location to another, while deposition refers to the process of settling or
depositing these materials in a new location.

Erosion can be caused by a variety of natural and human factors, such as wind,
water, ice, and human activities like deforestation or mining. Different types of
erosion include:

1. Water erosion - caused by the movement of water, such as rivers, streams, and
ocean currents.
2. Wind erosion - caused by the movement of air, which can pick up and
transport soil and sand.
3. Glacial erosion - caused by the movement of glaciers, which can carve out
valleys and create other landforms.

Deposition, on the other hand, occurs when the transported earth materials
come to rest in a new location. Deposition can occur when the erosional
 forces are reduced or when the earth materials reach a location where the
forces of gravity or water flow are insufficient to carry them further.

Deposition can create new landforms such as deltas, beaches, and sand dunes.
Over time, the accumulation of deposited materials can form sedimentary
rocks through compaction and cementation.

Both erosion and deposition are important geological processes that shape
the earth's surface and play a vital role in the formation of natural landscapes.
However, human activities can often accelerate erosion processes, leading to
environmental degradation and increased risks of landslides and other
hazards.

EROSION CYCLE

The cycle of erosion is a theoretical model that describes how different geological
processes interact to shape the earth's surface over time. The cycle of erosion was first
proposed by the geologist William Morris Davis in the late 19th century.

The cycle of erosion consists of four stages:

1. Youth Stage: In this stage, the landscape is dominated by the processes of uplift and
erosion. Rivers and other erosional forces are active, cutting deep valleys and gorges
into the landscape. The topography is characterized by steep slopes and sharp ridges.
2. Mature Stage: In this stage, the landscape has been more extensively eroded and the
topography is more subdued. The valleys are wider, and the slopes are less steep. The
landscape is characterized by rolling hills and meandering rivers.
3. Old Age Stage: In this stage, the landscape has been greatly flattened and the
topography is relatively flat. The valleys are wide and the slopes are gentle. Erosional
forces are less active, and the landscape is characterized by extensive plains and
lowlands.
4. Rejuvenation Stage: In this stage, the landscape is uplifted or reactivated by tectonic
forces, and the erosional cycle begins anew. The rivers and other erosional forces
become more active, cutting deep valleys and gorges into the landscape once again.

The cycle of erosion is a continuous process that occurs over millions of years. It helps to
explain how the earth's surface is constantly changing and evolving over time, and how
different geological processes interact to shape the landscape. However, the cycle is not
 always complete and can be interrupted by external factors such as climate change or
human activities, leading to changes in the landscape that may be permanent.

landforms produced by surface water, groundwater, wind, and glaciers.

Landforms are features on the Earth's surface that have been shaped by geological
processes such as erosion and deposition. Different types of landforms are produced by
different agents of erosion, such as surface water, groundwater, wind, and glaciers.

1. Landforms produced by surface water:

a. River valleys: These are formed by the erosion of rivers, which cut through the land
and create valleys over time.

b. Waterfalls: These are formed when rivers flow over steep cliffs or rocks, causing the
water to fall vertically.

c. Canyons: These are formed by the erosion of rivers or streams, which carve deep,
narrow valleys through the landscape.

d. Alluvial fans: These are formed when rivers deposit sediment at the base of a slope,
creating a fan-shaped landform.

2. Landforms produced by groundwater:

a. Karst topography: This is formed when groundwater dissolves and erodes soluble
rock, creating sinkholes, caves, and other features.

b. Springs: These are formed where groundwater emerges from the Earth's surface,
often creating pools or streams.

3. Landforms produced by wind:

a. Sand dunes: These are formed when wind carries sand and deposits it in mounds or
ridges.

b. Yardangs: These are streamlined hills or ridges that are carved by wind erosion.

4. Landforms produced by glaciers:

a. U-shaped valleys: These are formed by glaciers eroding the landscape and carving out
deep, U-shaped valleys.

b. Moraines: These are ridges of glacially deposited sediment that mark the edges or
former extent of a glacier.

c. Glacial lakes: These are formed when glaciers carve depressions in the landscape,
which fill with water after the glacier retreats.

These are just a few examples of the many different types of landforms that can be
produced by surface water, groundwater, wind, and glaciers. Each landform is unique
and provides insight into the geological history and processes that have shaped the
Earth's surface over time

 Study of Maps
Topographical Maps,
Topographical maps are detailed and accurate representations of a particular area's
physical features and terrain, including elevations, contours, and other natural and man-
made features. These maps are used extensively in various fields such as geography,
geology, cartography, environmental science, and civil engineering.

Topographical maps typically use contour lines to represent changes in elevation, with

each line indicating a specific elevation above sea level. The contour lines are usually
labeled with their corresponding elevations, and the distance between the lines can
indicate the steepness of the slope. Other features on topographical maps may include
bodies of water, roads, buildings, and vegetation.

Topographical maps are essential tools for planning outdoor activities such as hiking,
camping, and rock climbing. They are also used in land-use planning, geological
mapping, and civil engineering projects. In addition to paper maps, topographical maps
are now commonly available in digital formats, making them easily accessible to anyone
with an internet connection

Aerial Photographs and introduction to Remote Sensing,

Aerial photographs are images of the Earth's surface taken from an elevated position, usually
from an aircraft or satellite. They provide valuable information about the topography, vegetation,
land use, and other features of an area. Aerial photographs have been used for various purposes,
including mapping, urban planning, agriculture, and environmental monitoring.

Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about the Earth's surface without
physically touching it. Remote sensing technologies include aerial photography, satellite
imagery, and other data acquisition methods. Remote sensing data can be used to study changes
in the Earth's surface, such as deforestation, urbanization, and changes in land use patterns.

Aerial photography is a common form of remote sensing, and it is used to capture images of the
Earth's surface from above. Aerial photographs can be taken using traditional film cameras or
digital cameras mounted on aircraft or drones. These images can be used to create maps, assess
the health of vegetation, monitor the environment, and other applications.

Remote sensing data is typically analyzed using geographic information systems (GIS) software.
GIS software allows for the manipulation and analysis of spatial data, which can be used to
create maps and models of the Earth's surface. Remote sensing data can also be combined with
other data sources, such as climate data, to create a more comprehensive understanding of the
Earth's environment.

Overall, aerial photographs and remote sensing technologies have revolutionized our
understanding of the Earth's surface and its changes over time. They are essential tools for
environmental monitoring, land-use planning, and other applications that require detailed
information about the Earth's surface.

Weather maps of Pakistan. Map projection general principles, classification of

network by simple graphic methods of the following projections. Cylindrical,
Simple, Equal Area and MerCator’s (with table) Conical with one and two
standard parallel’s and Bonne’s projections.Zenithal, Gnomonic Stereographic
and orthographic (Polar Cases).