DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AN INFRARED

INTRUSION ALARM

BY

AHIAMADU PROMISE IKENNA

DE 2001 / 0819
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN THE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
(ELECTRONICS OPTION)

RIVERS STATE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY

NKPOLU-OROWORUKWO PORT HARCOURT.

DECEMBER, 2007
 DECLARATION
I solemnly declare that this work were solely an independently
done by me and supervised. This work has not been submitted
else when copied

MR. AHIAMADU PROMISE. I . ----------------------

(DECLARANT) DATE
 CERTIFICATION
I certify sincerely that this project was carried out independently

and supervised by-------------------------------------- for the award

of Bachelor degree in technology in electrical engineering.

MR. AHIAMADU PROMISE.I. -------------- ---------

STUDENT SIGNATURE DATE

MR NWERI -------------- ---------

PROJECT SUPERVISOR SIGNATURE DATE

ENGR (DR). C. O. AHIAKWO -------------- ---------

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT SIGNATURE DATE

----------------------- -------------- ---------

EXTERNAL SUPERVISOR SIGNATURE DATE

 DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to the one and only shepherd of my soul,

Christ my lord. My guide, shield and the reason why I’m here.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am indebted to sincerely appreciate the ancient of days from

whom all wisdom, intelligence and blessings proceed. Without

him I wouldn’t have been able to go through this programme.

A special thanks also goes to MR NWERI, who gave me the warm

support and encouragement to make this project a success.

Not forgetting at all the unquantifiable contributions and support

of my parents MR & MRS E.I. AHIAMADU, who gave all the

support I required both financially and physically.

My heartfelt appreciation also goes to my siblings brothers,

sisters, cousins whose company and support I enjoyed quite

greatly.

Finally I would not hesitate to appreciate the DLCF family,

pastors and leaders, brothers and sisters in Christ who made

what I am spiritually, socially and emotionally, I say may the

good Lord bless you all.

 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Block diagram of an infrared
intrusion alarm - - - 5
Figure 2.0 symbol for fixed resistors - - - 9
Figure 2.1 potentiometer symbol - - - 10
Figure 2.2 resistor colour code - - - 11
Figure 2.3(a) symbol for non-polar fixed capacitor- 14
Figure 2.3(b) symbol for variable fixed capacitor- - 14
Figure 2.3(c) symbol for polarized fixed capacitor - 14
Figure 2.4 capacitor charge and discharge circuit 16
Figure 2.5 capacitor charging curve - - - 19
Figure 2.6 capacitor discharge curve - - - 21
Figure 2.7(a) diode circuit symbol - - - - 25
Figure 2.7(b) diode characteristics - - - - 25
Figure 2.8 general structure of infrared
emitting diode - - - - - 29
Figure 2.9(a) block diagram of TSOP
infrared receiver module - - - 31
Figure 2.9(b) module structure of Infrared
receiver module - - - - - 31
Figure 3.0(a) detailed layout of 555 timer - - - 35
Figure 3.0(b) pin-out structure of 555 timer - - 36
Figure 3.1(a) circuit diagram of 555 timer in
monostable operation. - - - - 37
Figure 3.1(b) output waveform - - - - 37

Figure 3.2(a) circuit diagram in astable mode - - 38

Figure 3.2(b) Output waveform of astable - - - 39

Figure 3.3 Transistor switching operation. - - - 42

Figure 3.4 Schematic symbol of relay- - - - 43

Figure 3.5 Transmitter circuit - - - - - 50a

Figure 3.6 Receiver circuit - - - - - 55b

Figure 3.7 Alarm circuit - - - - - - 60c

TABLES

Table 2.0 EIA-MIL resistor colour code - - - 12

Table 2.1 capacitor colour code and voltage rating - - 15

Table 2.2 Dielectric constant of various materials - - 22

Table 2.3 integrator data of the Vishay

IR receiver modules - - - - - - 24

Table 2.4 Cost analysis - - - - - - - 6

 ABSTRACT

This infrared alarm system gives an alert on movements across a

defined path and will probably be very efficient in an era of

increasing rates in burgling. It is thus designed to detect motion

across its path and trigger an alarm. As a first step, this work

introduces the nature of infrared light signals and its

characteristic feature to be employed in security outfit and views

the functional parts of the whole system. A detailed examination

of the constituent electronic parts ensures thereafter. A down to

earth analysis of design consideration and construction

procedures of the various functional units takes centre stage. The

major parts of this circuit include transmitter, receiver and the

alarm.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page - - - - - - i

Declaration - - - - - - - ii

Certification - -- -- -- - - - iii

Dedication - - - - - - - - iv

Acknowledgment - - - - - - v

Abstract - - - - - - - vi

List of figures and tables - - - - - vii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0.0 Introduction - - - - - 1

1.1.0 Nature of infrared light - - - 2

1.2.0 Functional units - - - - - 3

1.3.0 General concept - - - - - 7

CHAPTER TWO

2.0.0 Literature review - - - - - 8

2.1.0 Resistor - -- -- -- - - - 8

2.1.1 Fixed resistor - - - - - 9

2.1.2 Variable resistor - - - - - 10

2.1.3 Resistor colour code - - - - - 11

2.2.0 Capacitors - - - - - - 12

2.2.1 Capacitor colour code - - - - 14

2.2.2 Charging and discharging - - - - 15

2.2.3 Capacitor charged and discharged

through a resistor - - - - - 16

2.2.4 Types of capacitors - - - - - 22

2.3.0 Diodes - -- -- - - - - - - 24

2.4.0 Light emitting diodes- - - - - 26

2.5.0 Infrared emitting diode - - - - 28

2.6.0 Infrared receiver module- - - - 29

2.6.1 Trans impedance amplifier - - - - 32

2.6.2 Controlled gain amplifier - - - - 32

2.6.3 Band pass amplifier - - - - - 33

2.6.4 Automatic gain control -- - - 33

2.6.5 Automatic threshold control - - - - 33

2.6.6 Integrator Schmitt trigger - - - - 34

2.6.7 Output stage - - - - - - 34

2.7.0 The 555 timer - - - - - - 35

2.7.1 Monostable operation - - - - 36

2.7.2 Astable operation - - - - - - - 38

2.8.0 Transistor 41

2.9.0 Relays 43

CHAPTER THREE

3.0.0 Design methodology and considerations - 45

3.1.0 Design considerations - 46

3.2.0 The transmitter unit – - - - - - 48

3.2.1 Astable Mode of operation - - - - 48

3.2.2 Circuit description - - - - - 50

3.2.3 Design calculations - - - - - 52

3.3.0 Receiver unit - - - - - - - 54

3.3.1 Infrared Receiver Module - - - - 55

3.3.2 Infrared circuit description - - - - - 56

3.4.0 Alarm unit - - - - - - - 57

3.4.1 Calculations - - - - - - - 58

CHAPTER FOUR

3.0.0 Construction methodology and

general analysis - - -- - - - - 61

3.1.0 General principle of operation 61

3.1.1 Infrared intrusion alarm 61

4.2.0 General Load considerations - - - - 63

4.3.0 Power supply unit - - - - - - - 63

4.4.0 Constructional procedures - - - - - 64

4.5.0 Construction - - - - - - - 64

4.6.0 General approximations - - - - - 65

4.7.0 Cost analysis - - - - - - - 66

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1.0 Conclusion - - - - - - - - 68

5.2.0 Recommendations - - - - - -- 69

References - - - - - - - - 70

Appendix - - - - - - - - 71
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0.0 INTRODUCTION

We all live in a society, where the level of insecurity has risen

beyond tolerable levels. Every day we are faced with cases of

robbery theft and burgling thus making us doubt the very safety

of our personal possessions either as individuals or corporate

organizations.

This highlights the need for an alarm / security system which

will effectively create an awareness of intruders. A security alarm

system that senses and detects an intruder and sounds an alarm

immediately will just be excellent and effective to deter the

advance of would be burglars. With this problem in mind, this

Infrared Intrusion Alarm was designed, tested and constructed.

Basically an Alarm is a piece of electronic device which produces

variation in audible sounds, used to alert the attention of all-

around of an abnormal condition. An infrared intrusion alarm is

an alarm system that uses infrared light to monitor movements.

1.1.0 NATURE OF INFRARED LIGHT

Infrared is simply an energy or radiation similar to that of visible

light, but with a longer wavelength making it invisible to the

human eye and a wavelength shorter than mat of radio

frequency. It is essentially a light wave which lies just below the

visible red light on the electromagnetic spectrum. As a light wave

it displays some evident characteristics that other waves in the

electromagnetic spectrum exhibit. The transmission of signals

over long distances can only be done by the modulation of the

said signals this is the principle employed in the transmission of

the infrared light signal. Modulation thus is a process of

superimposing a low frequency signal on a high frequency signal

before transmission and this is what this project employs as

earlier stated.
1.2.0 FUNCTIONAL UNITS

Several unique sections of this infrared intrusion alarm work

together for the actualization of this security outfit. These

sections are outlined below:

i. Transmitter unit

ii. Receiver unit

iii. Emergency alarm unit

iv. Power supply unit

Transmitter Unit: This unit comprises of two (2) square wave

oscillators running at different frequency. This unit employs the

principle of modulation whereby a low frequency signal is

superimposed on a high frequency signal and these are achieved

by the square wave oscillator which is basically two 555 timer

configured as free-running astable multivibrators.

Receiver Unit: This unit is made up of the IR receiver module,

other circuit elements and a relay. The infrared receiver module

incorporates other circuitry

Like IR filters, demodulators and amplifiers which are tuned

specifically to decode the modulated signal frequency and

produce an output which is compatible with TTL and CMOS

circuit. The relay in this unit is responsible for the switching of

the emergency alarm unit once the beam being received by the

module is interrupted. An LED circuit indicate the presence of a

signal.

Emergency Alarm Unit: This unit is directly switched by the

relay in the receiver unit and comprises mainly of two timer IC

chips configured as multivibrator producing an output which is

received by a transistor which in turn drives a moving coil

speaker. This arrangement ensures the delivery of more power to

the speaker. The moving coil speaker is another device in this

unit that coverts the electrical impulses or signed to audible

sounds and serves as the output of the Emergency Alarm Unit.

Power Supply Unit: This is a D.C power source that provides

outputs of 9V and +12V respectively for the

various sections of the project design circuit. The transmitter unit

is powered by a separate power supply of 9v. figure 1.1 shows a

typical block representation of the functional units of the infrared

intrusion alarm.

F:g 1.1 Block diagram of an infrared intrusion alarm.

Because of the versatile nature of light, the infrared light it is applied

in so many electronic system like remote controlling devices used in

TV/VCR and audio equipment, Night vision equipment used to have a

view of
an area even in darkness, Thermograph and in motion detection

systems.

This project design employs the characteristic of the infrared light

source to transmit a ray of light which will be received by a

receiver in line of sight with it. I his radiation is maintained and

used to keep a relay operated once there is an interruption or

break in the radiation as a result of obstruction of movement

across its path the relay switches on an alarm circuit which

produces an audible sound.

A real and practical implementation of this project is the

monitoring of movements across or over the perimeter wall of a

residential building. In a fenced building for instance movements

over the perimeter walls is only done by intending burglars or

thief’s. This work present a practical solution and a unique

security alarm to warn all around of such intruders

1.3.0 GENERAL CONCEPT

Generally, this project incorporate the uses and the varying

applications of the all-purpose digital IC i.e. the 555 timer,

infrared receiver module and other unique electronic component

like the infrared LED, transistor etc.

These various components being connected together according to

prescribed design constitutes this whole concept of an infrared

intrusion alarm.
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter handles pretty extensively the basic fundamentals of

certain circuit components utilized in Tie actualisation of this

real time design project. It reveals in clear terms the definitions,

properties, principles of operation and the general applications of

these unique electronic parts.

2.1.0 RESISTORS

These are circuit element which provides a limitation in the flow

of electric current. They manifest a material property known as

resistance whose value is designated in units called ohms (ῼ ).

A resistor exhibits a resistance (R) of IQ when a current of 1A

flows through it and a potential difference of IV is applied across

its terminals. Thus, if V represent the P.d in volts across a circuit

having resistance R in ohms carrying a current I in amperes for

time t in seconds.
V = IR; I = 𝑉⁄𝑅and R = 𝑉⁄𝐼

These expressions are known as ohm’s law.

Resistors fall under two (2) major classes which are

i. Fixed resistors

ii. Variable resistors

2.1.1 FIXED RESISTORS

These are resistors in which their values of resistance cannot be

changed. A greater number of these resistors are always found in

many electronic circuits. There are basically two (2) types

i. Carbon film resistors

ii. Metal film resistors,

Figure 2.0 show the symbolic representation of fixed resistors

Fig.2.0 symbol of fixed resistors.

2.1.2 VARIABLE RESISTORS

Variable resistors are resistors used where adjustment resistance

is required for improved performance. There usage appear in two

(2) general ways. One is the variable resistor whose valve is easily

changed like the volume adjustment of sound in radios. The

other is semi fixed that is, it is not meant to be adjusted by

anyone except an experienced technician. They are majorly

employed to compensate for the inaccuracies of the resistors, in

the fine tuning of a circuit and adjusting the operating conditions

of a circuit.

Variable resistors are sometimes referred to as potentiometers or

pots. This is due to their ability to provide a varying potential

difference from the wiping contact (usually the centre load) to

either ends fig.2.1 show a symbolic representation of a

potentiometer.

Fig. 2.1 potentiometer symbol

Other considerations when working with resistors include, the

tolerance which denotes the proximity to the actual rated value of

the resistor and the power rating measured in watts (w) which

indicates how much power the resistor can safely tolerate.

2.1.3 RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

The resistance value of resistors was formerly identified by print

outs on the body surface of resistor but due to miniaturization of

components the printing of resistor values on surfaces became

practically impossible and as such standards where put in place

by the electronic industries association (EIA) which assigned

colour codes which indicated the ratings of the resistor and were

painted around the resistors. As shown in Fig. 2.2, One of the

bands is always placed near the end of the resistor which

indicates the first band.

Color Value Multiplier Tolerance (%)
Black 0 0 -
Brown 1 1 ±1
Red 2 2 ±2
Orange 3 3 ±0.05
Yellow 4 4 -
Green 5 5 ±0.5
Blue 6 6 ±0.25
Violet 7 7 ±0.1
Gray 8 8 -
White 9 9 -
Gold - -1 ±5
Silver - -2 ±10
None - - ±20

Table 2.0 Resistor colour code

2.2.0 CAPACITORS

A capacitor essentially consists of two conducting surfaces

separated by a layer of an insulating medium called dielectric.

The purpose of a capacitor is to store electrical energy by

electrostatic stress in the dielectric. This electrical energy stored

is referred to as charges.
The property of a capacitor to store electricity is called its

capacitance.

The value of a capacitor (the capacitance) is designated in units

called the farad (f) and is generally very small, so units such as

the microfarad (10−9 𝐹) nano Farad (10−9 𝐹) are used.

❖ CAPACITOR BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

The breakdown voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will

cause the dielectric (insulator) inside the capacitor to break. This

voltage must be maintained so as not to destroy or damage the

capacitor.

Different types of capacitors exist having three categories

i. Polarized fixed capacitors

ii. Non-polarized fixed capacitors.

iii. Variable capacitors.

The symbols are shown in fig.2.3

Fig. 2.3

(a) Symbol for a non-polar fixed capacitor

(b) Symbol for variable fixed capacitor

(c) Symbol for polarized fixed capacitor.

2.2.1 CAPACITOR COLOUR CODES

Capacitors that are colour coded are rated similarly in the same

way a colour coded resistor is rated. Thus, same colours with

their significant band location are applied in both cases. The only

difference is using colour bands to indicate voltage ratings for

capacitors.

The voltage ratings of a capacitor in terms of colour bands are

shown in table 2.1

TABLE 2.1 CAPACITOR COLOUR CODES AND

VOLTAGE RATING

Colour Value Multiplier Tolerance Voltages

Black 0 10° -
4„
Brown 1 101 ±1% 6V
Red 2 102 ±2% iov
Orange 3 103 - 15v
Yellow 4 104 -
20v
Green 5 105 - 25 v
Blue 6 106 -
35v
Violet 7 107 -
50v
Gray 8 108 - -

White 9 109 - -

Gold -
10“' ±5% -

Silver -
10~2 ± 10% -

None -
1(T3 ± 20% -

2.2.2 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING

A charged capacitor may be regarded as a reservoir of electricity

and its action can be demonstrated by connecting a capacitor in

series with a resistor R, as shown in fig. 2.4, the current through

the capacitor C during the charging and discharge processes can

be measured by an ammeter connected in series with the

capacitor while a voltage measuring meter (voltmeter) connected

in parallel across the terminals of the

capacitor measures the voltage stored in the capacitor during the

processes.

Fig. 2.4 capacitor charge and discharge circuit

2.2.3 CAPACITOR CHARGED AND DISCHARGED

THROUGH A RESISTOR

It is found that when switch S is closed on position a, the

ammeter A shows a deflection rising immediately to its maximum

value and then falling off to zero when the capacitor is fully

charged.

The voltmeter V, indicates a rise in voltage across the capacitor

C. thus, the charging process of the capacitor through resistor is

accomplished in this path with switch position at a, when the

switch is moved to
position b, the capacitor is show -circuited through the resistor

and thus its discharged immediately through - the readings of

the ammeter and voltmeter are reversed.

The following computations reveal what happens when a

capacitor is charged through a resistor If the charging current at

the instant of time is amperes, then discharge current is given by

𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝑐 − − − −(1)
𝑑𝑡

Corresponding P.d across R

𝑑𝑣
𝑅𝑖 = RC
𝑑𝑡

But

E = p.d across c + p.d across R

𝑑𝑣
= 𝑉𝑒 + RC
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑉𝑒 + RC ; ⁄𝑅𝐶 =
𝑑𝑡 𝐸−𝑉𝑒

Integrating both sides

 𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 = ∫ 𝐸−𝑣
𝑐

1⁄ (𝐸 − 𝑉 ) + 𝑘 = [𝑡⁄ ] 𝑡 = 𝑡⁄ - - (2)
𝑛 𝑐 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶

𝑖𝑓 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑂 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑜

1⁄ (𝐸) + 𝑘 = 0
𝑛

∴𝑘 =1𝑛𝐸

Substituting for k in eqn (2) and multiplying him by—1

(𝐸 − 𝑉𝑐 ) − 𝐼𝑛𝐸 = −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶
(𝐸−𝑉𝑐 )
In = 𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶
𝐸
Taking antilog of both side

(𝐸 − 𝑉𝑐 ) = 𝑒 − -r/RC

−𝑡⁄
(𝐸 − 𝑉𝑐 ) 𝐸𝑒 𝑅𝐶

𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 )

𝑅𝐶⁄
Let 𝜏 = → 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑅𝐶 ) = 𝐸(1 − 𝑒 −1 )

= 0.632E ie 63% of E

𝒂𝒕 𝒕 = 𝟐𝝉
2𝑅𝐶⁄
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑅𝐶 )

= 𝐸(1 − 𝑒 −2 ) = 0.865𝐸
= 86.5% of E

𝒂𝒕 𝒕 = 𝟑𝝉
2𝑅𝐶⁄
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑅𝐶 )

= 𝐸(1 − 𝑒 −3 ) = 0.93𝐸
→ 93% 𝑜𝑓 𝐸

𝒂𝒕 𝒕 = 𝟒𝝉
4𝑅𝐶⁄
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑅𝐶 )

= 𝐸(1 − 𝑒 −4 ) = 0.98𝐸
→ 98% 𝑜𝑓 𝐸
𝒂𝒕 𝒕 = 𝟓𝝉
5𝑅𝐶⁄
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑅𝐶 )

= 𝐸(1 − 𝑒 −5 ) = 0.99𝐸
→ 99% 𝑜𝑓 𝐸

For a capacitor to be fully charged (theoretically

𝑉𝑐 = ∑
From 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 )

For 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸

𝐼 − 𝑒 − 𝑡⁄𝑅𝑐 = 0

Note: At 1𝜏 the capacitor charge is up to 63% of the

Voltage for 𝑒 − 𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 to be zero.

1
⁄𝑒 𝑡⁄
𝑅𝑐 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = ∞
1
⁄𝑒 𝑡⁄
𝑅𝑐 = 0
Hence the capacitor will be fully not charged if 𝑡 = ∞

(endless time). Thus a capacitor will not practically be fully

charged.

It is important to note that 5r has been agreed on as the

standard to use to judge whether a capacitor is fully charge.

5𝜏 is therefore referred to as the TRANSIENT TIME OF THE

CAPACITOR.

To discharge, join the two (2) leads, test unit it is up to - during

charging voltage is increased while current decrease.

𝐶𝑑𝑉𝑣
𝑖𝑐 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 )
 𝐶𝑑 𝑡
𝑖𝑐 = ⌊𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 − ⁄𝑅𝐶 )⌋
𝑑𝑡

= 𝐶 [0 + 𝐸⁄𝑅 𝑒 − 𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 ]

𝑖𝑐 = 𝐸⁄ 𝑒 −𝑡⁄
𝑅 𝑅𝐶

𝑡
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐸⁄𝑅 = 𝐾 = 10 ∴ = 1𝑐 = 𝐾𝑒 − ⁄𝑅𝑐

Fig 2.6 capacitor discharge curve

White discharging both V and I are decreased

5𝜏 = 𝑡 arg 𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝜏 = 2𝑚𝑖𝑚⁄5 = 𝑋

𝑅𝐶 = 𝑋

𝑅 (1000𝜇𝐹) = 𝑋 𝑅 is varied because it is easier to find than C

2.2.4 TYPES OF CAPACITORS

Capacitors are categorized with respect to the material used for

their dielectrics

Dielectric Dielectric Constant

Air

Paper Less than

(para fined) 20

Teflon

Ceramic 2000

Tantalum 200

Electrolytic 200

Mica plastic

To increase capacitors we parallel them.

TYPES

1. Electrolytic capacitors

2. Tantalum capacitors

3. Ceramic capacitors

4. Film capacitors

1. Electrolytic capacitors.

➢ They are parallel

➢ They have relatively lighter plate to plate leakage resistance.

➢ They are made-to have values from about 0.1MF to several

thousands of microfarads (MF). If we have to

16v,

2200𝜇𝐹on a capacitor

I6v = working voltage

This is the highest voltage that can be connected across the

terminals of the capacitor i.e., it will only be able to store a slated

capacitance up to that voltage.

2. Tantalum capacitor (tear drop): They are made from

tantalum pellets. This can be substituted for election

capacitor but have lower values than the electrolytic.

Usually this “+” symbol is used to show the positive

component lead. It is written on the body of the capacitor.

3. Ceramic capacitors: They are constructed with

materials such as titanium acid barium. These capacitors

have the shape of disk. Their capacitance is comparatively

small within the ranges of 10’s of picofarad to 2.2MF. They

are non-polarized.
4. Film capacitors: In these capacitors, films made of

materials such as polystyrene, polyester are used as the

dielectric. They usually have no polarities.

2.3.0 DIODES

A diode is a component that allow current to freely flow through

it in one direction (ie forward bias mode) but essentially stops any

current from flowing in the river se direction. The process of

obtaining unidirectional currents and voltage from alternating

currents and voltages is called rectification. The ideal is actually

a two (2) terminal device having the symbol and characteristics

as shown in figs. Respectively.

Fig. 2.7

(a) Ideal diode symbol

(b) Characteristics

From the characteristics of an ideal diode it acts as a dr.at

permits current flow in only one direction. T e r clarity of applied

voltage is consistent with that show in fig 2.7 a. the portion of the

characteristics to be considered in fig.2.7.b. is to the right of the

vertical axis. If a reverse voltage is applied the characteristics the

left are pertinent. If the current through the diode are direction

indicated in fig. a. the portion of the

characteristics to be considered is above the horizontal axis.

This illustration reveals the ideal diode acting as a short circuit in

the region of conduction and as an open circuit in the region of

non conduction. The physical appearance of a diode is identified

with a color band near die cathode which therefore differentiates

the cathode lead from the anode.

Types of diodes exist for different purposes and they include

rectifier diode, zener diode, varactor diodes and switching diodes.

2.4.0 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

Light emitting diodes as the name implies are diodes that emit

visible light when energized and in the region of conduction. This

occurs during the forward bias process. A term used to describe

the process of giving off light by the application of electrical

source of energy is called electroluminescence.

LED’S are presently available in red, green, yellow, orange and

white. In general, LED’s operate at voltage levels from l.7v to

3.3v. the power requirement is typically 10 to 50ma with a

lifetime of 100,000 hours. Typical operating forward (average)

current is 20mA and a peak forward current of 60mA.

A series resistor is usually connected to off to limit the current to

less than the maximum allowable currents of the LED.

The following voltages are the different forward voltages of LED’s

form color to color

Red + l.8v

Yellow + 2v

Green + 2.lv

Blue + 3.2v

White + 3.2v

Determining the resistance value to be connected in series with

the LED requires calculation involving the formula.

𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑓
𝑅 =
𝑖𝑓

Where R = resistor value

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = supply voltage

𝑉𝑓 = forward voltage of LED.

If = forward current; typical 20mA

2.5.0 INFRARED EMITTING DIODES

Infrared emitting diodes are solid- state gallium arsenide devices

that emit a beam of radiant flux when forward biased. The basic

construction of the device is shown in fig. 2.8

When the junction is forward biased elector form the n-region will

recombine with excess holes of the p-material in a specially

designed recombination process, energy is indicated away from

the devices in form of photons. This light radiation is termed

infrared light because if is just below the visible red light in the

electromagnetic spectrum and is invisible to the human eye.

 Fig 2.8 general structure of semi-conductor infra-emitting diode

This diode have varied applications such as in card readers, shaft

encoders, data transmission systems and intrusion alarms of

which this project work utilise.

2.6.0 INFRARED RECEIVER MODULE

This is an infrared receiver IC chip that detects the infrared light

from the transmitting circuit. It is an IC with a monolithic

integrated photodiode (single chip solution) and of a very high

sensitivity. This module includes several parts within it which are

as follows.

1. Photo Pin diode

2. Trans-impedance amplifier

3. Automatic gain control (AGC)

4. Band pass filter (BPF)

5. A comparator, integrator and Schmitt trigger

The particular infrared receiver module used in this project

design is the vishay TSOP 1238 infrared receiver whose

functional block diagram and module structure is shown in

fig.2.9(a) and (b)

On arrival the infrared signal generates an equivalent photo

current in the photo PIN diode. The DC part of the signal is

blocked in the bias circuit and the AC part is passed to a trans-

impedance amplifier followed by an automatic gain control

amplifier and an integrated Bard pass filter. A comparator, an

integrator and a Schmitt trigger stage perform the final signal

conditioning. The block "Automatic Gain Control” and “Automatic

Threshold levels required to suppress disturbances sources of

light. The digital output signal is usually an active low polarity

and consists of an envelop signal of the incoming optical burst,

without the carrier frequency.

Fig. 2.9(a) block diagram of TSOP IR Receiver

 Fig.2.9(b) module structure of IR receiver module

Pin 1 (Ground), Pin 2(Vcc), Pin 3(Vout)

2.6.1 TRANS IMPEDANCE AMPLIFIER

The bias block provides the necessary bias voltage for the

detector diode and also separates the DC and low frequency

component from the useful signal by providing a low resistance

path to ground. The AC signals are passed unhindered to the

trans impedance amplifier. The currents at the signal frequency

are converted by the Trans impedance amplifier to a voltage at

the input of the controlled Gain Amplifier.

2.6.2 CONTROLLED GAIN AMPLIFIER

Most of the gain in the system is generated in this part and the

degree to which it is amplified is controlled by be automatic gain

control (AGC) block.

2.6.3 BAND PASS FILTER

The band pass filter is responsible for the attenuation of noisy

ambient from other sources of light like the sun, which are not

required by the system. The band pass filter is tuned to

particular frequency during the process of manufacturing and

are indication on the

module as TSOP 12xx where xx represent the various band pass

frequencies which may be available. The one used in this project

design is the TSOP 1238, having a band pass center frequency of

38KH3

2.6.4 AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL (AGC)

The AGC stage ensures that the receiver module is insensitive to

disturbance signals. It adopts the system sensitivity to the

existing disturbance level by changing the gain of the amplifier.

This is done both in dark ambient and light ambient.

2.6.5 AUTOMATIC THRESHOLD CONTROL (ATC)

After the signal has passed through the band pass filter, it is

evaluated by a comparator, whose threshold level is adjusted

upward to higher level once the signal is received. The father

benefit of the ATC is the stabilisation of the output pulse width.

Without the Automatic threshold control, the output pulses will

vary with the strength of the infrared input signals.

2.6.6 INTEGRATOR AND SCHMITT TRIGGER

This block triggers the output once several consecutive cycles of

the carrier signal at the comparator output are received the

integrator is triggered. The integrator time necessary to control

the output via the Schmitt trigger is shown in table 2.3 below.

2.6.7 OUTPUT STAGE

This is a digital output which is an open collector transistor with

an internal pull up resistor. A high is seen on the output when no

signal is received, a Low is an indication that the signal is been

received.
Infrared receiver module TSOP 11xx TSOP 12 xx TSOP 24 xx TSOP 7000
Types TSOP 21 xx TSOP 22 xx TSOP 324 xx TSOP 5700
With xx = carrier TSOP 321 xx TSOP 322 xx TSOP 44 xx
frequency TSOP 41 xx TSOP 48xx TSOP 344 xx
TSOP 341 xx TSOP 348 xx
TSOP 361 xx TSOP 21 xx
Integrate time 4 cycles 7 cycles 7 cycles 8cycles
Minimum burst length 5 cycles 10 cycles 100 cycles 10 cycles
Minimum gap between the burs 10 cycles 14 cycles 14 cycles 12 cycles

Table 2.3 integrator data of the vishay IR receiver

2.7.0 THE 555 TIMER

This is a versatile analog digital IC made up of a combination of

linear comparator and digital flip flips as defected in fig. 3.0 (a)

the entire circuit is usually housed in an 8.pin package as shown

also in fig. 3.0 (b).

The internal structure reveals that three (3) resistors set the

reference voltage levels to the two comparators at

2⁄ 𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1⁄ 𝑣𝑐𝑒, the output of eh flip-flop circuit is then
3 3

brought out through an output stage

Vref. Fig. 3.0 (a) Detailed layout of 555 timer IC

Fig.3.0(b) Pin-out structure of 555 timer

The application of the 555 timer are usually in two (2) modes; viz
 i. Monostable operation

ii. Astable operation

2.7.1 MONOSTABLE OPERATION

This timer IC can be used as a one-shot or monostable

multivibrator circuit. When a negative going trigger pulse is

applied to the trigger input (PIN2) as shown in fig.3.1 (a) if

triggers the one shot with output at pin 3 going high for a period

of time.

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ = 1.1 𝑅𝐴 𝐶

Immediately power is applied the capacitor charges through 𝑅𝐴 ,

as soon as the capacitor equals 2⁄3 𝑉𝑐𝑐 , capacitor C charge toward

𝑉𝑐𝑐 via 𝑅𝐴 during which charge interval, the output remains high

the voltage across the capacitor which caused the triggering

resets the flip flop and output goes low.

2.7.2 ASTABLE OPERATION

In astable mode, the 555 timer operates as a free running

oscillator producing square ware signals. These wave forms

switches between two(2) logic levels (high and low) with time

intervals at each logic level these are determined by the R and C

network as shown in fig 3.2(a) output waveform illustrated in

fig. 3.3(b)
 Fig. 3.2 (b) output waveform of astable

In the astable operation both the trigger and threshold inputs

(pin 2 and 6) are connected together which links the external

capacitor C. at start up is immediately there is an applied

voltage, the capacitor begins to charge via resistors 𝑅1 , and 𝑅2

towards 𝑉𝑐𝑐 . Once the charge on the capacitor gets above 2⁄3 𝑉𝑐𝑐

which is the threshold voltage at PIN 6 it drives the first

comparator to trigger the flip flop and so the output (PIN3) goes

low. This results in switch on of the discharge transistor which is

PIN 7 And thus the discharging of capacitor C via 𝑅2 . The

capacitor voltage begins to reduce unit it goes the trigger level

(1⁄3 𝑉𝑐𝑐 ), second (2) comparator is triggered. That again causes

the controls flip flop to set and the output goes high. Discharge

transistor 𝑇1 turn off and capacitor C begins to charges again via

𝑅1 and𝑅2 . This cycle continues to repeat resulting in a

continuous stream of rectangular pulses.

The time internals of the output pulses resulting from the circuit

is dependent on the values of the resistor and capacitor.

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ = 0.693 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )𝐶

𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 0.693 (𝑅1 )𝐶

The period (T) of the output signal is given by

This signal is operated at a frequency; this is the frequency of the

astable circuit and can be calculated by the formula.

𝑓 = 1⁄𝑇 = 1⁄0.693 (𝑅1 +)𝐶

1.44
𝑓= (𝑅1 +2𝑅2 )𝐶

The duty cycle refers to the ratio of the time duration when the

output pulse is high to the total period. This can be calculated by

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ (𝑅1 +2𝑅2 )

𝐷= ⁄ =
𝑇 𝑅1 +2𝑅2

D = is expressed as a percentage

2.8.0 TRANSISTORS
The transistor is a three-layer semi conductor device consisting of

either two n-and one p-type (npn transistor) layers of material or

two p-and one -n type (pnp transistor) layers of material. The

three layers for the three terminal of the transistor namely:

Emitter (E) Base (B) and collector (C). The transistor is thus a two

junction semiconductor device.

There are three ways or methods of connecting a transistor

(either the npn or pnp types) in a circuit viz.

(a) Common -base configuration

(b) Common collector configuration and

(c) Common - Emitter configuration. The most commonly and

popular type is the common - Emitter (CE) configuration due to

its high input impedance and low output impedance.

Transistor switching operation.

For a transistor to function as a switching device, its design

should be such that its operating point or quiescent (q) point

switches from the cut-off region to saturation region, and vice

versa along the load line. The load line equation can be obtained

by the analysis of the circuit fig.

Fig. 3.3 transistor switching

When 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is equal to or greater than 0.7v, the base receives a

sufficient biasing voltage which causes 1𝐸 to saturation. The

collector - to - Emitter terminals assume a short - circuit

equivalence and the transistor thus functions. At saturation,

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶 𝐸 𝑠𝑎𝑡

At cut-off, 1𝐵 = 𝑂𝜇 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑
1𝐵 = 1𝐸𝐶𝑂 = 𝑂𝜇 𝐴
Thus, at cut -off the transistor is switched off and assumes an

infinite open - circuit equivalence between its collector and

emitter terminals.

2.9.0 RELAYS

Relays are electromechanical devices which operates -basically on

the principles of electromagnetic induction fig shows the

schematic symbol of a relay.

Fig. 3.4 schematic symbol for a relay

When the relay is not energized, the main contact presses against

the normally closed contact (𝑁 𝑐 ) and completes the circuit. The

relay acts as a single pole, double - throw switch. Relays required

to hole them in the closed position.

 CHAPTER THREE

3.0.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS, CALCULATIONS AND

METHODOLOGY
This chapter opens up the nitty-gritty of all designs associated

with this work. The limit of operation of the various components

utilized are well defined, the choice of values and types of

component parts with its specifications are stated and analyzed.

Also the circuit diagram are well analysed.

As a matter of fact, the discussions in this chapter will be focused

on the analysis of the existing network of circuit and in process

establishing designated current and voltages of various and in

process establishing designated current and voltage of various

elements. A vivid understanding of the characteristics of the

devices, basic equations and a firm grip on basic laws of circuit

analysis, such as ohm’ law kirchoffis voltage law gives an aid in

this design.

The pathway towards an successful design is usually less defined

and require some basic assumptions that have to be made when

the analysis sets in.

3.1.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATION

Generally, this infrared intrusion alarm is expected to trigger an

alarm thereby accomplishing the task for which it was designed.

This should be done immediately the transmitted beam is broken

or interrupted.

This immediately creates an impression for the designer to think

of a particular circuit that will effectively perform this function

Net, the alarm is considered which will be required to output an

audible sound to create an awareness of an unpalatable

situation.

Thus, the circuit must incorporate components that will be able

to generate the appropriate Acostic signals. This appropriate

moving coil speakers or pieze sounders.

Transmission of infrared light requires a circuitry that will

effectively transmit modulated light signal which will and con be

decoded. This is achieved by the operation of square wave

oscillators which drive an infrared emitter.

For a proper reception of this infrared light and the decoding of

the light signal which is held and used to keep the alarm off unit

otherwise. A circuit that efficiently picks up this light signal must

be put into consideration.

All these considerations make us dive into deep research and

serious work that will eventually resolve this challenging task.

This entire project work entails this resolution and is thus

divided into three major categories.

1) The transmitter unit

2) The receiver unit

3) Alarm unit

3.2.0 THE TRANSMITTER UNIT

This IC chip performs the role of an oscillator generating square

wave signals at different frequencies; the first 555 timer is

configured to run at a frequency of 250Hz, while the second is

configured by run at 38kHz and this forms the carrier wave and

is required by the receiver. This carrier wave is “ANDed” or

modulated by the 250Hz frequency to produce and output signal

that contains bursts of 38kHz at a rate of 250Hz. This signal is

used to drive an infrared LED. The limits of operation of these

two (2) 555 timers in their application is in the astable mode and

this is extensively analyzed.

3.2.1 ASTABLE MODE OF OPERATION

The 555 timer operates as a free-running oscillator in the astable

mode. It’s output is a repetitive rectangular (square) wave form

that switches between two(2) logic states (high and low) with the

time intervals at each logic level determined by the R and C

networks as in fig. 3.2(a). These outputs represents the signal

wave to be

transmitted. This signal is what drives the Infrared LED through

resistor R
The following analysis of the operation of the 555 timer

configured or set up as “astable” (free running) multivibrator

includes the details of the different parts of the unit and how the

various inputs and output are utilized.

The total time for a period T is given by

𝑇 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2

Where 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 are the times for the high logic and low logic

states respectively?

𝑡1 = 0.693 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) C

𝑡2 = 0.693 𝑅2 C

Thus, equations above can be expressed further as

𝑇 = 0.693 ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )𝐶 + 0.693 𝑅2 𝐶

𝑇 = 0.693 ( 𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 )𝐶

The frequency (f) of the output waveform can be obtained as

follows.

1𝑑
𝑓 = 1⁄𝑇 =
0.693[𝑅1 +2𝑅2 ]𝐶

𝑓 = 1.44⁄[𝑅
1 + 2𝑅2 ]𝐶

Hence, we can further obtain expressions for each component.

 1.44−2𝑓𝑅2 𝐶
𝑅2 =
𝑓𝑐

1.44−2𝑓𝑅2 𝐶
𝑅2 =
2𝑓𝑐

1.44
𝐶= [𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 ]𝑓

555 timer general specification

Voltage range 4.5v – 18v

Maximum frequency (astable) 500kHz to 2MHz

Maximum output current (PIN3) 200mA

Rise /fall time 100n/sec

3.2.2 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The transmitter unit as shown in fig.3.5 consists of two square

wave oscillators, one running at approximately 250Hz and the

other running at 38kHz. The 38kHz frequency acts as a carrier

wave and is required by the IR receiver module on the receiver

board. This carried

wave is “ANDed” or modulated by the 250Hz frequency to

produce an output signal that contains burst of 38kHz at a rate

of 250Hz. This signal drives the infrared LED through R1 (IR

LED) these oscillator are two 555 timers IC1 and IC2 configured

as astable (free running) multivibrators. IC1 is used for the

250Hz oscillator, resistor 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 and𝐶1 sets this frequency.

IC2 is used for the 38kHz frequency Resistors R3 and R4 sets.

wave is “ANDed” or modulated by the 250Hz frequency to

produce an output signal that contains burst of 38kHz at a rate

of 250Hz. This signal drives the infrared LED through R1 (IR

LED) these oscillator are two 555 timers IC1 and IC2 configured
as astable (free running) multivibrators. IC1 is used for the

250Hz oscillator, resistor R1 and R2 and C1 sets this frequency.

IC2 is used for the 38kHz frequency Resistors R3 and R4 sets

this frequency as will be analyzed.

The diodes D1 and D3 provide a symmetrical output normally the

external capacitor C1(C3) charges through R1 + R2 and R4 + R2

and discharges through R2 and R5. these diodes bypasses R2

and R5 when capacitor is charging this gives the same rise and

fall time to the output signal. The charge time for both IC’s is

given by

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ = 0.693 𝑅1 𝐶1 = 0.693 𝑅1 𝐶1

The discharge time is given by

𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 0.693 𝑅2 𝐶1 = 0.693 𝑅5 𝐶3

𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑓) = 1⁄𝑇 + 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑤

ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ

The output from the IC1 is coupled via a diode D2 and resistor R3

to the trigger input of IC2, when IC1 output is low if stops IC2

from running and IC2Js output is forced high (no IR LED

current). When IC1 output is high IC2 runs, and the IR LED is

pulsed at 38kHz.

3.2.3 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

For the purpose of calculations, we shall consider the IC’s

separately to ascertain the validity of these specifications of

frequency IC1.

Frequency of oscillation = 250Hz

The values of 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝐶1 are thereby obtained.

𝑓 = 1 ⁄𝑇

𝑇 = 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ + 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 1⁄𝑓 = 1⁄250 = 0.0045

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ = 0.693 𝑅1 𝐶1

𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 0.693 𝑅2 𝐶1

Since the output are symmetrical 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ = 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑤 ……. (A)

→ 𝑇 = 2𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ
= 2(0.693 𝑅1 𝐶1 )

𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶1 = 1𝜇𝐹
 0.004
𝑅1 = =
2𝑥 0.693 𝑥1𝑥105

𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠 tan 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑅1 = 2.7𝑘
0.693 𝑥 𝑅1
𝑅2 =
0.693

𝑅2 = 2.7𝑘

For IC2

Frequency of oscillation (f) = 38kHy

𝑓 = 1⁄𝑇
Recall that
𝑇 = 3⁄38𝑘𝐻𝑦 = 26.315

Obtaining a symmetrical output D3 is connected across R5

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ = 0.693 𝑅4 𝐶3 = 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 0.693 𝑅5 𝐶3

Taking C3 = 10nF

𝑅4 = 𝑇⁄ 25.315 𝑥10−6 𝑥105

=
2𝑥0.7 𝑥 10𝑛𝐹 2𝑥0.7𝑥10

= 1.879

𝑅4 = 1.9𝑘
0.693 𝑥 𝑅
𝑅4 = = 1.9𝑘
0.693

The choice of diodes Di to D4 and the respective voltage drops

and current. By choosing D1-D4 to be

silicon diodes IN4148 with 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 12𝑣, 𝑉𝐷 = 0.7𝑣, 𝑅1 = 2.7𝑘

 𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝐼𝐷 = ⁄𝑅 = 12𝑣⁄2.7𝑘
1

𝐼𝐷 = 4.44𝑚𝐴

Resistance across D1 RD

𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝐷 = ⁄1 = 0.7⁄4.4𝑚𝐴
𝐷1

𝑅𝐷 = 159.1

𝑅𝐷 = 160Ω

Actual charge time is given by

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ = 0.693 (𝑅𝐷 + 𝑅1 )𝐶1

Since RD is so small, it acts as a bypass to R2.

3.2.4 THE RECEIVER UNIT

The receiver unit is responsible for the detection of the signal

which is used to keep a capacitor charged which in turn holds a

relay operated. When the beam is broken the capacitor

discharges and the relay releases. Successfully achieving this

requires an infrared receiver detector module RX1.

3.2.5 THE INFRARED RECEIVER MODULE

This single component incorporates various functional parts that

aid in the detection of the appropriate signal in this case the

Vishary Tsop 1238 receiver is used to detect the 38kHz carrier

signal from the transmitter. It is configured with other circuit

components such as transistor Q1 Q2 resistor R6 – R11 capacitor

C5 – C9 Diodes D5, D6, D7 and relay as shown in fig. 3.6.

This vishay TSOP 1238 receiver is made up of an amplifier/filter

circuit tuned to detect a 38kHz frequency. Its output is an open

collector transistor with an internal pull up resistor. When

signal is detected the output continuously drivers a capacitor C5

which allows a steady voltage to charge C6, this helps to keep the

relay operated. The first PIN1 is connected to ground, PIN 2 is

supplied with a steady voltage of 5v from the 7805 regulator, PIN

3 supplies the detected signal to the base of Q1 BC557 to the

control capacitor C5.

3.2.6 INFRARED CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
Rxl (infrared receiver module) detect the IR beam is the 250Hz

signal from the transmitter. This signal is passed via transistor

Q1, capacitor C5 and Diode D6 to capacitor C6. Capacitor C6 is

fully charged during the high portion of the signal. It starts to

discharge during the low portion of the signal. Via LED1, resistor

R9 and transistor Q2. however, the discharge time is much longer

than the OFF time of the signal so the voltage across C6 is always

enough to keep Q2 on and therefore the relay operated.

The output of Rxl goes high when the beam is broken, this

switches OFF transistor Q1 and capacitor C6 is no longer

recharged this eventually discharge C2 to the point transistor Q2

to the point transistor Q2 turns off and then the relay releases

triggering the alarm circuit. The turn off delay is determined by

the time constant (𝜏)

𝜏 = 𝑅10 𝐶7
= ( 47𝑘 𝑥 10𝜇𝐹)
=

LED1 gives a visual indication when the IR beam is present and is

used when settling up this project design.

The various parameters for the receiver units are as follow

𝑅𝑐 = 6.8𝑘 𝑅8 = 470 𝑅10 = 47𝑘

𝑅7 = 6.8𝑘 𝑅9 = 6.8𝑘 𝑅11 = 470

𝐶5 = 10𝜇𝐹, 𝐶6 = 10𝜇𝐹. 16𝑣 𝐶7 = 10𝜇𝐹. 16𝑣

𝐶8 = 100𝜇𝐹, 16𝑣 𝒬1 = 𝐵𝑐557 𝒬2 = 𝐵𝑐547

3.2.7 EMERGENCY ALARM UNIT

This forms a part of the whole system whose function is to create

an awareness and alert the attention of those around of an

intruder who presumptuously goes across the transmitted beam,

thereby causing a break in its path. The circuit schematic is

shown in fig. 3.7

Basically, the alarm circuit acts as an interface between the other

units of this design and a moving coil speaker which produces

the audible sound. The alarm circuit is fundamentally a circuit

generating signal, this signal generation circuit is built around

standard 555 timers two (2) 555 timers are configured

as astable multivibrators. The first is set up as a slow running

astable multivitrator, generating ramp signal, which modulates

the second multivibrator causing it to sweep over a range of

frequencies.

The frequency of the alarm circuit shown in fig 3.7 is controlled

by PIN 5 of IC3. This output frequency of IC3 is fed to PIN 5 of IC4

where it is modulated through R14. resistor R12 , R13 and C10

determine the frequency of IC3. the varying output signal which

modulates the frequency of IC4, repeated continuously produces

a tone similar to that of a police siren.

3.2.7.1 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

Let the frequency of the first timer be set to 0.8Hz

1.44
𝑓= (𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 )𝐶

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅1 = 𝑅12

𝑅2 = 𝑅13

𝐶 = 𝐶10

From the limits of operation

(𝑎) 𝑅12 𝒯 ≥ 1𝐾Ω

(𝑏) 𝐶18 𝒯 ≥ 0.0005 𝜇𝐹

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒:

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑅12 = 10𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶10 = 10 𝜇𝐹, 25𝑣

1.44
𝑅13 =
2𝑓𝑐10

1.44
= 0.5(10.000)
2𝑥10𝑥106 𝑥0.3

𝑅13 = 85𝑘
1.44
𝑅10 = − 0.5 𝑅15
2𝑓𝑐13

Let 𝑅15 = 10k, let the frequency of IC4 be 250Hz for effective

frequency modulation and under frequency variation, and Cl3

=0.01𝜇𝐹
1.44
= − 0.5(10,000)
2𝑥200𝑥0.01𝑥106

= 235𝑘

𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑅16 = 220𝑘

And a variable i.e. R16= variable resistor.

For the sound production through the speaker, the output from

IC4 is used to drive a power transistor which in turns drives an

8Ω speaker.

The various parameter of the emergency unit are listed below:

𝑅12 = 10𝑘 𝐶10 = 10𝜇𝐹, 25𝑣

𝑅13 = 85𝑘 𝐶11 = 0.1𝜇𝐹

𝑅14 = 10𝑘 𝐶12 = 0.01𝜇𝐹

𝑅15 = 10𝑘 𝐶13 = 0.01𝜇𝐹

𝑅16 = 220𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

The general or basic diagram incorporating the infrared infusion

alarm system is shown in fig.3.8 on page.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0.0 CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY AND GENERAL

ANALYSIS

This chapter handles the specifics of the constructional sequence

followed for the implementation of those real time alarm system.

The materials used are highlighted, definite explanations and

applications with respect to this design are stated quite clearly.

The general analysis of this project and it: workability is put in

perspective as well as the overall performance of the design.

Checks, tests and adjustments, circuit horsing are all considered

and not overlooking the problems encountered and their

preferred solution.

4.1.0 GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

4.1.1 INFRARED INTRUSION ALARM

This work is consisting of three main units successfully operates

as a security outfit to alert attention in case of intrusion in any

area. At switch ON the transmitter emits a signal 250HZ

frequency which is transported by the carrier signal 38KHZ Both

IC’S IC1 and IC2 are and or coupled together via a diode D2

IN4148 R1, R2 and C1 sets

the frequency for IC1, while R4, R5 and C3 sets the frequency IC2.

D1 and D3 ensures that the output signal (wave form) is

symmetrical i.e. the rise and fall time of the signal is equal.

IC1 output goes low and IC2 stops running. Foreign it’s output

high and so no IR LED current. Thus when IC1 is high IC2 runs

and the IR LED is pulsed at 38KH2.

The IR LED is driven directly from the IC2. resistor Ro sets the

maximum current, thus producing a high directional beam. This

is directed towards the IR receiver module, which picks it up.

Output of RX1 goes low when beam is detected and is passed via

Q1 which is switched ON and C1 provides a steady voltage from

the collector junction of Q1 which charges C2. C2 stops charging

only when the beam is broken or the beam is only a continuous

38KHZ signal.

A visual indication suggesting the presence of the IR beam is

seen by LED 11 lighting. C2 charges and thus transistor Q2 is

switched ON operating the relay.

When the rely is operated, the alarm circuit is open circuited and

there is no complete path of current flow and so this circuit is

temporarily disabled. Once C2 discharges and transistor Q2 is

switched OFF thereby, the relay trips OFF, this action completes

the circuit path for the alarm circuit causing it to be energized

and thus sounding the audible alarm that creates the necessary

awareness of an intruder.

4.2.0 GENERAL LOAD CONSIDERATIONS

The power supply for the infrared intrusion alarm, as specified by

the design uses two (2) power supply units due to the orientation

of the various units. This is because the transmitter unit has to

be necessarily separated from the receiver unit. This supplies

voltages for the transmitter, receiver and the alarm unit is a

means of energizing the infrared intrusion alarm.

4.3.0 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

The required power supply unit is shown in fig. 3.9, and consists

of transformers, diode rectifiers, voltage regulators, Capacitors

and an LED to indicate the state of the supply unit. The

transmitter unit is powered by a 9v supply, while the receiver and

the alarm unit are both powered by a 12v power supply.

CONSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES

The materials for the construction work are as follows:

1. Breadboard or project board

2. Vero board or permanent circuit board

3. Soldering iron and lend

4. Jumper wires or connecting leads

5. Various circuit components

6. Cutter and pliers.

The breadboard is a temporary circuit board made up of capper

plates arranged in a defined order. This board makes it easy for

plugging in vertically the various components in the positions as

desired without soldering. The Vero board is a printed circuit

board for permanent construction of the various components.

Here soldering is used in positioning the components. The

provision or holes are such that there are continues in the

horizontal direction.

4.5.0 CONSTRUCTION

This entire kit was built on two Vero boards one containing the

transmitter circuit and the other containing the receiver circuit

are the alarm circuit.

In the construction processes, the components are well arranged

to ensure the proper functionality of the various units for

instance in the transmitter unit, the infrared LED was mounted

strategically and at right angles to the board, this is to ensure it

has room enough to radiate the infrared light signals without any

obstruction. Due to the possibility of using it to monitor

distances that are small black tubing is put over the IR LED to

make the beam more directional. The black tubing was chosen to

other tubing colours because the infrared light on penetrate and

so black acts as a shield.

Likewise on the receiver board, the infrared detector involve is

placed in such a way that is in line of sight with the infrared

LED. The detecting lens faces outwards and also a protection

diode D4 is provided so that any mistake in the exchange of

polarities will not destroy the circuit.

4.6.0 GENERAL APPROXIMATION

In the course of these design several approximations were made

to suit readily available components in market. These

approximations were on such components as resistors in both

transmitter circuit, receiver circuit and the alarm circuitry.

4.7.0 COST ANALYSIS

The table gives us a concise summary of the parts used in the

actualization of this project, various designations in their

appropriate circuit units and the cost incurred in course of the

entire work.

PART LIST AND COST ANALYSIS

Transmitter board Designation Cost per unit Total

Resistors
1 220𝜇𝑓 − − − − − (1) 𝑅0 20 20
2 1𝑘 − − − −(1) 𝑅3 20 20
3 1.9𝑘 − − − −(2) 𝑅4 , 𝑅5 20 40
4 2.7𝑘 − − − −(2) 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 20 40
Capacitors
5 10𝜋𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 − − − − − (3) 𝐶2 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶4 60 180
6 1𝜋𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 − − − −(1) 𝐶1 30 30
7 𝐼𝑁4148 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 − −(3) 𝐷1 , 𝐷2 , 𝐷3 40 120
8 𝐼𝑁4008 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 − −(1) 𝐷4 20 20
9 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝐸𝐷 − − − (1) 𝐿1 80 80
NE555 timer IC - - (2) 𝐼𝐶1 , 1𝐶2 100 200
Receiver board
10 Infrared receiver module (1) RX1 1,000 1000
Resistor
11 470𝜇𝑓 - - -(2) 𝑅8 , 𝑅11 20 40
12 6.8k - - -(3) 𝑅6 , 𝑅7 , 𝑅9 20 60
13 47k - - -(1) 𝑅10 20 20
14 100 𝜇𝑓, 18v electrolytic - (2) 𝐶8 , 𝐶9 , 30 60
15 10𝜋𝑓, 16𝑣 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 − −(3) 𝐶5 , 𝐶6 , 𝐶7 30 90
16 IN4148 signal diode - -(2) 𝐷5 , 𝐷6 , 40 80
17 IN4008 power diode - - (1) 𝐷7 20 20
18 LM7805 regulator - - -(1) 𝑍𝐷1 80 80
19 BC557 PNP transistor - -(1) 80 80
20 BC547 NPN transistor- -(1) 𝑄1 80 80
21 LED(red) - -(2) 𝑄2 30 60
22 Relay 12v - - - - (1) LED1 100 100
Alarm circuit …………..
Resistors
23 10k - - - - (2) 20
24 82k - - - - (2) 𝑅12 , 𝑅15 , 20
25 220k variable - - - - (1) 𝑅13 , 𝑅16 , 100
26 220Ω - - - - (1) 𝑅17 , 20
27 10𝜇𝑓 - - - - (1) 𝑅18 30
28 10nF - - - - (2) 60
29 1 𝜇𝑓 - - - - (1) 30
30 220𝜇𝑓 - - - - (1) 30
31 NE555 timer IC - - - - (2) 100
32 IC sockets - - - - (5) 50
8 pin
31 Switch - - - - (1) 150
32 Vero board - - - - (3) 𝑆1 120
Small size
33 Transformer - - - - (1) 500
12v/2. 100m A
34 IC regulators - - - - (1) 80
7812
35 Miscellaneous 1,500
Wires, casing etc
Total amount = N 6,500
Components = 54part
 CHAPTER FIVE

This chapter gives a brief conclusion and recommendation based

on the applications of circuit and construction.

5.1.0 CONCLUSION

This project majors on the manipulations of this versatile analog

digital IC (555 timer) to act and suit many workable circuits

having a varying operations. It gives us the room to exploit into

all possible circuit ideas that can be generated from this singular

IC. The configurations of the IC yields the modules which detects

the appropriate signal.

This work actually requires a vast knowledge in 555 digital

circuits, their characteristics and applications with this

knowledge there is no limit to what the mind can conceive and

the circuit ideas that can be modeled and brought into real life

practical situation.

The infrared detector modules have varying applications in both

remote and signal processing circuit.

5.2.0 RECOMMENDATION

This project can be improved upon by adding a transmitter to the

receiver circuit, which then transmit warning signals to a

portable receiver, giving a prewarning to a remote station of an

intruder to a particular area.

This can be achieved by connecting a transmitter circuit being

connected Via C5, the received signal is coupled to a transmitter

which transmits this signal through an antenna to the receiver.

 REFERENCES

1. Robert I. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, 1999,

Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory - Seventh Edition.

2. Albert Paul Malvino, Ph. D. E. E., Instructors Annotated

Edition 1999, Electronic Principles, Sixth Edition, Glencoe

Mcgraw - Hill.

3. Edward Hughes, Revised by IAN McKenzie Smith, 2001,

Electrical Technology, Seventh Edition, Pearson Education, Asia.

4. B. L. & A. K. theraja, 2001, Electrical Technology, S.Chand &

Company Ltd. India.

5. Charles A. Schuler and Richard J. Fowler, 1993,

Electric Circuit Analysis, Glencoe, Macmillan/McGraw-Hill,

Columbus, Ohio.

6. http: / /www. freebyte.com

7. http: / /www. Datasheets4u.com

8. http: / /www.vishay.com.

9. http://www. electroniccircuit.com

10. http:/ /www.quasarelectronic.com/ds.htm.