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Fundamental Concepts of Thermodynamics: Cy 11003 Chemistry Spring 2022 2023
Fundamental Concepts of Thermodynamics: Cy 11003 Chemistry Spring 2022 2023
Fundamental Concepts of Thermodynamics: Cy 11003 Chemistry Spring 2022 2023
Physical Chemistry 3/14/2023
Fundamental Concepts of
Thermodynamics
Energy Functions from the First Law of Thermodynamics
CY 11003 CHEMISTRY
Spring 2022‐2023
First Law of Thermodynamics
•There exists an extensive state function 𝑼 such that for any
closed system,
∆𝑼 𝒒 𝒘
Process Sign convention
Transfer of heat to the system 𝒒 𝟎
from the surrounding
Transfer of heat from the system 𝒒 𝟎
to the surrounding
Expansion of system against an 𝒘 𝟎
external pressure
Compression of system by an 𝒘 𝟎
external pressure
Srabani Taraphder Department of Chemistry
IIT Kharagpur 1
CY11003 Physical Chemistry 3/14/2023
Energy Functions
from the First Law of Thermodynamics
• Internal Energy
• Enthalpy
Internal Energy
• First law introduces the concept of internal energy, 𝑼
• Equilibrium state of an isolated system 𝑼, 𝑽, 𝑵
• Internal energy, 𝑼 cannot be measured
• Change in internal energy can be measured during a
change in state
Srabani Taraphder Department of Chemistry
IIT Kharagpur 2
CY11003 Physical Chemistry 3/14/2023
First Law of Thermodynamics
• For an infinitesimal change in state,
d𝑼 ð𝒒 ð𝒘
• For a finite change in state,
∆𝑼 𝒒 𝒘
First Law of Thermodynamics
• For an infinitesimal change in state,
d𝑼 ð𝒒 ð𝒘
• For an isolated system ð𝒒 ð𝒘 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒅𝑼 𝟎
• For an adiabatic process ð𝒒 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒅𝑼 ð𝒘
• For a cyclic process ∆𝑼 ∮ 𝒅𝑼 𝟎⇒ 𝒒 𝒘 𝟎
Srabani Taraphder Department of Chemistry
IIT Kharagpur 3
CY11003 Physical Chemistry 3/14/2023
Work done by adiabatic expansion of an Ideal Gas
d𝑼 ð𝒒 ð𝒘 ð𝒒 𝟎 ð𝒘 𝒅𝑼
𝒅𝑼 𝒏 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 𝒘 ∆𝑼 𝒏 𝑪𝑽 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏
Initial
equilibrium
state Irreversible
Work done by adiabatic expansion of an Ideal Gas
d𝑼 ð𝒒 ð𝒘 ð𝒒 𝟎 ð𝒘 𝒅𝑼
𝒅𝑼 𝒏 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 𝒘 𝒏 𝑪𝑽 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏
Reversible adiabatic expansion
Obtain 𝑻𝟐 using any of the following
𝒑𝑽𝜸 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 or 𝐓𝑽𝜸 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 or 𝑻𝜸 𝑷𝟏 𝜸 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Irreversible adiabatic expansion against a constant pressure 𝒑𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝒑𝟐
Obtain 𝑻𝟐 as follows
𝒏𝑹𝑻𝟐 𝒏𝑹𝑻𝟏
𝒏 𝑪𝑽 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏 𝒑𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝒑𝟐
𝒑𝟐 𝒑𝟏
𝑪𝑽 𝒑𝟐
𝑹 𝒑𝟏
∴ 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏
𝑪𝑽
𝟏
𝑹
Srabani Taraphder Department of Chemistry
IIT Kharagpur 4
CY11003 Physical Chemistry 3/14/2023
Review of the practice problem
A sample consisting of 65.0 g of Xe is confined in a container at
2.0 atm and 298 K.
Calculate the work done if the gas undergoes expansion under
isothermal/adiabatic condition
(i) reversibly to a pressure of 1.0 atm
(ii) against a constant external pressure of 1.0 atm.
Initial equilibrium state
𝒏 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟓 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒑𝟏 𝟐. 𝟎 𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝑻𝟏 𝟐𝟗𝟖 𝑲
Nature of ideal gas Final equilibrium Work done
expansion state
Expression Value (J)
Srabani Taraphder Department of Chemistry
IIT Kharagpur 5
CY11003 Physical Chemistry 3/14/2023
Initial equilibrium state
𝒏 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟓 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒑𝟏 𝟐. 𝟎 𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝑻𝟏 𝟐𝟗𝟖 𝑲
Nature of ideal gas expansion Final equilibrium state
Reversible Final equilibrium state 1
Initial equilibrium 𝑻𝟏 𝟐𝟐𝟓. 𝟖𝟒 𝑲
State
𝑻𝟏 𝟐𝟗𝟖 𝑲 Irreversible Final equilibrium state 2
𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝟑𝟖. 𝟒 𝑲
How to Determine the
Variation of Internal Energy
Srabani Taraphder Department of Chemistry
IIT Kharagpur 6
CY11003 Physical Chemistry 3/14/2023
Infinitesimal Change in Internal Energy
Differential variation of 𝑼 in a closed system
𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝑼 𝑼 𝑻, 𝑽, 𝑵 𝒅𝑼 𝐝𝐓 𝐝𝐕
𝝏𝑻 𝑽
𝝏𝑽 𝑻
Response functions 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
𝑪𝑽 𝝅𝑻
𝝏𝑻 𝑽
𝝏𝑽 𝑻
𝒅𝑼 𝑪𝑽 𝐝𝐓 𝝅𝑻 𝐝𝐕 𝑼𝟐 𝑼𝟏 𝑪𝑽 ∆𝑻 𝝅𝑻 ∆𝑽
𝟐 𝟐
𝒅𝑼 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 𝝅𝑻 𝒅𝑽 ∆𝑼 𝑪𝑽 ∆𝑻 𝝅𝑻 ∆𝑽
𝟏 𝟏
Measuring the Change in Internal Energy
∆𝑼 𝒒 𝒘
Constant volume process Adiabatic process
∆𝑼 𝒒𝑽 ∆𝑼 𝒘
𝒘 𝟎 𝒒 𝟎
Srabani Taraphder Department of Chemistry
IIT Kharagpur 7
CY11003 Physical Chemistry 3/14/2023
Variation of Internal Energy 𝑼 with Volume
𝝏𝑼
• Variation at constant temperature 𝝅𝑻 Internal pressure
𝝏𝑽 𝑻
𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑻
Let 𝑼 𝑼 𝑻, 𝑽 ⇒ 𝟏
𝝏𝑽 𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝑼 𝝏𝑼 𝑽
𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑼
∴
𝝏𝑽 𝑻 𝝏𝑽 𝑼 𝝏𝑻 𝑽
𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑼
𝝅𝑻 𝝁𝑱 𝑪𝑽 𝝁𝑱 𝑪𝑽
𝝏𝑽 𝑼 𝝏𝑻 𝑽
Variation of Internal Energy 𝑼 with Volume
𝝏𝑼
• Variation with volume at constant temperature
𝝏𝑽 𝑻,𝑵
Valve Joule’s experiment
Irreversible expansion of an
ideal gas against zero pressure
Insulation
Observation: 𝒅𝑻 𝟎 for the ideal gas
Analysis: 𝒅𝑼 𝟎
From the experimental design ð𝒘 𝟎; ð𝒒 𝟎
As 𝑼 is a state 𝒅𝑼 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 𝝅𝑻 𝐝𝐕 𝒅𝑼 𝝅𝑻 𝒅𝑽
function
∴ 𝝅𝑻 𝒅𝑽 𝟎
Srabani Taraphder Department of Chemistry
IIT Kharagpur 8
CY11003 Physical Chemistry 3/14/2023
Variation of Internal Energy 𝑼 with Volume
𝝏𝑼
• Variation with volume at constant temperature
𝝏𝑽 𝑻,𝑵
Valve Joule’s experiment
Irreversible expansion of an
ideal gas against zero pressure
Insulation
Observation: 𝒅𝑻 𝟎 for the ideal gas
Analysis: 𝒅𝑼 𝟎 ∴ 𝝅𝑻 𝒅𝑽 𝟎
𝝏𝑼
But 𝒅𝑽 𝟎 ⇒ 𝝅𝑻
𝝏𝑽
𝟎
𝑻
for an ideal gas
Variation of Internal Energy 𝑼 with Volume
Experiment
Free expansion of a real gas
against zero pressure
Observation: 𝒅𝑻 𝟎 for the real gas
Analysis:
From the experimental design ð𝒘 𝟎; ð𝒒 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒅𝑼 𝟎
As 𝑼 is a state 𝒅𝑼 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 𝝅𝑻 𝐝𝐕
function
⇒ 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 𝝅𝑻 𝐝𝐕 𝟎
Srabani Taraphder Department of Chemistry
IIT Kharagpur 9
CY11003 Physical Chemistry 3/14/2023
Variation of Internal Energy 𝑼 with Volume
Experiment
Free expansion of a real gas
against zero pressure
Observation: 𝒅𝑻 𝟎 for the real gas
𝝅𝑻
Analysis: 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 𝝅𝑻 𝐝𝐕 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒅𝑻
𝑪𝑽
𝐝𝐕
𝝏𝑼 𝝅𝑻
By definition, 𝝅𝑻 𝝁𝑱 𝑪𝑽 ∴ 𝝁𝑱
𝝏𝑽 𝑻 𝑪𝑽
⇒ 𝒅𝑻 𝝁𝑱 𝐝𝐕
Variation of Internal Energy 𝑼 with Volume
Experiment
Free expansion of a real gas
against zero pressure
Observation: 𝒅𝑻 𝟎 for the real gas
Analysis: 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 𝝅𝑻 𝐝𝐕 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒅𝑻 𝝁𝑱 𝐝𝐕
𝑽𝟐
∴ ∆𝑻 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏 𝝁𝑱 𝐝𝐕 𝝁𝑱 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝝁𝑱 ∆𝑽
𝑽𝟏
∆𝑻 𝝁𝑱 of a real gas can be estimated from
∴ 𝝁𝑱
∆𝑽 this experiment
Srabani Taraphder Department of Chemistry
IIT Kharagpur 10
CY11003 Physical Chemistry 3/14/2023
Variation of Internal Energy 𝑼 with System Properties
• Variation with temperature at constant pressure
𝒅𝑼 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 𝝅𝑻 𝐝𝐕
𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑽
∴ 𝑪𝑽 𝝅𝑻 𝝅𝑻 𝝁𝑱 𝑪𝑽
𝝏𝑻 𝒑
𝝏𝑻 𝒑
𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑽
∴ 𝑪𝑽 𝟏 𝝁𝑱
𝝏𝑻 𝒑
𝝏𝑻 𝒑
𝟏 𝝏𝑽
Let us define the isobaric expansion coefficient 𝜶
𝑽 𝝏𝑻 𝒑
𝝏𝑼
𝑪𝑽 𝟏 𝜶 𝝁𝑱 𝑽
𝝏𝑻 𝒑
Summary: Internal Energy
• Internal energy, 𝑼 of a system is the total of kinetic and potential
energies of all its constituent particles
• 𝒅𝑼 𝟎 for an isolated system at equilibrium
𝝏𝑼
• 𝒅𝑼 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 𝝅𝑻 𝐝𝐕 where 𝝅𝑻 𝝁𝑱 𝑪𝑽
𝝏𝑽 𝑻
• 1st law of thermodynamics: ∆𝑼 𝒒 𝒘; d𝑼 ð𝒒 ð𝒘
• For constant volume processes, 𝑸𝒗 ∆𝑼 𝒎 𝑪𝒗 ∆𝑻
𝝏𝑼
• For an ideal gas, 𝝅𝑻 𝟎 and 𝑼 𝑼 𝑻 (closed system).
𝝏𝑽 𝑻
Srabani Taraphder Department of Chemistry
IIT Kharagpur 11