Composite Structures 112 (2014) 254–263

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Micromechanical analysis of adobe masonry as two-component

composite: Influence of bond and loading schemes
Andrea Caporale a, Fulvio Parisi b,⇑, Domenico Asprone b, Raimondo Luciano a, Andrea Prota b
a
Dept. of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, via G. Di Biasio 43, 03043 Cassino, Italy
b
Dept. of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Naples Federico II, via Claudio 21, 80125 Naples, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Adobe masonry is largely used as construction material worldwide and the mechanical modelling of
Available online 22 February 2014 adobe structures is a key issue. This work deals with 2-D micromechanical analysis of two component
adobe masonry (i.e. composite system composed of adobe bricks and mortar joints), focusing on the
Keywords: influence of different bond configurations and loading schemes. Homogenization is applied by defining
Fibres a periodic unit cell for each of the investigated bond schemes and by deriving global failure curves, based
Mechanical properties on failure criteria of both mortar and bricks. Experimental tests showed bi-modularity (i.e. different
Micro-mechanics
Young modulus in compression and tension) for both mortar and bricks, so this feature of elastic behav-
Finite element analysis
Adobe masonry
iour was taken into account in micromodelling. The results are twofold: for each bond scheme, critical
curves in the principal stress plane are derived for the homogenised unit cell, and the relationships
between the homogenised elastic moduli and the loading angle are obtained. Micromechanical analysis
provided a major difference between homogenised elastic behaviour in tension and in compression. In
any masonry bond scheme, homogenised elastic moduli drastically change with the loading angle.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Therefore, micromodelling approaches coupled with homogeniza-

Adobe masonry (AM) is one of the oldest construction materials
and is still used to build new houses in countries threatened by
several hazards (e.g., earthquakes and floods). AM is an assemblage
of mud bricks and mortar joints [1]. Bricks are produced by filling
formworks with a mixture of water and soil, which afterwards is
pressed and dried in oven or through the combined action of air
and sunshine. The soil employed for the fabrication of bricks is
usually composed of clay, silt and aggregates with different size.
The soil–water mixture can be stabilised with different types of
additives (e.g., cement, lime, dung, bitumen, and vegetal juices)
and reinforced with natural or artificial fibres, in order to reduce
shrinkage cracking and to increase both strength and fracture en-
ergy. Natural fibres are, for instance, wool, straw, seaweed, barley,
coconut, sisal [2–5], whereas artificial fibres can be, amongst oth-
ers, plastic and polystyrene fabrics [6].
Mud mortar has typically the same composition of bricks, but
no fibre reinforcement is provided, resulting in a different mechan-
ical performance compared to adobe bricks and hence the unfeasi-
bility of homogeneous material models for the AM as a whole.
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 081 7683659; fax: +39 081 7685921.
E-mail address: fulvio.parisi@unina.it (F. Parisi).
tion techniques can be an effective tool to simulate the macro-
scopic behaviour of AM assemblages under several boundary and
load conditions.
In a recent work the authors applied a micromechanical and
homogenization approach to running bond AM with straw fibre
reinforced adobe bricks and mud mortar joints [7]. Based on exper-
imental data partly available in the literature and partly derived by
the authors through a large number of laboratory tests similar to
those discussed in [8], finite element (FE) analysis was carried
out to assess the sensitivity of critical curves in the plane of prin-
cipal stresses, under varying: mortar joint thickness; strength
and modulus ratios between bricks and mortar. Critical curves
were derived for both single-modulus and bi-modulus elastic
material models, the latter having different Young’s moduli in
compression and tension [9,10] as well as a suitable measure for
shear modulus [11] based on the bi-modular theory. In addition
to critical curve variations with strengths and Young’s moduli
and a low sensitivity to the mortar joint thickness, FE analysis re-
sults evidenced the need for considering bi-modularity of both
bricks and mortar to avoid dangerous strength overestimations
for the entire AM assemblage.
In this paper a further insight into the micromechanics of AM is
provided. The main objectives of this study are: (1) to assess the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2014.02.020
0263-8223/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A. Caporale et al. / Composite Structures 112 (2014) 254–263 255

influence of different masonry bonds on critical curves in the plane homogenization technique applied to the UCs under study is based
of principal stresses; and (2) to investigate the variability of on the decomposition of the displacement field u(x) = [u1(x) u2(x)]T
homogenised elastic moduli of AM with the loading direction. Such in a linear part and a periodic part as follows:
research objectives are respectively motivated by the existence of
uðxÞ ¼ e0 x þ up ðxÞ; ð1Þ
AM arrangements different from the simple running bond scheme,
T
and the fact that the Young’s moduli of the equivalent homoge- where x = [x1 x2] is the position vector of a point in the UC, e is a 0

neous material simulating AM depend on the loading pattern. symmetric tensor which is constant throughout the UC, and
 T
The latter effect is originated from material bi-modularity and up ðxÞ ¼ up1 ðxÞ up2 ðxÞ is the periodic part of displacement. As a re-
the particular symmetry of the bond schemes of AM. sult, the vectors x, u(x) and up(x) have two components in the 2-D
problem. If arbitrary integers denoted mi (for i = 1, 2) are intro-
2. Micromodelling approach duced, the in-plane periodicity conditions imposed to the compos-
ite medium representing AM can be written as follows:
AM is here assumed to be a periodic composite with two con- up ðx þ dÞ ¼ up ðxÞ; ð2Þ
stituents (namely, brick and mortar) where bricks are connected T
where each component of the vector d ¼ ½d1 d2  is di ¼ 2mi ai .
by horizontal and vertical joints of mortar. Thus, homogenization
Based on Eqs. (1) and (2), one can find that both microstrains and
theory is applied to define the overall mechanical behaviour of
microstresses in the UC are periodic functions, so the strain tensor
the masonry assemblage by taking into account the different
can be represented as:
behaviour of constituents and their interaction under a given load
pattern. Such an interaction depends on the masonry arrangement eðxÞ ¼ e þ ep ðxÞ; ð3Þ
or bond, which describes the way the constituents of the compos-
where e  and ep ðxÞ are respectively the average strain in the UC and
ite are arranged together. The micromodelling approach is then
the periodic strain (with zero average in the UC) associated with
based on:
up(x). It is also emphasised that, if a perfect brick–mortar bond is
assumed, the tensor e0 turns out to be the average strain e  over
 the definition of a periodic unit cell (UC) with appropriate
the area A of the UC:
geometry and boundary conditions, as well as the mechanical
Z
properties of the masonry constituents; 1
 the adoption of failure criteria for the constituents;
e ¼ eðxÞdA; ð4Þ
A A
 the application of a homogenization method to predict the glo-
based on Eqs. (1) and (2) as well as the Gauss theorem.
bal mechanical behaviour of the composite.
As shown in [7], the in-plane periodicity and continuity condi-
tions lead to:
The homogenization procedure used in this study allows one to
evaluate the mechanical properties of masonry by computing the uðx þ dÞ  uðxÞ ¼ e0 d; ð5Þ
volume average stress R (or macrostress) associated with a fixed
volume average strain E (or macrostrain), which is imposed to and hence to the following displacement boundary conditions on
the UC [12,13]. The replication of UC generates the actual masonry the 2-D UC:
assemblage, so everything happens at the microscale establishes ui ða1 ; x2 Þ  ui ða1 ; x2 Þ ¼ 2e0i1 a1 8x2 2 ½a2 ; a2 ;
the mechanical behaviour at the macroscale, according to the mul- 0
ð6Þ
ui ðx1 ; a2 Þ  ui ðx1 ; a2 Þ ¼ 2e i2 a2 8x1 2 ½a1 ; a1 ;
tiscale approach. Micromechanical analysis is here employed as
preliminary analysis aimed at providing the masonry macromodel provided that a coordinate system (O, x1, x2) with origin located at
for subsequent structural analysis. The micromechanical analysis is the centre of the UC is assumed. The tensor e0 in Eqs. (1), (5), and
based on the finite element method; see also [14–18] for different (6), in the latter as individual components e0i1 and e0i2 , is the macro-
approaches to homogenization. strain E which is imposed to the UC. Rigid-body translations of the
UC can be avoided by imposing
2.1. Geometry and boundary conditions of micromodels
~Þ ¼ 0;
uðx ð7Þ
The periodic microstructures considered in this work are shown where x~ is an arbitrary point of the UC. Rigid-body rotations are set
in Fig. 1 and are: stack bond (SB), where all bricks are laid flat with to zero by assuming e0 to be a symmetric tensor.
their longitudinal face exposed (stretchers) and vertical joints are In this work, we discuss critical curves in the plane of principal
continuous; running bond (RB), also called stretcher bond, where stresses corresponding to different AM microstructures. A fraction
stretchers are arranged in a way to get discontinuous vertical of UC was considered, evaluating the macrostress components R11
joints; Flemish bond (FB), where each layer is a sequence of stretch- and R22 associated with the following macrostrain tensor imposed
ers and headers (i.e., bricks laid flat with their lateral face exposed) to the UC:
and the layers are arranged in a way to get discontinuous vertical  
E11 0
joints; and English bond (EB), where layers of stretchers alternate E¼ : ð8Þ
those of headers. 0 E22
A UC was defined for each one of the above-mentioned micro- The homogenization for micromechanical analysis was then
structures, as shown in Fig. 2. We considered two-dimensional carried out on a quarter of UC for each microstructure under study.
(2-D) models in order to reduce the computational cost required That quarter is shown in Fig. 3 for the considered bond schemes
by numerical analysis of three-dimensional (3-D) walls. Effects of and was subjected to the following boundary conditions:
headers on mechanical behaviour of 3-D walls will be further
investigated by 3-D models in a future work. Therefore, the prob- u1 ð0; x2 Þ ¼ 0 8 x2 2 ½0; a2 ;
lem with a 2-D geometric model will be referred to as the 2-D
u2 ðx1 ; 0Þ ¼ 0 8 x1 2 ½0; a1 ;
problem in the following. ð9Þ
The UCs adopted for the 2-D problem have a rectangular shape
u1 ða1 ; x2 Þ ¼ E11 a1 8 x2 2 ½0; a2 ;
with size 2a1 and 2a2 along the x1- and x2-axes, respectively. The u2 ðx1 ; a2 Þ ¼ E22 a2 8 x1 2 ½0; a1 ;
256 A. Caporale et al. / Composite Structures 112 (2014) 254–263

Stack bond Running bond

stretcher stretcher

Flemish bond English bond

header stretcher stretcher

header

Fig. 1. Periodic masonry microstructures under study.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 2. Unit cells: (a) stack bond; (b) running bond; (c) Flemish bond; and (d) English bond.

without imposing the constraints established by Eq. (7). Therefore,
macrostress components were computed as follows:
Z a2
1
R11 ¼ r11 ða1 ; x2 Þdx2 ;
a2 0
Z a1
1 ð10Þ
R22 ¼ r22 ðx1 ; a2 Þdx1 ;
a1 0
R12 ¼ 0;
where R11 and R22 are evaluated with integrals taken over a side of
the quarter of the UC. It is noted that the average shear stress in the
quarter of the UC may be different from zero but R12 in the whole
UC is equal to zero. As the average stress R12 in the UC is equal to
zero, R11 and R22 are also the principal macrostresses.
2.2. Application of bi-modular elasticity theory to adobe masonry
Experimental results derived by the authors (see Section 3 for
details) have shown that adobe bricks with reinforcing straw fibres
have not only different tensile and compressive strengths, but also
different elastic moduli in tension and compression. The same
outcome was also found for other brick types, such as tuff stones
[19,20], and also concrete, ceramics and some composites. Such
materials are known as bi-modular materials [21]. Therefore,
micromechanical modelling of AM was carried out by assuming
that the constituents behave according to the bi-modular elasticity
theory proposed by Ambartsumyan [9] up to damage initiation and
failure. That theory was highlighted in [22], and used in [11].
Ambartsumyan states that Young’s modulus of basic materials
depends not only on materials properties, but also on the stress
at which a point is subjected to. Even though strains are assumed
to be small, material behaviour becomes nonlinear and hence
structural components show an overall nonlinear elastic behaviour
depending on the shape, boundary conditions and load pattern. If
elastic behaviour is linearized in both tension and compression
through tangent or secant linear branches, the stress–strain rela-
tionship turns out to be discontinuous at the origin of the coordi-
nate system.
Given that the bi-modular elasticity theory applies to constitu-
tive models formulated in terms of principal stresses, and hence
along principal directions, shear modulus is neglected and the
 A. Caporale et al. / Composite Structures 112 (2014) 254–263 257

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 3. Quarter of the unit cells: (a) stack bond; (b) running bond; (c) Flemish bond; and (d) English bond.

elastic behaviour under complex stress patterns cannot be simu- respectively. In the compression–compression stress state the con-
lated. This problem was solved by He et al. [11] which proposed stitutive law of the ith constituent turns out to be:
a suitable measure for shear modulus based on a theoretical " # " #" #
eia 1
Eci
 mEci ria
analysis. ¼ ci
; ð13Þ
Denoting by ri the principal stress vector and ei the principal eib  mEcici 1
Eci
rib
strain vector related to the ith constituent with i = b, m (where b
where the subscript c stands for compression; Eci and mci are the
stands for brick and m for mortar), the constitutive relationship
compressive Young’s modulus and compressive Poisson’s ratio of
in the plane of principal stresses may be written as:
the ith constituent, respectively. Such states of stress are dealt with
ei ¼ Si ri ; ri ¼ Ci ei ; ð11Þ as in the case of classical elasticity theory. The problem is more dif-
ficult in the tension–compression stress state, where the constitu-
where Si and Ci are the compliance and elasticity matrices of the ith tive law of the ith constituent is defined as:
constituent, respectively, which depend on the signs of the principal " # " #" #
stresses. eia 1
Eti
 mEci ria
ci
¼ : ð14Þ
A plane stress state was assumed for each one of the UCs under eib  mEtiti 1
Eci
rib
investigation. Regardless of the macrostrain applied on the UC,
each constituent was subjected to the principal stresses r1, r2 It is noted that the principal stress and strain vectors may be
and r3 with r1 P r2 P r3 and any stress assumed to be positive written in the principal coordinate system as follows:
in tension. It is noted that ri, r1, r2 and r3 are stresses in a point h iT h iT
of the ith constituent and therefore represent the microstress. As ri ¼ ria rib siab ; ei ¼ eia eib ciab ; ð15Þ
far as the 2-D problem is concerned, the plane stress state in the
UC is characterised by at least one principal stress equal to zero where siab ¼ ciab ¼ 0. Furthermore, since the elasticity matrix in the
in each constituent. The plane of stress is here assumed to be the second Eq. (11) may be specialised to:
2 3
x1–x2 plane shown in Fig. 2. Each constituent can be subjected to C i11 C i12 0
three biaxial stress states as follows: (1) r1 > 0, r2 > 0 and r3 = 0 6 i 7
Ci ¼ 6
4 C 21 C i22 0 7 5; ð16Þ
(tension–tension state); (2) r1 = 0, r2 < 0 and r3 < 0 (compres-
i
sion–compression state); and (3) r1 > 0, r2 = 0 and r3 < 0 (ten- 0 0 C 33
sion–compression state). Let us denote by a and b two principal
where C i12
¼ C i21 , one can map the elasticity matrix onto the general
directions which are, respectively, the first and second principal
coordinate system through the following equation:
directions in the tension–tension state, the second and third prin-
cipal directions in the compression–compression state, and the C0i ¼ LT Ci L; ð17Þ
first and third principal directions in the tension–compression
0i
state. According to the bi-modular elasticity theory, in the ten- where C is the elasticity matrix in general coordinates and L is the
sion–tension stress state the constitutive law of the ith constituent transfer matrix which includes directional cosines of principal
in the plane of principal directions can be written as: directions with respect to the x1- and x2-axes of the general coordi-
" # " #" # nate system.
eia 1
Eti
 mEtiti ria We assumed C i33 to be equal to the following shear modulus
¼ ; ð12Þ measures:
eib  mEtiti 1
Eti
rib
Eti
where the subscript t stands for tension; Eti and mti are the tensile Gti ¼ ; ð18Þ
2ð1 þ mti Þ
Young’s modulus and tensile Poisson’s ratio of the ith constituent,
258 A. Caporale et al. / Composite Structures 112 (2014) 254–263

for the tension–tension stress state; 3. Experimental data on adobe bricks and mud mortar

Eci
Gci ¼ ; ð19Þ Experimental tests were carried out by the authors to character-
2ð1 þ mci Þ ise both compressive and tensile behaviour of adobe bricks. The
procedures for testing and data processing adopted in this work
for the compression–compression stress state; and
were similar to the ones discussed in [8,19]. The adobe bricks un-
1 der study were 100  200  400 mm3 in size (Fig. 4a), had a mean
Gtci ¼ g g ; ð20Þ unit weight of 16.80 kN/m3, and were made of clayey/silty sand
Gti
þ 1
Gci
with the following percentages by weight: 26.9% of clay–silt;
for the tension–compression stress state. Eq. (20) defines the shear 70.1% of sand; and 3% of gravel. The bricks were reinforced with
modulus measure according to [11], where the factor g is defined straw fibres having the following mean geometric properties:
as: diameter 3 mm; length 70 mm; and volume percentage 0.6%.
Fig. 4b shows a sample of straw fibres taken out from a brick.
jria j According to international standards, the authors performed
g¼ ; ð21Þ uniaxial compressive tests on 34 cubic specimens with edge
jra j þ jrib j
i
70 mm and three-point bending tests on 36 prismatic specimens
or equivalently: 40  40  160 mm3 in size. Fig. 5a and b shows an adobe cube
before and after compression test, respectively. Given that
jrib j compression tests were stopped when large deformation levels on
g¼1 ; ð22Þ
jra j þ jrib j
i
the post-peak descending branch of load–displacement curves were
recorded by the testing machine, all specimens significantly crushed.
with ria > 0 and rib < 0. The transfer matrix to use into Eq. (17) was
Fig. 6 shows the stress–strain curves derived by compression
defined as follows:
tests, which highlight a significant experimental scatter in
2 3 mechanical properties of adobe bricks.
L21 M21 L1 M 1
6 7 Three-point bending tests were carried out according to the
L ¼ 4 L22 M22 L2 M 2 5; ð23Þ experimental setup shown in Fig. 7a. Prismatic specimens suffered
2L1 L2 2M 1 M 2 L1 M2 þ L2 M 1 a single flexural crack close to the mid-section (Fig. 7b). Experi-
mental stress–strain curves are plotted in Fig. 8, where rather lin-
where L1 and M1 are the directional cosines of the principal direc- ear branches can be observed in both pre- and post-peak
tion a with respect to the x1- and x2-axes, respectively, and L2 and conditions. Major experimental scatter is also detected in bending,
M2 are the directional cosines of the principal direction b. It is demonstrating the need for the sensitivity analysis presented in
emphasised that Eq. (20) establishes that, in the case of tension– [7].
compression stress state, the shear modulus of each constituent de- In the following, the subscripts b and m will be used for vari-
pends not only on Young’s moduli and Poisson’s ratios in tension ables related to the adobe brick and mud mortar, respectively.
and compression, but also on the principal stresses ria and rib . Based on experimental tests on adobe bricks, the authors derived
the following mean estimates of mechanical properties: peak com-
2.3. Failure rules for constituents pressive strength fcb = 1.08 MPa (coefficient of variation
CoV = 36%); Young’s modulus in compression Ecb = 145 MPa
The UC was assumed to reach damage onset and failure accord- (CoV = 37%); and peak tensile strength ftb = 0.56 MPa (CoV = 36%).
ing to the following phenomenological criterion, which is defined In addition, mean Young’s modulus in tension was estimated as
in the plane of principal stresses. In the case of tension–tension Etb = 0.4Ecb, namely, 58 MPa (CoV = 41%). As the sensitivity of criti-
stress state, the failure occurs in a point of the ith constituent cal curves of AM under varying mechanical properties according to
(where i = b, m) if the following equation is met: their experimental scatter was already investigated by the authors
ftti ðr1 Þ ¼ r1  fti ¼ 0; ð24Þ [7], here we discuss numerical results corresponding to mean
experimental values. The Poisson’s ratio of adobe bricks was set
and hence r1 reaches the tensile limit fti of the ith constituent to mcb = 0.3 in compression and mtb = 0.3Etb/Ecb in tension.
according to the Rankine failure criterion. In the case of tension– Experimental data available in the literature on mud mortar
compression state, material failure in a point of the ith constituent are considered in numerical computations developed in this
is assumed to occur if r1 and r3 satisfy the following equation: study. Mud mortar with the same particle size distribution of
  adobe bricks was assumed in compliance with construction prac-
r1 r3 v
ftci ðr1 ; r3 Þ ¼  1 ¼ 0; ð25Þ tice. For the microstructures under study, the thickness of mud
fti fci mortar joints was frequently set to 10 mm which is a typical va-
lue for masonry structures. According to past studies [25,26], the
where the compressive strength fci of the ith constituent is assumed
tensile and compressive strengths of mortar were assumed to be
to be negative and v is a nonnegative constant set to 1/3 in [23] and
ftm = 0.8ftb (that is, 0.45 MPa) and fcm = fcb, respectively, whereas
to 1 in this study. Finally, the failure criterion proposed by Naraine
the Young’s modulus of mortar was set to Ecm = 91 MPa in com-
and Sinha [24] and used in [23] was adopted for the compression–
pression and Etm = 0.7Etb in tension. It is noted that the value as-
compression stress state. Namely, the ith constituent is assumed to
sumed for Ecm is equal to Ecb  rEcb, where rEcb is the standard
fail in a point if r2 and r3 satisfy the following equation:
deviation derived by testing for compressive Young’s modulus
fcci ðr2 ; r3 Þ ¼ CJ 2;i þ ð1  CÞI1;i þ CI2;i  1 ¼ 0; ð26Þ of bricks. This is because the same range of values was experi-
mentally found for bricks and mortar in the case of compressive
where C = 1.6 and Young’s modulus. Finally, the compressive Poisson’s ratio of
mortar was considered to be equal to that of adobe bricks (i.e.,
1 1 r2 r3 mcm = mcb = 0.3), whereas the tensile Poisson’s ratio of mortar
J 2;i ¼ ðr2  r3 Þ2 ; I1;i ¼ ðr2 þ r3 Þ; I2;i ¼ : ð27Þ
fci2 fci fci2 was set to mtm = 0.3Etm/Ecm.
 A. Caporale et al. / Composite Structures 112 (2014) 254–263 259

Fig. 4. (a) Adobe brick and (b) sample of reinforcing straw fibres.

Fig. 5. Compression tests on adobe cubes: (a) experimental setup and (b) specimen after test.

Therefore, experimental results show that both adobe bricks

and mud mortar are characterised by different Young’s moduli in
tension and compression, evidencing that elastic bi-modularity
should be taken into account in numerical analysis of AM struc-
tures. The authors considered this experimental evidence in their
micromechanical analysis, investigating the influence of the ma-
sonry bond scheme and loading direction. In next sections, we
present critical curves in the principal stress plane and homoge-
nised elastic moduli of adobe masonry.

4. Critical curves of different AM microstructures

Next a homogenization finite element procedure is used in or-

der to determine the first failure of AM with periodic distributions
of bricks. The constituents of AM behave according to the
Fig. 6. Experimental stress–strain curves derived by compression tests.

Fig. 7. Bending tests on adobe prismatic specimens: (a) experimental setup and (b) specimen after test.
260 A. Caporale et al. / Composite Structures 112 (2014) 254–263
Fig. 8. Experimental stress–strain curves derived by bending tests.
bi-modular elasticity theory explained in Section 2.2. An average
strain E is prescribed by imposing the boundary conditions (9) to
a quarter of the 2-D UC and assuming that the average shear strain
E12 is equal to zero. Then relations (10) are used to determine the
components of the average stress R in the 2-D UC (or, equivalently,
in the quarter of the 2-D UC) subject to a critical average strain
E = Ecr,i. The average strain Ecr,i is such that the first failure of the
ith constituent occurs when E = Ecr,i is prescribed through (9). In
the following, Sfi denotes the set containing some points of the con-
stituent i; in the points of Sfi, the failure criterion described in Sec-
tion 2.3 is satisfied, i.e. ftti = 0, ftci = 0 and/or fcci = 0. The first failure
of a constituent i occurs when the following two conditions take
place: (1) in the points of Sfi, the failure criterion described in Sec-
tion 2.3 is satisfied when the average strain prescribed on the quar-
ter of UC is Ecr,i and it results ftti < 0, ftci < 0 and fcci < 0 when the
prescribed average strain is kEcr;i with k < 1; and (2) in the points
of the constituent i different from the points of Sfi, it results ftti < 0,
ftci < 0 and fcci < 0 when the prescribed average strain is kEcr;i with
k 6 1, i.e. the failure criterion has never been satisfied during the
loading process. The average stress R corresponding to the average
strain Ecr,i is denoted by Rcr,i. In the plane R11–R22 of the principal

macrostresses, the components Rcr;i cr;i
11 ; R22 of Rcr,i define a closed
curve which represents the AM critical curve related to ith constit-
uent failure. This curve must not be intended as the failure locus of
the ith constituent when it is isolated from the AM composite: this
kind of failure locus is provided by the criterion described in Sec-
tion 2.3. The AM critical curve related to ith constituent failure
must be intended as the failure locus of the whole AM composite
when the ith constituent is subject to failure and the other constit-
uent behaves according to the bi-modular theory (without damage
or failure). As an example, the AM critical curve related to mortar
failure is determined by assuming that the brick is a bi-modular
material and is not subject to any damage or failure until the first
failure of the mortar. In order to obtain a closed AM critical curve
related to ith constituent failure, the prescribed macrostrain E is
defined by:
 
E¼E
cos u 0
; ð28Þ
0 sin u
where E is a positive real number which is sufficiently large and
u 2 Iu = {0°, 5°, 10°, . . . , 350°, 355°} is the loading angle. The AM
critical curve related to ith constituent failure is composed of as
many points as the elements of the set Iu; therefore, this curve is

composed of 72 points Rcr;i cr;i
11 ; R22 and each one of these points is
the macrostress corresponding to the macrostrain (28) for a given
value of u 2 Iu.
The AM critical curve related to ith constituent failure repre-
sents the boundary of a critical area related to that constituent fail-
ure in the R11–R22 plane. The critical curve of the AM is the
boundary of the intersection of the critical areas related to brick
and mortar failure (see also Section 4 of [7]). In other words, the
critical curve of the AM can be individuated by those points, of
the AM critical curves related to brick and mortar failure, corre-
sponding to the smallest value of the loading parameter assuming
a radial loading path. The critical curves reported in the following
figures are always related to the brick or mortar failure and are
never intended as the boundary of the intersection of the critical
areas related to brick and mortar failure.
The critical curves of this section refer to the AM with bi-mod-
ular constituents characterised by Etb = 58 MPa, Ecb = 145 MPa,
mcb = 0.3, Etm = 0.7Etb, Ecm = 91 MPa, mcm = 0.3, ftb = ftm/
0.8 = 0.56 MPa and fcb = fcm = 1.08 MPa. The four bond schemes de-
picted in Fig. 2 are considered with b = 400 mm, h = 100, 200 mm
and t = 10 mm. In order to avoid any dependence of analysis results
on the finite element mesh, each brick corner was approximated as
arc of circle with radius q = h/40, unless differently stated (see [7]).
Critical curves for the four masonry bond schemes under study
and h = 100 mm are compared in Fig. 9, where solid and dashed
lines refer to the AM critical curves related to brick and mortar fail-
ure, respectively. In the figures of this section, the stresses on the
coordinate axes are in MPa. It can be noted that, in any bond
scheme, the brick fails before mortar in the negative quadrant
(i.e. when R11 6 0 and R22 6 0) given that critical curves of the
brick (solid lines) are always within the corresponding critical
curves of mortar (dashed lines) in the negative quadrant. The
opposite happens in the positive quadrant (i.e. when R11 P 0 and
R22 P 0). No significant differences are found between critical
curves related to running, Flemish, and English bond schemes,
while the critical curves derived in the case of stack bond may be
wider than others especially in the compression–compression
state (negative quadrant). This outcome is confirmed also if the
brick height is doubled and hence h is set to 200 mm, as shown
in Fig. 10, reproducing the case of brickwork with shiners, namely,
bricks laid on their long narrow side with the broad face exposed.
In Figs. 9 and 10, the AM critical curves related to brick failure
(solid lines) and corresponding to running, Flemish and English
bond schemes are almost totally overlapped, whereas the critical
curve related to stack bond may be wider than them particularly
in the negative quadrant of the R11–R22 plane. This finding is very
important if one is interested in performing 2-D FE analysis of AM
structures with different periodic microstructures because the
same critical curves can be assumed at least for running, Flemish,
and English bond schemes. Nevertheless, it is emphasised that
such remark is based on bi-modular elasticity theory so nothing
1.0
Σ22
Brick - SB
0.5
Mortar - SB
Brick - RB
0.0
Σ11 Mortar - RB
Brick - FB
-0.5 Mortar - FB
Brick - EB
-1.0 Mortar - EB
-1.5
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Fig. 9. Comparison of AM critical curves related to brick and mortar failure for
different masonry arrangements and brick height h = 100 mm.
 A. Caporale et al. / Composite Structures 112 (2014) 254–263 261

1.0 1.0
Σ22 Σ22
Brick - SB
Brick ρ = h/80
0.5 0.5
Mortar - SB
Mortar ρ = h/80

Σ11 Brick - RB
Brick ρ = h/40
0.0 0.0
Mortar - RB Σ11 Mortar ρ = h/40
Brick - FB Brick ρ = h/10
-0.5 -0.5
Mortar - FB Mortar ρ = h/10

Brick - EB Brick ρ = h/4

-1.0
-1.0 Mortar - EB Mortar ρ = h/4

-1.5
-1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

Fig. 12. Comparison of AM critical curves related to brick and mortar failure for
Fig. 10. Comparison of AM critical curves related to brick and mortar failure for
different radius values, brick height h = 100 mm and running bond masonry.
different masonry arrangements and brick height h = 200 mm.

can be stated about inelastic redistribution of both macrostresses

and macrostrains within UCs, as well as the influence of masonry ϕ = 90°
160
bond in the 3-D behaviour of AM. These subjects will be covered C ii
by next numerical studies. 120
Denoting the brick height as h, Fig. 11 shows that critical curves
in the R11–R22 plane do not significantly widen if h is doubled. The 80
variation of critical curves with rounded corner radius was investi-
C11+
gated assuming four different values of q, namely h/80, h/40, h/10, 40
and h/4. In the case of running bond AM with h = 100 mm, Fig. 12 C22+
ϕ = 180° 0 ϕ = 0°
shows that the larger is the radius assumed to smooth the brick
corners in the UC, the wider is the AM critical curve related to brick C11-

failure, especially in the negative quadrant. Nonetheless, these crit-

C22-
ical curves corresponding to q = h/10 and q = h/4 are rather over-
lapped, indicating that the influence of the radius is significant
when small values are assumed. This is consistent with the fact
that microstresses in the brick tend to concentrate in the proximity
of brick corners. ϕ = 270°

(a)
5. Homogenised elastic moduli for different loading directions
ϕ = 90°
Tangent homogenised moduli were computed by imposing the 50
C ij
following macrostrain components in the first load step: 40
Eo11 ¼ Eo cos u; Eo22 ¼ Eo sin u; ð29Þ 30
o
where E is a positive integer which is sufficiently large and u is the 20
C21+
loading angle with respect to the x1-axis, that is, the axis parallel to 10
C12+
ϕ = 180° 0 ϕ = 0°
1.0
Σ22 C21-

C12-
0.5

Brick - h=100
0.0
Σ11 Mortar - h=100
ϕ = 270°
Brick - h=200
(b)
-0.5
Mortar - h=200
Fig. 13. Homogenised elastic moduli (in MPa) versus loading angle in the case of
running bond masonry and brick height h = 100 mm: (a) C  
ii and (b) C ij (ij = 12, 21).
-1.0

the mortar bed joints of masonry. The macrostress components

-1.5 corresponding to the macrostrains (29) were evaluated and are
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
denoted as Ro11 and Ro22 . It is noted that no shear macrostrain was
Fig. 11. Comparison of AM critical curves related to brick and mortar failure in the imposed in this section. One of the following four total macrostrain
case of running bond masonry; brick height is h = 100 mm and h = 200 mm. matrices were imposed in the second load step:
262 A. Caporale et al. / Composite Structures 112 (2014) 254–263

Table 1
Homogenised elastic moduli related to different loading angles and masonry arrangements.

Masonry arrangement u (°) Cþ

11 (MPa) Cþ
12 (MPa) Cþ
22 (MPa)

Stack bond 0 56.708 6.828 56.293

90 56.708 6.828 56.293
180 151.666 44.791 149.893
270 151.666 44.791 149.893
Running bond 0 56.715 6.833 56.283
90 56.715 6.833 56.283
180 151.699 44.813 149.856
270 151.699 44.813 149.856
Flemish bond 0 56.542 6.821 56.159
90 56.542 6.821 56.159
180 151.058 44.642 149.429
270 151.058 44.642 149.429
English bond 0 56.709 6.832 56.286
90 56.709 6.832 56.286
180 151.676 44.807 149.866
270 151.676 44.807 149.866

" # " #
Eo11 þ DE11 0 Eo11 0 ling was performed on the basis of experimental tests carried out
Eð1Þ ¼ ; Eð2Þ ¼ ; ð30Þ by the authors on adobe bricks and discussed in this study, as well
0 Eo22 0 Eo22 þ DE22
as experimental data available in the literature on mud mortar.
where Experimental data show that both bricks and mortar are character-




ised by bi-modularity (i.e. different Young’s moduli in pure com-

DE

Eo
; DEþii > 0; DEii < 0 for ii ¼ 11; 22:
ii ii
The average stress R in the 2-D UC (or equivalently in the quar-
ter of the 2-D UC) subject to the prescribed macrostrain E = E±(i) for
i = 1, 2 is denoted by R±(i). Therefore, tangent homogenised moduli
were computed as follows:
 .
ð1Þ
C 11 ¼ R11  Ro11 DE11 ;
 .
ð1Þ
C 21 ¼ R22  Ro22 DE11 ;
 .
ð2Þ
C 12 ¼ R11  Ro11 DE22 ;
 .
ð2Þ
C 22 ¼ R22  Ro22 DE22 :
In Fig. 13a and b such elastic moduli are plotted against u
(appearing into Eq. (29)) in the case of running bond masonry and
brick height h = 100 mm. As u is increased from the range [0°, 90°]
to [90°, 180°], the UC is no longer loaded in biaxial extension but it
is subjected to combined extension and contraction. This is because
the macrostrain component Eo11 becomes negative while Eo22 remains
positive. When u e [0°, 90°] the 2-D UC and its constituents are sub-
ject to biaxial tension so that the Young’s moduli of brick and mortar
are Etb and Etm, respectively. When u e [180°, 270°] the 2-D UC and
its constituents are subject to biaxial compression so that the
Young’s moduli of brick and mortar are Ecb and Ecm, respectively.
When u e [90°, 180°] and u e [270°, 360°] there is a transition from
a stress state of biaxial tension to biaxial compression. The analysis
of homogenised elastic moduli under varying u allows one to out-
line that homogenised elastic moduli significantly change with the
loading orientation, reaching their maximum and minimum levels
in biaxial compression and biaxial tension, respectively. Table 1 pro-
vides the homogenised elastic moduli corresponding to the masonry
arrangements under study and different values of loading angle. The
four masonry arrangements provide nearly the same homogenised
moduli not only for the angles considered in Table 1 but also for
the angles of the polar diagram in Fig. 13.
6. Conclusions
This paper has dealt with micromechanical modelling of adobe
masonry. The mechanical system has been assumed to be made of
two components, i.e. adobe bricks and mortar. Numerical model-
ð31Þ
pression and tension).
Different failure criteria were assumed for masonry compo-
nents and four bond configurations have been investigated. For
each of them, a homogenization approach has been used to derive
critical curves of the unit cell and the relationship between the
homogenised elastic moduli and the loading direction. These re-
sults can be implemented into macroscale numerical analysis deal-
ing with masonry wall systems.
Homogenised critical curves are very close one to another for
ð32Þ
the different investigated bond schemes. Thus, aiming at deriving
homogenised failure criteria to be used in 2-D macroscale numer-
ical analysis of masonry walls, the influence of the bond configura-
tion could be neglected.
As for the elastic moduli variability with the loading direction, it
is emphasised that initial stiffness can significantly change with
loading direction, as a result of bi-modularity of mortar and bricks.
This effect can largely influence macroscale analysis of wall sys-
tems when the mechanical behaviour is only influenced by local
elastic properties, as in the case of service loading conditions and
dynamic characterization prior to seismic analysis. In fact, in the
latter case initial stiffness estimates significantly affect the deriva-
tion of natural vibration periods and modes.
Further developments of this work will be aimed at assessing
the influence of different bond schemes on three-dimensional con-
figurations of adobe masonry.
Acknowledgements
This research was carried out in the framework of PON 01-
02324 PROVACI Project (Technologies for Earthquake Protection
and Valorisation of Cultural Heritage Sites) under funding of the
Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research.
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