Design intersections, ramps & exit-enterance sections

Ch 5.3.5 intersction design

Ch 5.4.4 roadside design

Ch 8 freeways

Ch8.4.4.3 ramps

Ch 9 intersections
 Intersections

● INTRODUCTION
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more roadways join or cross,
including the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movements within the area.
Each roadway radiating from an intersection and forming part of it is an intersection leg. The
most common intersection configuration is a four-leg intersection at which two roadways
cross one another. Three-leg intersections are also common. It is recommended that an
intersection have no more than four legs.
The three general types of roadway crossings are at-grade intersections, grade separations
without ramps, and interchanges.
At-grade intersections are among the most complicated elements of a roadway.
Intersections are often the focus of business and community activity and the place
where systems users share the same travel space. Traffic control that requires some or
all users to slow or stop is uniquely present at intersections. Intersections usually have
less capacity than other parts of the roadway and are where most traffic conflicts occur.
The design of intersections is important to users of the intersections and owners of land
adjacent to the intersection. Therefore, design criteria should be selected that will result
in a balanced and cost-effective design that provides anticipated efficient operations
and low crash frequencies, and considers the needs of all user groups. Design criteria
should also meet mobility, environmental, scenic, aesthetic, cultural, natural resource,
and community needs to the extent practicable. ,
Use of the design elements presented herein is based on design criteria including functional
classification, current and anticipated volume of each intersection user group including
directions and turning movements, design speed, appropriate design vehicle (bicycle,
passenger car, transit bus, WB-67 truck, recreational vehicle, etc.), intersection geometrics
(alignment, profile, intersection form) , and desired traffic control (no assigned control, two-
way stop, all-way stop, traffic signal, or roundabout). In combination with the design
criteria, the safety and operational performance analyses are used to determine the particular
configuration of the intersection, such as the number of lanes.
The specific dimensional design criteria presented in this chapter are appropriate as a guide
for
new construction of intersections. Projects to improve existing intersections differ from new
construction in that the performance of the existing intersection is known and can guide the
design process. Features of the existing design that are performing well may remain
unchanged.
while features that are performing poorly should be improved, where practical.
The figures presented in this chapter that have been provided to illustrate particular aspects of
intersection design do not necessarily represent complete designs that comply with every
design
guideline in the chapter. If every drawing in the chapter addressed every potentially
applicable
design issue, the drawings might become so detailed as to lose their illustrative value. 1

1
AASHTO 2018 , 7th Edition Chpter 9
9.2 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND OBJECTIVES

9.2.1 Characteristics of Intersections

An intersection includes the areas needed for all modes of travel that use the intersection:
automobile, bicycle, pedestrian, truck, and transit. Thus, the intersection design addresses not
only the roadway pavement, but the adjacent sidewalks, pedestrian ramps, bicycle facilities,
auxiliary lanes, medians, and islands. Intersections are a key feature of roadway design in four
respects:

● Focus of Land Use Activity—The land near intersections often contains a concentration of
travel destinations that are accessed by multiple modes.

● Conflict Points—Pedestrians, bicyclists and motor vehicles often cross paths at

intersections where through and turning movements conflict. These crossings are referred to
as “conflict points,” and can be further categorized by movement type and corresponding
severity.

● Traffic Control—Movement of users may be assigned through use of traffic control

devices such as yield signs, stop signs, and traffic signals.

● Capacity—Traffic control at intersections often limits the number of users that can be
accommodated
within a given time period on the intersecting roadways.
Figure 9-1 shows the number and type of motor-vehicle conflict points at typical four-leg,
three-leg, and roundabout intersections. Conflict points should also be considered when
locating driveways along a roadway. Providing separation between driveways reduces the
potential for collisions by reducing the number of conflict points and increasing the distance
between conflict points.
9.2.2 Intersection Functional Area
An intersection is defined by both its functional and physical areas (18), as illustrated in
Figure 9-2. The functional area of an intersection extends both upstream and downstream
from the physical intersection area and includes any auxiliary lanes and their associated
channelization.

The functional area on the approach to an intersection or driveway consists of three basic
elements:
(1) perception–reaction decision distance
(2) maneuver distance
(3) queue-storage distance.
These elements are shown in Figure 9-3. The distance traveled during the perception–
reaction time will depend upon vehicle speed, driver characteristics, and driver familiarity
with the location. Where there is a left- or right-turn lane, the maneuver distance includes the
length needed for both braking and lane changing. In the absence of turn lanes, it involves
braking to a comfortable stop. The storage length should be sufficient to accommodate the
longest queue expected most of the time. Ideally, driveways should not be located within the
functional area of an intersection, as shown in Figure 9-2, or within the influence area of an
adjacent driveway.
9.3 TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF INTERSECTIONS
The basic types of intersections are three-leg (T), four-leg, multileg, and roundabouts. Further
classification of the basic intersection types includes such variations as unchannelized, flared,
and channelized intersections as shown in Figure 9-4. While this figure depicts only vehicle
movements, pedestrian and bicycle accommodation could also be included. Roundabouts are
described separately in Section 9.10. Additional variations include offset intersections, which
are two adjacent T intersections that function similar to a four-leg intersection, and indirect
intersections that provide one or more of the intersection movements at a location away from
the
primary intersection. At each particular location, the intersection type is determined primarily
by the number of intersecting legs; the topography; right-of-way constraints; the needs of all
users; the character of the intersecting roadways; the traffic volumes, patterns, and speeds;
and
the desired type of operation. These characteristics are also related to the type of traffic
control
(e.g., traffic signal, two-way or all-way stop, or yield on minor approach). Variations of these
intersection types to improve capacity by providing indirect left-turn movements are
addressed
in Section 9.9, “Indirect Left Turns and U-Turns.”
9.3.1 Three-Leg Intersections

9.3.1.1 Basic Types of Intersections

9.3.1.2 Channelized Three-Leg Intersections

9.3.2 Four-Leg Intersections

9.3.2.1 Basic Types

9.3.2.2 Channelized Four-Leg Intersections
9.3.3 Multileg Intersections
Roundabouts
9.3.4.1 Mini-Roundabouts

9.3.4.2 Single-Lane Roundabouts

9.4.2 Alignment
To reduce costs and crash frequencies, intersecting roads should generally meet at, or nearly
at,
right angles, unless roundabouts are utilized. Roads intersecting at acute angles need
extensive turning roadway areas and tend to limit visibility. Acute-angle intersections also
increase the
exposure time for the vehicles crossing the main traffic flow. The practice of realigning roads
intersecting at acute angles in the manner shown in Figure 9-15A and 9-15B has proved to be
beneficial. The greatest benefit is obtained when the curves used to realign the roads allow
operating
speeds nearly equivalent to the major-roadway approach speeds.
The practice of constructing short-radius horizontal curves on side-road approaches to achieve
right-angle intersections should be avoided whenever practical. The intersection and traffic
control
devices at the intersection may be located outside the driver’s line of sight, resulting in the
need to install advanced signing. Sharp curves may also result in increased lane
encroachments.
9.5.2 Sight Triangles
Specified areas along intersection approach legs and across their included corners should be
clear
of obstructions that might block a driver’s view of potentially conflicting vehicles. These
specified
areas are known as clear sight triangles. The dimensions of the legs of the sight triangles
depend on the design speeds of the intersecting roadways and the type of traffic control used
at
the intersection. These dimensions are based on observed driver behavior and are documented
by space-time profiles and speed choices of drivers on intersection approaches (21). Two
types
of clear sight triangles are considered in intersection design—approach sight triangles and
departure
sight triangles.

9.5.2.1 Approach Sight Triangles

Each quadrant of an intersection should contain a triangular area free of obstructions that
might
block an approaching driver’s view of potentially conflicting vehicles. The length of the legs
of
this triangular area, along both intersecting roadways, should be such that the drivers can see
any potentially conflicting vehicles in sufficient time to slow or stop before colliding within
the
intersection. Figure 9-16 shows typical clear sight triangles to the left and to the right for a
vehicle
approaching an uncontrolled or yield-controlled intersection.
9.5.2.2 Departure Sight Triangles
A second type of clear sight triangle provides sight distance sufficient for a stopped driver on
a
minor-road approach to depart from the intersection and enter or cross the major road. Figure
9-17 shows typical departure sight triangles to the left and to the right of the location of a
stopped
vehicle on the minor road. Departure sight triangles should be provided in each quadrant of
each intersection approach controlled by stop or yield signs. Departure sight triangles should
also be provided for some signalized intersection approaches (see Section 9.5.3.4). Distance
a2 in
Figure 9-17 is equal to distance a1 plus the width of the lane(s) departing from the intersection
on the major road to the right. Distance a2 should also include the width of any median present
on the major road unless the median is wide enough to permit a vehicle to stop before
entering
or crossing the roadway beyond the median. The appropriate measurement of distances a1 and
a2 for departure sight triangles depends on the placement of any marked stop line that may be
present and, thus, may vary with site-specific conditions.
9.5.4 Effect of Skew
Where two roadways intersect at an angle less than 75 degrees or greater than 105 degrees,
and
where conversion to a roundabout or realignment to increase the angle of intersection is not
justified,
some of the factors for determination of intersection sight distance may need adjustment.
Each of the clear sight triangles described above are applicable to oblique-angle intersections.
As shown in Figure 9-18, the legs of the sight triangle will lie along the intersection
approaches
and each sight triangle will be larger or smaller than the corresponding sight triangle would be
at a right-angle intersection. The area within each sight triangle should be clear of potential
sight
obstructions as described previously.
9.7.2.1 Perception–Reaction Distance
9.8.4 Design Considerations for Higher Speed Left Turns

Median openings that enable vehicles to turn on minimum paths and at 10 to 15 mph [15 to
25 km/h] are adequate for intersections in urban areas and also in rural areas where most
major-
road traffic for the most part proceeds straight through the intersection and does not make
a left-turn maneuver. In rural areas, where through-traffic volumes and speeds are high and
left-turning movements are frequent, undue interference with through traffic should be
avoided
by providing median openings that permit turns without encroachment on adjacent lanes. This
arrangement would enable turns to be made at speeds greater than the minimum vehicle paths
allow and provide space for vehicle protection while turning or stopping. The general pattern
for
minimum design can be used with larger dimensions.
A variety of median-opening arrangements may be considered that depend on the control
dimensions
(width of median and width of crossroad or street, or other), the size of the vehicle to
be used as a design control, and the need to provide pedestrian refuge within the median.
Median openings having above-minimum control radii and bullet nose median ends are
shown
in Figure 9-43. The radii of 90, 170, and 230 ft [30, 50, and 70 m] represent minimum radii
for
turning speeds of 20, 25, and 30 mph [30, 40 and 40 km/h], respectively. The design controls
are the three radii R, R1, and R2. Radius R is the control radius for the sharpest portion of the
turn, R1 defines the turnoff curve at the median edge, and R2 is the radius of the tip. When a
sufficiently large R1 is used, vehicles leaving the major road can turn at an acceptable speed
and a
sizable area inside the inner edge of through-traffic lane between points 1 and 2 may be
available
for speed change and protection from turning vehicles. Radius R1 may vary from 80 to 400 ft
[25 to 120 m] or more. Dimension B is the offset of the beginning of R1 for the passenger cars
to the target lane line of the cross street.
The radii shown in Figure 9-43 will vary depending on the maximum superelevation rate
selected.
In this case, the ease of turning probably is more significant than the turning speeds because
the vehicle will need to slow down to about 10 to 15 mph [15 to 25 km/h] at the sharp part of
the turn or may need to stop at the crossroad. Radius R2 can vary considerably, but is pleasing
in
proportion and appearance when it is about one-fifth of the median width. Radius R is tangent
to the crossroad centerline (or edge of crossroad median). Radii R and R1 comprise the two-
centered
curve between the terminals of the left turn. For simplicity, the PC is established at point
2. Radius R cannot be smaller than the minimum control radius for the design vehicle, or
these
vehicles will be unable to turn to or from the intended lane even at low speed. To avoid a
large
opening, R should be held to a reasonable minimum (e.g., 50 ft [15 m]), as used in Figure 9-
43.
The length of median opening is governed by the radii. For medians wider than 30 ft [9 m]
coupled with a crossroad of four or more lanes, the control radius R generally will need to be
greater than 50 ft [15 m] or the median opening will be too short. A rounded value can be
chosen for the length of opening (e.g., 50 or 60 ft [15 or 18 m]) and that dimension can be
used to locate the center for R. Then R becomes a check dimension to verify the workability
of the
layout. The tabulation of values in Figure 9-43 shows the resultant lengths of median
openings
over a range of median widths for three assumed values of R1 and for R assumed to be 50 ft
[15 m]. Dimension “B” is included as a general design control and for comparison with other
above-minimum designs.
The median end designs in Figure 9-43 do not positively provide protection areas within the
limits of the median width. A design using R1 = 100 ft [30 m] or more provides space for at
least a single passenger vehicle to pause in an area clear of both the through-traffic lanes and
the crossroad lanes; such radii may provide enough protection space for larger design
vehicles.
At skewed intersections, above-minimum designs with bullet nose median ends can be
applied
directly. Where the skew is 10 degrees or more, adjustments in R and R2 from the values
shown
are needed to provide the appropriate length of opening.
5 Local Roads and Streets
5.2 LOCAL ROADS IN RURAL AREAS

5.2.2.6 Driveways
A driveway is an access constructed within a public right-of-way, connecting a public
roadway
with adjacent property and intended to provide vehicular access.
Some of the principles of intersection design apply directly to driveways. In particular,
driveways
should have well-defined locations. Large graded or paved areas adjacent to the traveled
way that allow drivers to enter or leave the street randomly should be discouraged.
Sight distance is an important design control for driveways. Driveway locations where sight
distance is limited should be avoided. Vertical obstructions to essential sight distances should
be controlled by regulations. Driveway regulations should address width of entrance, spacing,
and placement with respect to property lines and intersecting streets, angle of entry, and
vertical
alignment and pedestrian accessibility where driveways cross sidewalks. Driveways should be
situated as far away from intersections as practical, particularly if the driveway is located near
an arterial street.
Flared driveways are preferred because they are distinct from intersection delineations and
can
properly handle turning movements. Design guidance related to driveway elements including
grade, width, channelization, cross slope, and other geometrics is presented in Section 4.15.2
and in the Guide for the Geometric Design of Driveways (14). Further guidance on the design
of
sidewalk-driveway interfaces can be found in AASHTO’s Guide for the Planning, Design,
and
Operation of Pedestrian Facilities (2) and the Proposed Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities
in the
Public Right-of-Way (18).
5.2.2.9 Intersection Design

Intersections should be carefully located to avoid steep profile grades and to provide adequate
approach sight distance. An intersection should not be situated just beyond a short-crest
vertical
curve or on a sharp horizontal curve. When there is no practical alternate to locating an
intersection on a curve, the approach sight distance on each leg should be checked, and where
practical, backslopes should be flattened and horizontal or vertical curves lengthened to
provide
additional sight distance. The driver of a vehicle approaching an intersection should have an
unobstructed
view of the entire intersection and sufficient lengths of the intersecting roadways to
permit the driver to anticipate and avoid potential collisions. Sight distances at intersections
with
six different types of traffic control are presented in Section 9.5, “Intersection Sight
Distance.”
Intersections should be designed with corner radii adequate for a selected design vehicle,
representing
a larger vehicle that is anticipated to use the intersection with some frequency. For
information
on minimum turning radius, see Section 9.6, “Turning Roadways and Channelization.”
Where turning volumes are significant, auxiliary lanes and channelization should be
considered.
Intersection legs that operate under stop control should intersect at right angles, wherever
practical,
and should not intersect at an angle less than 75 degrees. For more information on intersection
angle, see Section 9.4.2, “Alignment.”
5 Local Roads and Streets

5.3 LOCAL STREETS IN URBAN AREAS

5.3.2.12 Driveways

A driveway is an access constructed within a public right-of-way, connecting a public

roadway
with adjacent property and intended to provide vehicular access into that property in a manner
that will not cause the blocking of any sidewalk, border area, or street roadway.
Some of the principles of intersection design apply directly to driveways. In particular,
driveways
should have well-defined locations. Large graded or paved areas adjacent to the traveled
way that allow drivers to enter or leave the street randomly should be discouraged.
Sight distance is an important design control for driveways. Driveway locations where sight
distance
is not sufficient should be avoided. Vertical obstructions to essential sight distances should
be controlled by regulations. Driveway regulations should address width of entrance, spacing,
and placement with respect to property lines and intersecting streets, angle of entry, vertical
alignment, and number of entrances to a single property. This will reduce the likelihood of
crashes and provide maximum use of curb space for parking where permitted. Driveways
should
be situated as far away from intersections as practical, particularly if the driveway is located
near
an arterial street.
Driveway returns should not be less than 3 ft [1 m] in radius. Flared driveways are preferred
because
they are distinct from intersection delineations, can properly handle turning movements,
and can minimize problems for persons with disabilities. Design guidance related to driveway
elements including grade, width, channelization, cross slope, and other geometrics is
presented.

Alley Turnarounds
 5 Local Roads and Streets
5.3 LOCAL STREETS IN URBAN AREAS
5.3.5 Intersection Design

Intersections, including median openings, should be designed with adequate intersection sight
distance, as described in Section 9.5, and the intersection area should be kept free of
obstacles.
To maintain the minimum sight distance, restrictions on height of embankment, locations of
buildings, on-street parking, and screening fences may be appropriate. Any landscaping in the
clear-sight triangle should be low growing and should not be higher than 3 ft [1.0 m] above
the
level of the intersecting street pavements.
Intersecting streets should meet at approximately a 90-degree angle. The alignment design
should be adjusted to avoid an angle of intersection of less than 75 degrees. Closely spaced
offset
intersections should be avoided, whenever practical.
The intersection and approach areas where vehicles are stored while waiting to enter the
intersection
should be designed with a relatively flat grade; the maximum grade on the approach
leg should not exceed 5 percent where practical. Where ice and snow may create poor driving
conditions, the desirable grade on the approach leg should be 0.5 percent with no more than 2
percent wherever practical.
At street intersections, there are two distinct radii that need to be considered—the effective
turning radius of the turning vehicle and the radius of the curb return (see Figure 5-3). The
effective turning radius is the minimum radius appropriate for turning from the right-hand
travel lane on the approach street to the appropriate lane of the receiving street. This radius is
determined by the selection of a design vehicle appropriate for the streets being designed and
the lane on the receiving street into which that design vehicle will turn. Desirably this radius
should be at least 25 ft [8 m].

Actual Curb Radius and Effective

The radius of the curb return should be no greater than that needed to accommodate the
design
turning radius. However, the curb return radius should be at least 5 ft [1.5 m] to enable
effective
use of street-sweeping equipment.
In industrial areas with no on-street parking and few pedestrians, the radius of the curb return
should not be less than 30 ft [10 m]; the use of a three-centered curve with sufficiently large
radius to accommodate the largest vehicles expected with some frequency is desirable.
Further information pertaining to intersection design appears in Chapter 9.
 6 Collector Roads and Streets
6.2 COLLECTORS IN RURAL AREAS
6.2.5 Intersection Design (Collector Roads and Streets )

Intersections should be located to avoid steep profile grades and to provide adequate approach
sight distance. An intersection should not be situated near a sharp crest vertical curve or on a
sharp horizontal curve. Where there is no practical alternative to such a location, the approach
sight distance on each leg should be checked and, where practical, backslopes should be flat-
tened and horizontal and vertical curves lengthened, to provide additional sight distance.
The driver of a vehicle approaching an intersection should have an unobstructed view of the
entire intersection and sufficient lengths of the intersecting roadway to anticipate and avoid
potential collisions.
Sight distances at intersections with six different types of traffic control are presented
in Section 9.5, “Intersection Sight Distance.”
Intersections should be designed with corner radii adequate for a selected design vehicle,
representing a larger vehicle that is expected to use the intersection with some frequency.
For information on minimum turning radii, see Section 9.6, “Turning Roadways and
Channelization.”
Where turning volumes are substantial, speed-change lanes and channelization should be
considered.
Intersection legs that operate under stop control should intersect at right angles, wherever
practical, and should not intersect at an angle less than 75 degrees. For more information on
intersection angle, see Section 9.4.2, “Alignment.”
A stopping area that is as level as practical should be provided for approaches on which
vehicles may be required to stop.
Chapter 9 presents a discussion of the major aspects of intersection design.
 6.3 COLLECTORS IN URBAN AREAS
6.3.5 Intersection Design (Collector Roads and Streets )

The pattern of traffic movements at intersections and the volume of traffic on each approach,
including pedestrian and bicycle traffic, are indicative of the appropriate type of traffic
control
devices, the widths of lanes (including auxiliary lanes), and where applicable, the type and
extent
of channelization needed to accommodate all anticipated users. Designing for peak flows of
motorized
travel may compromise the usability of the intersection for other transportation modes
throughout the day. The arrangement of islands and the shape and length of auxiliary lanes
may
differ depending on whether or not signal control is used. The composition and character of
traffic
is a design control; movements involving large trucks need larger intersection areas and flatter
approach grades than those used at intersections where traffic consists predominantly of
passenger
cars. Bus stops located near an intersection may create a need for additional modification to
the intersection design. Traffic approach speed has an effect on the geometric design as well
as
on the appropriate traffic control devices and pavement markings. For further information, see
Section 3.6.5, “Traffic Control Devices.”
The number and location of approach roadways and their angles of intersection are major
controls
for intersection geometric design, the location of islands, and the types of control devices,
except where roundabouts are provided. Intersections at grade preferably should be limited to
no more than four approach legs. When two crossroads intersect the collector highway in
close
proximity, they should be combined into a single intersection.
Important design considerations for at-grade intersections fall into two major categories—the
geometric design of the intersection (including a capacity analysis) and, except where
roundabouts
are provided, the location and type of traffic control devices. Generally, these considerations
are applicable to both new and existing intersections, although for existing intersections
in built-up areas, heavy development may make extensive design changes impractical.
Chapter 9 presents a discussion of the major aspects of intersection design.
 7.2 ARTERIALS IN RURAL AREAS
7.2.12 Intersections

The liberal use of interchanges and robustly-designed intersections is highly desirable on

arterials in rural areas that do not have full control of access. Auxiliary turning lanes and
adequate turning widths should generally be provided where arterials intersect with other
public roads. Where practical, principal arterials in rural areas that intersect should ideally
be served by interchanges, possibly of the free-flow type.

A comprehensive study of each intersection is needed for new and reconstruction projects,
and a suitable design, consistent with the desired level of service, should be selected.

Rural intersection control by traffic signals is normally not desirable. Drivers generally do not
anticipate signals in rural areas or facilities with high operating speeds, especially when
traffic volumes are relatively low. Curbed islands present an obstacle to drivers and may
become snow traps in regions that receive frequent snowfalls. Therefore, curbs should be
used sparingly at intersections in high-speed areas.

If interchanges are intermixed with intersections, adequate merging distances should be

provided to allow ramp traffic to operate freely. The merging driver should not have to be
concerned with cross traffic at a downstream intersection while making a merging
maneuver. Design of intersections and interchanges should be in accordance with Chapters
9 and 10, respectively.

Page 605
 7.3 ARTERIALS IN URBAN AREAS
7.3.11 Intersection Design (Arterial Roads and Streets)
The design and operation of intersections have a significant effect on the operational quality
of an arterial. Intersection and stopping sight distance, pedestrian and bicycle movements,
capacity, transit operations, grades, and provision for turning movements all affect
intersection operation. Although encroachment of turning movements on adjacent lanes may
be necessary in urban areas to avoid excessive corner radii (see the Section 9.6 discussion
on effective turning radius design), the effects of such encroachments should be considered.

Roundabouts are also becoming an increasingly popular intersection design alternative for
many arterial intersections and should be considered in most design processes. It is
recommended that each individual intersection be carefully evaluated in the early design
phases. Chapter 9 discusses intersection development in detail.
 Freeways
8.2.11 Ramps and Terminals
The design of ramps and connections for all freeway types is covered in Section 10.9.6

Elevated Freeways 8.4.4

8.4.4.3 Ramps and Terminals

The design of ramps and connections for all types of freeways is covered in Chapter 10, but
details and controls pertaining specifically to elevated sections are discussed below.

Freeways on viaducts are generally located in densely developed areas where property values
are high and space is limited. However, the various forms of ramp connections, such as
loops, diagonal ramps, and semidirect connections, are as adaptable to elevated freeways as
to depressed or other freeway types.

Despite the high cost of elevated freeways, the lengths of speed-change lanes should not be
reduced, as they are beneficial to main line capacity and traffic operations. The length of
acceleration and deceleration lanes should conform to the guidelines presented in Section
10.9.6.

Long acceleration lanes are commonly needed because a ramp leading to an elevated
structure is often on a relatively steep upgrade.

Gore areas at exits from an elevated structure have a higher than normal crash potential. The
design should provide as much space in the gore area as practical, not only for recovery but
also, where appropriate, to install an impact-attenuating device.
 ‫المحتويات‬
2..................................................................................................... INTRODUCTION ●
4.................................GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND OBJECTIVES 9.2
4........................................................................... Characteristics of Intersections 9.2.1
5.................................................................................. Intersection Functional Area 9.2.2
6..................................................... TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF INTERSECTIONS 9.3
7........................................................................................ Three-Leg Intersections 9.3.1
7............................................................................ Basic Types of Intersections 9.3.1.1
7............................................................... Channelized Three-Leg Intersections 9.3.1.2
8...................................................................................... Four-Leg Intersections 9.3.2
9................................................................. Channelized Four-Leg Intersections 9.3.2.2
10......................................................................................... Multileg Intersections 9.3.3
11............................................................................................................... Roundabouts
11....................................................................................... Mini-Roundabouts 9.3.4.1
11............................................................................. Single-Lane Roundabouts 9.3.4.2
12......................................................................................................... Alignment 9.4.2
13................................................................................................... Sight Triangles 9.5.2
13............................................................................. Approach Sight Triangles 9.5.2.1
14............................................................................. Departure Sight Triangles 9.5.2.2
15................................................................................................... Effect of Skew 9.5.4