BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES ‘As you have read earlier, oxygen (0,) i ullised by the organisms to indirecly break down nulient molecules like glucose and to derive energy for performing various actives. Carbon dioxide (CO,) which is harmful is also released during the above catabolic reactions. Iti, therefore, evident that O, has to be continuously provided to the cells and CO, produced by the cells have to be released out. This process of exchange of O, from the atmosphere with CO: produced by the cells is called breathing, commonly known as respiration. RESPIRATORY ORGANS IN DIFFERENT ORGANISMS Anaerobic in ‘endoparastes Ropiatoary organs are absent but respiration trough general body Surface by simple fusion Mostly through skin (Cutaneous) ‘Some have gil (Brachial in insect, isin prawn, tach bok lungs in scarp Feather ke gis called cteisia Dermal branchiae: Lungs, ski, gl, < buceophanyngeal 615 Pairs of gil ets cavity 4 Pais of ils wih «—L_+ 5-7 Pairs of gis without operculum nosischthyes operculum in chondrichtnyes book gs n king crab HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Thoracic cavity (Anatomical an ai J€\ natoricaly an Ss, | . Dette pe | Preural nid = (Reduce friction Essential ‘on lung surface) for breathing Diaphragm 95RESPIRATORY TRACT Nasal chamber Nasopharynx Pharynx (Common passage) for food and air aa Glotts (during swallowing covered ° by Epigiotis 5 8 Thin elastic cartilaginous flap 5 + 3 Primary. . . 3 Be Prevent entry of food into larynx 5 8] Secondar E) Bronchus” Larynx (Cartlagenous box 3 helps in sound production 3 Tera = Bronchus ie. sound box) 3 - 8| Total Pulmonary. Trachea | Bronchioles: Terminal Bronchioles Respiratory Bronchiole 2 . ‘Alveolar duct 8 & Atria ° 3 Alveolar sac 5 2 $ | ‘Alveoll x 3 (Very thin, regular wale, a vascularised Bag lke structure) DIAPHRAGM—> Muscular Stucture which separate thorace cavity ‘fom abdominal cavity DIAPHRAGM IS THE MAIN MUSCLE OF BREATHING WHICH AIR IN VENTILATION MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION Respiration involves the following steps: (!) Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric iris drawn in and CO, rich alveolar airis released out. (i) Diffusion of gases (O, and CO,) across alveolar membrane. (i). Transport of gases by the blood. (v) Diffusion of O, and CO, between blood and tissues. (v)_Utlisation of O, by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultantrelease of CO, 96MECHANISM OF BREATHING (MECHANISM OF BREATHING ) Inspiration Expiration (atmospheric air is drawn in) (alveolar airs released out) Intra-pulmonary _ atmospheric Intra-pulmonary atmospheric pressure pressure pressure pressure Contraction Relaxation ! ! ¥ Air entering lungs v t ‘Air expelled from lungs + Diaphragm , EICM Diaphragm + EC Ribs and sternum Ribsand ~ raised Volume of sternum thorax rotumed \, Volume of increased to original thorax Rib positions, decreased cage Increase in Increase in Decrease in Decrease in Antero-posterior Dorso-ventral _Antero-posterior Dorso-ventral axis axis axis axis Pulmonary volume increases Pulmonary volume decreases Intrapulmonary pressure decreases Intrapulmonary pressure increases Forces air from outside to more Causing expulsion of air into the lungs (inspiration) from the lungs (expiration) Not fF additional muscles in abdomen. 976.04 5,06 Inspiratory 4.06 volume vat 1 capacity Inspiratory capacity Total ung 4 ‘capacity, 3.0 2.04 Functional ‘exprat 77 residual ~ w= Soh copay coe 3 1,0 EXCHANGE OF GASES Exchange of Gases —» Simple diffusion — based on Pressure/concentration gradient Partial pressure gradient Solubility CO, > O, (20-25 times) Pressure contributed by an individual gas in Thickness of diffusion membrane ‘a mixture of gases; represented by Po,/Pco, Inspired air ‘ae air “Amospharic air 59 mm Hg ‘Alveolar air | 3mm Hi pO,=104 mmHg < CO,=40 mmHg; —Alveolus 0,= 40 mm Hg «= Pulmonary Pulmonary ~ p0,=95 mmHg pCO, = 45 mm Hg artery vein pCO,=40 mmHg (Hb saturates only 97%) | pO, = 40 mm Hg < Systemic veins. pCO,=45mmHg — (deoxygenated blood) ‘Systemic arteries —> pO.=95 mmHg oxygenated pCO.=40 mmHg Site-2 (Between blood and tissue) pO, = 40 mm Hg PCO, = 45 mm Hg < Body tissues 98GASEOUS EXCHANGE AT ALVEOLI Diffusion Membrane (Thickness < 1mm) :-3 layers (1) Thin squamous epithelium of Alveoti Alveolar wall (2) Endothelium of (one-celieg thick) alveoiar capilaras —~ (3) Basement substance (in between them) Diffusion capacity = Volume of gas diffuse through the diffusion membrane per unit difference in partial pressure in 1 min TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN at DN f (104 mmHg! Alveolus oe — Plasma —s Dissolved state aoe! '97% —» RBC —> Hb —> Fe” Pulmonary artery - 2.9, 0, 0, pode ante) Pulmonary vein (0,95 mmHg) Haem Each Hb molecule i Globulin carry maximum } molecules of O, systemic—|| Systemic veins | arteries Hb + 0, = HbO, | (Oxygenation not oxidation) Fe* Fo* Body tissues * TPo,, LPco,, L{H'], LT, 12-3 DPG = Association, curve shift towards left, LP,, value. # Po, 1Pco,, TH], 1, 12-3 DPG = Dissociation, curve shift towards righ, TP. value Note =~ 100 mi Blood carry = 19.4 ml of O, (Calculation = 100 mi blood > 15 gm Hb —> 15 x 1.34 ml -> 20.1 mi O,; 20.1 « 97/100 = 19.4 ml) 99At Tissue Level OXYHAEMOGLOBIN DISSOCIATION CURVE {Temperature = Pulmonary S 100 artery Pulmonary 5 vein 3 0 = ‘Sigmoid KHbO, 5 Curve { (19.4 mir100 mi 3B 60 é agit | Temperature systemic veins Systemic £4 fan TPCO.TH (63,40 mm¥g) | arteries 3 12,3-DPG (pO, 95 mmHg) 20; g 2 0 2 4 6 80 100 Oxygen partial pressure (mm Hg) mare) Note :- Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can % dissociation | 25% | 50% | 75% | 100% deliver around 5 ml of ©, to the tissue ‘of HbO, under normal physiological condition. % saturation | 75% | 50% | 25% | 0% tb with 0, Haemoglobin isa red coloured iron containing pigment present in the RBCs. O, can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin. Each haemoglobin molecule can carry @ maximum of four molecules of O,. Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to partial pressure of O,, Partial pressure of CO,, hydrogen ion concentration and temperature are the other factors which can interfere with this binding. Every 100 m of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 miofO, tothe tissues. Under normal physiological conditions, TRANSPORT OF CARBONDIOXIDE C0, is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin (about 20-25 per cent). This binding is related tothe partial pressure of CO,, pO, is amajor factor which could affect this binding, When pCO, ishigh and pO, slow asin the tissues, more binding of carbon dioxide occurs whereas, when the pCO, is low and p02 is high asin the alveoli, dissociation of CO, from carbamino haemoglobin takes place, Le., CO, which is bound to haemoglobin from the tissues is delivered at the alveoli. RBCs contain a very high concentration of the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase and minute quantities of the same is present in the plasma too. This enzyme facilitates the following reaction in bath directions. 60, + 1.0 === ,c0, EE Hoo, +H tthe tissue site where partial pressure of CO, is high due to catabolism, CO, diffuses into blood (RBCs and plasma) and forms: HCO, and H,.Atthe alveolar site where pCO, is low, the reaction proceeds in the opposite direction leading tothe formation of CO, ‘and H,0. Thus, CO, trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level and transported tothe alveoliis released out as CO, (Figure). Every +100 ml of deoxygenated biood delivers approximately 4 ml of CO, tothe alveoll 1007% — Plasma — Dissolved state co, [0% ana» anor 20-25% —+ Hb — Carbaminohaemoglobin 7% CO, (Piasmaldissolved) NaCl = Na’ + cl Plasma Aiveoli 7% CO, (Plasma/dissolved) NaHCO, = Na’ + HCO, la’ + Cr = NaCl Chloride shitt CSGRAGCaAG Plasma Note :- Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood can deliver approximately 4 ml of CO, to the alveoli. 101REGULATION OF RESPIRATION (Human have significant ability to maintain and moderate the respiratory rhythm with the help of neural system) Cerebellum Pneumotaxie Centre Chemosensitive Area (central chemoreceptor) DRG (Dorsal Respiratory Group Medulla of Neurouns) Respiratory thythm centre (RRC) VRG (Ventral Respiratory Group sf Neurouns) (1) DRG —+ Normal inspiration VRG —-+ Forceful Inspiration Forceful Expiration 1, Central Peripheral (2) 4 cases :- + (i) Normal inspiration = DRG Central (i) Normal Expiration chemoreceptors Aortic Carotid (i) Forceful inspiration = VRG (Medulla) body labyrinth (iv) Forceful Expiration = VRG (3) Pneumotaxic centre —» RRC Highly sensitive to CO, and [H’] (Switch off point) 4 Lauration Increase in these substance of insplaton can activate this centre ‘Rate of respiration M Make necessary adjustments in respiratory centre by which these substances can be eliminates Note respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant Role of oxygen in the regulation of 102Allergen Inflammation of Bronchi and Bronchiole t Bronchoconstriction — Wheezing _Dificulty in Breathing Long exposure to certrain factors (Cigarette smoking) Inflammation of Alveolar walls, 4 Damage to alveolar walls + Respiratory surface is decreased Normal branehiale ‘and alvest Alveolafoctod by emphysema (@ Occupational respiratory disorders ) Long exposure to certain factors (Dust ete.) at working place (grinding/stone breaking industry) t When defense mechanism of body cannot cope fully with the situation 4 Inflammations of lungs 4 Fibrosis of lung tissue ety 103