The Gifts Of The Divine Warrior in Ephesians 4:7-11

DANIEL C. CLAIRE
The Catholic University of America
Washington, DC 20064

The quotation in Eph 4:8 is regarded as one of the most perplexing exegetical challenges

in the entire epistle.1 It occurs with significant changes such that its meaning is in effect

opposite that of the source text in Ps 68:18. In addition, the author’s elaboration on the

text in 4:9-10 appears tangential to the broader subject matter of unity and diversity in the

body.2 Many solutions have been proposed, yet commentators often end their treatments

of this passage unsatisfied with the various interpretive options.3 Inasmuch as this

passage figures prominently in the structure and message of the epistle,4 the lack of

clarity regarding this passage is most unfortunate.

1
Harold W. Hoehner (Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary [Grand Rapids:

Baker, 2002] 525 n.1) surveys the various interpretive solutions through 1996.
2
Scholarly opinion regarding Pauline authorship of Ephesians is divided.

Hoehner (Ephesians, 2-61) makes a compelling case for Pauline authorship, and this

position has been adopted for the present study.

3
Ernest Best, Ephesians (ICC; London: Clark, 1998) 386; Peter T. O’Brien, The

Epistle to the Ephesians (Pillar New Testament Commentary; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,

1999) 293.
4
John Paul Heil (Ephesians: Empowerment to Walk in Love for the Unity of All

in Christ [forthcoming]) identifies Eph 4:8-10 as the center of a chiasm extending from

1
 2

Correlations between Ephesians and ancient Near Eastern divine warrior texts

have been noted in recent scholarship.5 These observations are particularly noteworthy in

view of the longstanding recognition of Ps 68 as a divine warrior victory hymn.6 The

divine warrior motif presents a new interpretive lens through which to view the crux of

Eph 4:8 and understand the role of this modified OT quotation within the epistle.

STRUCTURE AND CONTEXT

The body of Ephesians may be subdivided into two major components: 1:3-3:21, in

which the author proclaims and celebrates his theology, and 4:1-6:20, in which he exhorts

his audience to live according to this theology. This second half is comprised of three

major parenetic sections, all offered as appropriate responses to chs. 1-3. The first (4:1-

4:1-16, and this larger block of text “as the unparalleled and pivotal unit at the center of

[a] macro-chiastic structure” encompassing the entire epistle.

5
Timothy G. Gombis, “Cosmic Lordship and Divine Gift-Giving: Ps 68 in Eph

4:8,” NovT 47 (2005) 367-80; idem, “Eph 2 as a Narrative of Divine Warfare,” JSNT 26

(2004) 403-18; idem, “Eph 3:2-13: Pointless Digression, or Epitome of the Triumph of

God in Christ?” WTJ 66 (2004) 313-23; Thomas R. Yoder Neufeld, Put on the Armour of

God: The Divine Warrior from Isaiah to Ephesians. JSNTSup 140 (Sheffield: Sheffield

Academic Press, 1997); idem, Ephesians (Believers Church Bible Commentary;

Waterloo, Ont.: Herald, 2002).

6
James Luther Mays, Psalms (IBC; Louisville: John Knox, 1994) 227; Tremper

Longman, III, “Psalm 98: A Divine Warrior Victory Song.” JETS 27 (1984) 274.
 3

5:21) is an exhortation to godly living in the church, and is constructed around 5 uses of

the verb peripate,w.7 The second section contains instructions for managing a godly

household (5:21-6:9), and the third is a call to perseverance in spiritual warfare (6:10-20).

The exhortation to godly living in the church (4:1-5:21) begins with a discussion

of unity, diversity, and vocation in the body (4:1-16, corresponding to the first peripate,w,

found in 4:1). Throughout this segment there is an oscillating focus on (A) diversity of

calling (4:1-2, 7-11, 16) and (B) unity in the body (4:3-6, 12-15), thus corresponding to

an A-B-A-B-A pattern, with vv. 7-11 at the center. Verse 7 focuses on diversity in

contrast to the preceding section on body unity, and prepares the audience for a quotation

of and subsequent elaboration of Ps 68:18 in vv. 8-10. Verse 11 introduces a climactic

paragraph in which the author elucidates the rationale for body diversity. At the same

time, by anaphoric repetition of “he gave,” it also forms an inclusio with v. 7.8 Verse 11

therefore functions as a hinge between the preceding exegesis and ensuing explanation

(12-16). Thus the overall exhortation to unity depends upon the central subunit of 4:7-11,

in which each individual is described as a specific gift from Christ himself.

7
4:1, 17; 5:2, 8, 15. Peripate,w also occurs in the preceding chapters in 2:2, 10.
8
Gombis, “Cosmic Lordship,” 373.
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THE DIVINE WARRIOR MOTIF IN EPHESIANS

Comparative studies of ANE and OT warfare texts have revealed common patterns in the

portrayal of a divine warrior.9 At a minimum, there is a consistent two-stage framework

describing battle and subsequent victory.10 During battle, nature hangs in the balance,

particularly those aspects of the natural world most intimately connected with the people

group of the divine warrior. In subsequent victory, life and land are revived, fertility is

restored, and every aspect of the created order responds in animated glee. The ebb and

flow of life in this framework correspond to the divine warrior’s battle with and victory

over chaos, i.e. that which is inherently opposed to life. More recent scholarship has

subdivided the victory stage of this framework into several components common to

divine warrior texts. Generally speaking, the victory of the divine warrior consistently

involves 1) military triumph, 2) coronation as king, 3) mountaintop temple/house

establishment, and 4) worship/celebration.11

9
Frank Moore Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of

the Religion of Israel (Cambridge: Harvard, 1973) 91-111; Patrick D. Miller, Jr., The

Divine Warrior in Early Israel (HSM 5; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973);

Tremper Longman, III, and Daniel G. Reid, God is a Warrior (Grand Rapids: Zondervan,

1995) 83-88; Leonard Greenspoon, “The Origin of the Idea of Resurrection,” in

Traditions in Transformation: Turning Points in Biblical Faith (ed. Baruch Halpern and

Jon D. Levenson; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1981) 272.

10
Greenspoon, “Resurrection,” 272.
11
Longman & Reid, Warrior, 83-85.
 5

All of these components are found in the presentation of Christ in Ephesians.

Chaos once reigned over the audience (2:2-3), such that they were “dead in trespasses

and sins” (2:1, 5) and divided by ethnic hatred (2:11-12, 14). For this reason, they were

“children of wrath” (2:3), i.e. enemies of God by virtue of their allegiance to the ruler of

the authority of the air (2:2). But through the cross (2:16), Christ became their blood

ransom (1:7), life-giving salvation (2:5, 8) and peacemaker (2:13-17).12 He is thoroughly

victorious over every authority (1:21; 2:2). For this reason he ascended to heaven to be

enthroned as divine king (1:20-22; 2:6; 4:8, 10).13 His temple/house was established

(2:18-22; 3:17-19).14 The appropriate response, therefore, is worship/celebration (1:3-14;

3:14-21; 5:19-20) and fidelity to the divine king (4:1-6:20).

It is no surprise that few have recognized the prominence of the divine warrior

motif in Ephesians. While a significant presupposition underlying the text, it is neither

the purpose of the letter nor is it communicated in typical fashion. Unlike the divine

12
Gombis (“Ephesians 2,” 414-17) sees a typical ANE pattern in the presentation

of the divine warrior in Ephesians. In his view, Eph 1:20-23 asserts the supremacy of the

divine warrior over all competitors, 2:1-16 lists his explicit triumphs, 2:17 is a victory

shout, 2:18 is celebration, and 2:20-22 is the victor’s housebuilding.

13
It is especially noteworthy that the ascension in 1:20 contains an allusion to Ps

110, another well-known divine warrior victory hymn.

14
The breadth/length/height/depth in 3:18 are not to be understood as abstract

superlatives, but as a measurement of the oi;koj (3:17; c.f. 2:19, 20, 21, 22) of Christ,

described using the same four dimensions as the cosmic temple in Ezek 40.
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warrior hymns of the ANE, Ephesians does not present Christ the divine warrior in terms

of epic history.15 Rather, the genre of Ephesians is epistolary, and the author’s

perspective is one of encouragement for his audience in light of the victories of Christ as

the divine warrior. Even though all the elements of the divine warrior motif are evident in

Ephesians, there is no extensive retelling of his saga. Nevertheless, this motif is basic to

the epistle, especially to the exegesis of 4:7-11. It is this task to which we now turn.

EXEGESIS

Unity has been a dominant theme from the very beginning of Ephesians with the author’s

explanation of God’s plan to unite the cosmos in Christ (1:10). In particular, God’s

salvific work in Christ has brought peace where there once was division between Jews

and Gentiles (2:11-22). As a Jew, Paul’s ministry to the Gentiles (3:7ff) exemplifies this

peace by bearing witness that the “Gentiles are fellow heirs, members of the same body,

and partakers of the promise in Christ Jesus through the gospel” (3:6). Together they

have been “made one” (2:14), becoming “one new person” (2:15) and “one body” (2:16).

But Christian unity is not uniformity. Even within a singular ethnicity, there is

nevertheless diversity among individuals. Consequently, the author begins his parenesis

(4:1-6:20) with a special focus on unity in the midst of diversity (4:1-16), echoing a

similar theme found in the body metaphors of Rom 12 and 1 Cor 12. In spite of varied

callings (4:1), the author urges his hearers to live virtuous, peaceable lives (4:2) in order

to maintain the unity that Christ has brought them (4:3). After all, their unity is rooted in

15
Mays, Psalms, 227.
 7

the many theological essentials they hold in common (4:4-6). The unity emerging from

these common essentials is the very basis for their identity as Christians.

Christ Sovereignly Distributes Gifts (4:7)

The diversity of individuals within the larger unity finds its basis in Christ, for he is the

one who has given diversity to them (4:7). Three words are used here to place the

emphasis on Christ’s giving. First, di,dwmi occurs in the divine passive, thus pointing to

God’s agency in the giving. Paul has already prayed that God might give (dw,h|) his

audience a spirit of wisdom and of revelation in the knowledge of him (1:17). He also has

spoken extensively of God’s agency in giving him his special vocation to the Gentiles (3:

2, 7, 8). Second, ca,rij is used here to denote what is given, signifying divine favor.16 In

addition to its usage in the epistolary greeting (1:2) and closing (6:24), this term has been

used already eight times to describe the overflowing riches of God, another dominant

theme in this epistle. In Eph 1-2, ca,rij has expressed the grace of God given to him and

his audience alike (1:6, 7; 2:5, 7, 8). But in Eph 3, it is used three times together with

di,dwmi (3: 2, 7, 8) to describe a special and particular grace given to Paul for the sake of

his ministry to the Gentiles. Now in 4:7 it is used this way to depict that which is

16
Hoehner (Ephesians, 522) argues that the use of the article here signifies “a

particular enablement given to each believer to empower them for ministry.” Whether or

not this explanation is true to Koine usage, it is the sense derived from the context. If

Hoehner is correct, then the authenticity of the article, which is omitted in some of the

earliest witnesses (B D* F G L P* Y et al), is much more certain.

 8

uniquely given to “each one of us.”17 The third giving-word the author employs here is

dwrea,. It has been used only once previously together with ca,rij to indicate a special gift

of God’s grace (3:7).18 Thus, in 4:7 he is teaching his audience that each of them has a

special gift of God’s grace akin to what he was given for their sake, described in 3:1-13.

Although recipients of grace together with Paul, they are nevertheless distinct as

individual recipients “according to the measure of Christ’s gift.” To, me,tron occurs in

Ephesians only in this section on unity and diversity, first here in 4:7 and then in 4:13, 16.

These latter two uses reveal the purpose behind Christ’s varied distribution of gifts in 4:7.

The goal is the maturity of the body (4:13), according to to, me,tron of the stature of

Christ’s fulness (plh,rwma). When this goal is achieved, the unity and diversity of the

audience will be perfected such that they function as one body with each part working

appropriately according to its individual me,tron (4:16). The overall thrust of this passage

indicates that Christ sovereignly distributes his gifts with diversity not to create discord,

but for the very purpose of unity within the body. Without his sovereign care, it would be

impossible to accomplish the good works God has prepared for them to do (2:10).

17
Heil, Ephesians.
18
The closely related term, dw/ron, occurs in Eph 2:8 where it is used to

characterize the grace of salvation as a gift of God.

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The Giver is the Divine Warrior (4:8)

Having argued so extensively for unity, the author now turns to an external authority to

substantiate his explanation for Christ’s sovereignty over diversity within the church.19

He introduces the quotation simply with dio. le,gei, an expression that is unique to

Ephesians within the traditional Pauline canon.20 It is also used in 5:14 to introduce a

quotation that has no obvious OT source. The quotation here in 4:8 is derived from Ps

68:18, and differs from the LXX in four respects.21 First, whereas avnabai,nw occurs as a

participle in Ephesians, it is 2nd person singular in the LXX.22 Second, aivcmalwteu,w is 3rd

person singular in Ephesians but occurs as a participle in the LXX. Third, in place of the

3rd person singular aorist of di,dwmi in Ephesians, the LXX has a 2nd person singular aorist

19
Thorsten Moritz (A Profound Mystery: The Use of the Old Testament in

Ephesians [NovTSup 85; Leiden: Brill, 1996] 70) notes the connection between vv. 7 &

8: “the quoted text of v8 probably serves to sum up the christological and ecclesiological

message of v7.”
20
In addition to here and 5:14, this expression also occurs in Heb 3:7 and Jas 4:6.
21
Hoehner, Ephesians, 524: “[T]he LXX translates the MT verbatim.” Moritz

(Mystery, 213) concludes from his comprehensive study of OT usage in Ephesians that

the LXX was its primary source. “There is little evidence to suggest any significant

recourse to Hebrew texts.”

22
The original hand of LXX Vaticanus is identical to Ephesians here. W. Hall

Harris, III (The Descent of Christ: Ephesians 4:7-11 and Traditional Hebrew Imagery

[AGJU 32; Leiden: Brill, 1996] 97) argues that it was conformed to Eph 4:8.
 10

of lamba,nw. Finally, the articular plural of a;nqrwpoj in Ephesians is an anarthrous

collective singular occurring with evn in the LXX. The sum of these variations is a

significant difference in meaning between Ps 68:18 and the text in Ephesians. Whereas Ps

68:18 declares that God received gifts from among mankind, the text in Ephesians asserts

that God gave gifts to people. Exegetes have proposed numerous solutions, out of which

three major interpretive schools have emerged.

One approach begins by noting the correspondence in meaning between Eph 4:8

and Tg. Ps (“he gave”) over and against that of the LXX and MT (“you received”).23

Based on this correspondence, some have posited a Jewish exegetical tradition on Ps 68

that was known to the author of Ephesians, and was faithfully passed down through the

centuries to be recorded ultimately in Tg. Ps.24 In this case, the author’s unusual use of

dio. le,gei both here and in 5:14 signals that he is not quoting from the OT per se, but

other traditions. Despite the immense popularity of this hypothesis, the only evidence for

it is so anachronistic as to be unconvincing. At the end of his careful survey of OT usage

in Ephesians, Thorsten Moritz concludes that “the author does not appear to have had

23
Eph 4:8 (e;dwken); Tg. Ps ( atbhy); LXX (e;labej); MT (txql). N.B. Ps 68:18 in

the English Bible is Ps 67:19 in the LXX.

24
George B. Caird, “The Descent of Christ in Ephesians 4, 7-11,” in Studia

Evangelica II (ed. Frank L. Cross; Berlin: Akademie, 1964) 535-45; Andrew T. Lincoln,

“The Use of the OT in Ephesians,” JSNT 14 (1982) 18-24; Harris, Descent; Rudolf

Schnackenburg, Ephesians: A Commentary (trans. Helen Heron; Edinburgh: Clark, 1991)

177.
 11

knowledge of Targumic traditions.”25 Furthermore, the thrust of Tg. Ps 68 is the equation

of Pentecost with Moses’ descent from Mt. Sinai with the Torah. Those who connect Eph

4:8-10 and Tg. Ps posit that a descent follows (rather than precedes) Christ’s ascension,

and that this descent is in the form of the Spirit at Pentecost. Yet there is no allusion to Ps

68 in Acts 2, and nowhere in the Pauline canon are Christ and the Spirit equated in this

fashion. “What ultimately undermines this reading is that many of the pillars upon which

it is constructed are faulty to the point of extreme improbability.”26

An alternative approach has been to suggest that Eph 4:8 reflects a distinctively

Christian rewording of Ps 68:18. Some who hold this view directly attribute the changes

to the author of Ephesians, either by intent or through a lapse of memory.27 Others

believe that the author recorded this text as he received it, and that it was part of a

Testimonia of texts used for Christian catechesis, worship and apologetics, perhaps

together with the unrecognized quotation in Eph 5:14.28 In particular, Moritz argues that

this text was intended as a polemic against 1st cent. C.E. Jewish interpretative tradition

25
Moritz, Mystery, 214.
26
Gombis, “Cosmic Lordship,” 372. In pp. 368-72, he demonstrates conclusively

the impossibility of Harris’ proposal. See also Moritz, Mystery, 58-63.

27
Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “The Use of Explicit Old Testament Quotations in Qumran

Literature and in the New Testament,” NTS 7 (1960-61) 325; Hoehner, Ephesians, 528.
28
For an excellent treatment of the Testimonia hypothesis, see Martin C. Albl,

And Scripture Cannot Be Broken: The Form and Function of the Early Christian

Testimonia Collections (NovTSup 96; Leiden: Brill, 1999).

 12

regarding Ps 68.29 In some traditions it is thought that by the 1st cent. Ps 68 had become

associated with Pentecost and the gift of Torah to Moses at Mt. Sinai, in spite of an

original divine warrior focus on the victory and song of Deborah in Judg 4-5. Moritz

proposes that the text in Eph 4:8 is deliberately used in place of Ps 68:18 in order to drive

home the argument of Eph 2:15 in proclaiming that “Christ is superior to the Torah.”30

But if this were indeed the author’s aim, surely he would have been more explicit.31

There is very little in Ephesians to suggest antagonism toward Moses, Jewish exegetical

traditions, or even Torah. The thrust of this particular section is far from polemical; it is

rather pastoral and hortatory, based on a strong theological rationale. If the author is

quoting from a Testimonia collection, he is doing so because it is regarded by the

community as bearing some authority, and is therefore helpful in bolstering his argument

about Christ’s sovereignty over diversity in the church body.

A third approach has been to regard the quotation in Eph 4:8 as a summary

statement of the overall meaning and content of Ps 68, perhaps configured in such a way

as to be reminiscent of the language of a particular verse in the original Psalm.32 In this

29
Moritz, Mystery, 75.
30
ibid.
31
Gombis, “Cosmic Lordship,” 370.
32
Hoehner, Ephesians, 528; Gombis, “Cosmic Lordship,” 372ff; Heinrich A. W.

Meyer, Critical and Exegetical Handbook to the Epistles to the Galatians and the

Ephesians (ed. Henry E. Jacobs; trans. Maurice J. Evans; New York: Funk & Wagnalls,
 13

regard, Erwin Penner proposed a chiastic structure for Ps 68 that, if correct, would

explain the basis for the use of v. 18—the chiastic center—in Eph 4:8.33 Moritz later

acknowledged a chiastic structure in Ps 68, but identified v. 19 as the focal point and

subsequently dismissed Penner’s overall proposal, thus missing the forest for the trees.34

While the gist of Ps 68:19—praise to the Lord for salvation—is the thrust of the entire

Psalm, this could also describe the majority of the Psalms. But as noted earlier, Ps 68 is

distinctive as a divine warrior victory hymn. What is particularly unique about Ps 68 is its

presentation of the Lord as divine warrior and king. This is perhaps most vividly

portrayed in his triumphal procession up to the throne and reception of tribute in v. 18.35

Furthermore, the language of captives in this verse highlights the divine warrior’s

military victory. If the author intended to direct his audience back to the full text of Ps 68

with one verse, then v. 18 would have been a much better choice than v. 19.

1884) 444: The author must “have in reality understood the passage of the psalm, as to its

main substance, just as he gives it.”

33
Erwin Penner, “The Enthronement of Christ in Ephesians” Direction 12 (1983)

12-19.
34
Moritz, Mystery, 66. He also dismissed all efforts to reconcile Eph 4:8 with the

overall thrust of Ps 68 as motivated by “an unwillingness to concede that the author of

Ephesians may simply have misquoted,” 57.

35
The enthronement of the Lord as both divine warrior and king is found in the

Psalms only here and in Pss 2, 29, and 110.

 14

The alteration of the text remains a difficulty, since the divine warrior receives

gifts in v. 18. There is, however, a corresponding distribution of gifts at the conclusion

(68:35) of this Psalm, as the enthroned warrior king dw,sei du,namin kai. kratai,wsin tw/|

law/| auvtou/. This makes sense in the context of Eph 4, in which the sovereign distributes

gifts to his people so that they may be adequately equipped for his service.36 And so the

three elements of the quotation (ascending on high, leading captives and giving gifts)

serve as an adequate and memorable summary of the full victory hymn recorded in Ps 68.

It is likely that the quotation in Eph 4:8 is a synthesis of LXX Ps 67:19 and 67:36.

Through this synthesis, the author connects Christ’s distribution of gifts with the

victorious and generous reign of Yahweh as the divine warrior king.37

The Divine Warrior’s Descent for Battle (4:9)

Having established a plausible rationale for the text of the quotation in Eph 4:8, it is now

possible to explore further what the author intended by it. The best way to do so is by

examining his elaboration of the quotation in the following two verses.

36
Gombis, “Cosmic Lordship,” 373.
37
While this explanation does exclude a polemical modification of Ps 68:18 to

assert Christ’s supremacy over Moses and the Torah, it does not necessarily rule out a

Testimonia source. The use of such a source would explain the mysterious quotation in

5:14, as well as Paul’s unusual employment of dio. le,gei to introduce both references.

Whether or not such a source existed, the alteration of the text was the author’s work, as

it is difficult to imagine how the altered form could have occurred otherwise.
 15

In 1964 G. B. Caird put forward two questions that have subsequently guided

efforts to understand 4:9-10.38 First, why (in 4:9) must the reader infer a descent into ta.

katw,tera th/j gh/j on the basis of the ascent in Ps 68:18? Second, why (in 4:10) must the

reader equate the ‘descender’ with the ‘ascender’? Caird’s own solution involves the

rabbinic traditions regarding Moses, Sinai and Pentecost, which were already mentioned

briefly (above). This proposal has been developed by many others since Caird, including

Andrew Lincoln and now W. Hall Harris, III, in a recent comprehensive monograph. 39

We will interact with the general hypothesis rather than one proponent in particular.

According to this school of thought, Ps 68:18 is quoted in order to connect the

audience with a hypothetical rabbinic tradition—later recorded in Tg. Ps—that the Torah

was given to Moses on Pentecost. In Tg. Ps 68:19, Moses ascended to the pinnacle of Mt.

Sinai and then descended to give gifts. It is argued that the author in quoting a precursor

of Tg. Ps 68:19, is making a connection between the distribution of gifts in Eph 4 and the

Pentecost event described in Acts 2. In short, the descent (4:9) follows the ascent (4:8) so

that gifts may be distributed to the church, and the equation of descender and ascender

38
Caird, “Descent,” 535-45.
39
Andrew T. Lincoln, Paradise Now and Not Yet: Studies in the Role of the

Heavenly Dimension in Paul’s Thought with Special Reference to his Eschatology,

(SNTSMS 43; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981) 155-63; Harris, Descent,

64ff; Tom Wright, Paul for Everyone: The Prison Letters (Louisville, KY: Westminster

John Knox, 2004) 45.

 16

(4:10) is intended to connect Christ and the Holy Spirit. Harris adds to this line of

thinking an anti-Moses polemic on the basis of Eph 2:15. 40

The weaknesses of this approach may be summarized in terms of how it fails to

answer Caird’s two original questions. First, in terms of the descent in 4:9, this view

requires a strained and unnatural reading of the text. In order to connect the text to the

gift of the Spirit on Pentecost, the genitive th/j gh/j must be understood in the appositive

sense, rather than the more standard and natural partitive, such that it is translated, “he

descended into the lower parts of the universe, that is, the earth.”41 Yet this is neither the

most straightforward reading of the text, nor is it how the early church understood it.42 As

to the former, if th/j gh/j is taken as a partitive genitive, then we would understand the text

to say, “he descended into the lower parts of the earth,” and there would be no need to

supply “of the universe.” It is worth noting that elsewhere Paul describes a similar

cosmology, when he writes in Rom 10:7 of descending to the abyss to bring Christ up

from the dead. As to the latter, that the early church understood this text in the partitive

sense is seen not only in the traditional Descensus ad Inferos line of interpretation, but

also in the transmission history of this particular verse. In Ì46 D* F G and some of the

versions, the text simply reads kate,bh eivj ta. katw,tera th/j gh/j. But in the case of Í2 B

C3 Y and others, the text has been amended to read kate,bh prw/ton eivj ta. katw,tera me,rh

40
Harris, Descent, 64ff.
41
Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 1996) 99-100.

42
Harris (Descent, 1-32) reviews the history of interpretation of this text.
 17

th/j gh/j. These additions are explicit cues provided by early scribes as to how they read

the text: “first he descended into the lower parts of the earth.” In other words, early

readers of this text ruled out the appositive option and understood the text in terms of

Christ’s death preceding his ascension. Thus, in terms of Caird’s first question regarding

the descent in 4:9, the rabbinic traditions model answers the question in terms of the

descent of the Spirit after Christ’s ascension, but it does so on the basis of an awkward

and unlikely reading of the text.

Caird’s second question asks why the reader is to equate the ‘ascender’ with the

‘descender.’ According to the rabbinic traditions model, this equation is necessary in

order to show the reader that the Christ who ascended is in fact the Spirit who

descended. 43 Yet such an equation would be unprecedented in the NT. “The primary role

of the Spirit in Ephesians is to mediate the work and presence of Christ, along with the

power of God, to the church.”44 The ministries of the Spirit and Christ are cooperative in

Ephesians—but not identical. The equation of the Spirit and Christ would only confuse

the audience, rather than explain their diversity. Such an equation is an unacceptable

solution to the meaning of 4:10. For these reasons, the descent of the Spirit approach

must be ruled out.45

43
Harris (Descent, 172) admits that this equation is “truly unique to the author of

Ephesians,” and appears at first both “unnecessary” and “superfluous.”

44
Gombis, “Cosmic Lordship,” 370.
45
Hoehner, Ephesians, 532-33.
 18

The other major contemporary school of interpretation understands the descent in

terms of the incarnation.46 This approach also requires that th/j gh/j be taken as an

appositive genitive. O’Brien commends the incarnation solution because of its

correspondence with other biblical texts, of which he mentions three. 47 First, he points

back to its correlation with Ps 68, in which “Yahweh first descended to deliver his people

and triumph over his enemies before ascending to his dwelling place.” Yet a careful

reading of Ps 68 shows that there is no descent, only the ascension of 68:18. Second, he

notes the connection between descent and incarnation in John (6:62; cf. 6:33, 38, 50-51).

However, the language in John 6 is explicit and consistent regarding a descent from

heaven, in contrast to an unspecified starting point in Ephesians. Third, he mentions Phil

2:6-11, in which Christ is humbled and then exalted. For this reason, he understands the

descent to include both the incarnation and the crucifixion.48 Yet descent and ascent are

not explicit in Phil 2 as they are in Eph 4. O’Brien’s biblical parallels do not make a

compelling argument for incarnation in Eph 4.

46
O’Brien, Ephesians, 295; Pheme Perkins, Ephesians (ANTC; Nashville,

Abingdon, 1997), 98; C. Leslie Mitton, Ephesians (NCBS; London: Oliphants, 1976)

147-48; Best, Ephesians, 386.

47
O’Brien, Ephesians, 295.
48
ibid. Identifying the crucifixion as part of the descent rules out a theological

correspondence with the Gospel of John, since the latter identifies the cross with

exaltation rather than humiliation.

 19

While a reference to the incarnation is neither foreign to Pauline theology nor

impossible in Eph 4:9, this proposal nevertheless is unlikely. It fails to account

adequately for why the incarnation would be mentioned at this particular point in the

epistle. O’Brien has suggested that it is necessary here in order to equate the “ascender”

of Ps 68 with Christ.49 Yet Christ is already in view in Eph 4; the quotation in 4:8 clearly

refers to Christ “the giver” in 4:7. Furthermore, most of the references to Christ thus far

in the epistle have been to an exalted (i.e. timeless) Christ. The few historical references

have pointed to his crucifixion (2:16), resurrection (1:20), and ascension (1:20-21; 2:6),

but no mention has been made of the incarnation, nor does it occur in the remainder of

the letter. In short, mention of the incarnation here in 4:9 would be both unique and

peculiar within the flow of the letter.50

The interpretation that makes the most sense of the data is one that takes th/j gh/j

as a partitive genitive. The traditional exegesis of this passage has understood 4:9 in this

way and seen it as a reference to the descensus ad inferos. This school of interpretation is

now almost entirely rejected; however, some recent exegetes have returned to modern

variations on this theme.51 In this regard, several have argued that 4:9 describes Christ’s

49
ibid.
50
Best (Ephesians, 386) rules out the descent being to the underworld or

Pentecost, and is left unhappily with the descent of the incarnation, but acknowledges

that the incarnation is rare in the Pauline corpus and is not relevant to the context.
51
Hoehner, Ephesians, 536; Heil, Ephesians; Gombis, “Cosmic Lordship,” 376-

78; Clinton E. Arnold, Ephesians: Power and Magic: The Concept of Power in Ephesians
 20

descent to the grave at his death. In particular, Timothy Gombis sees Christ’s death in

and of itself as the great victory of the divine warrior.52 Yet in equating “the lower parts

of the earth” with the grave per se, Gombis fails to make the most of the divine warrior

connection.53 He sees the descent of Christ primarily through a soteriological lens, and

consequently cannot make a direct connection between the descent in 4:9 and the giving

of gifts that is in view in the larger context. In Gombis’ view, nothing else happens (e.g.

in the underworld) in between the cross and the resurrection. As with the incarnation

hypothesis, Gombis fails to account adequately for why Christ’s death would be

in Light of Its Historical Setting (SNTSMS 63; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1989) 57-58; Larry Joseph Kreitzer, “The Plutonium of Hierapolis and the Descent of

Christ Into the ‘Lowermost Parts of the Earth’ (Ephesians 4,9)” Bib 79 (1998) 381-93.
52
Gombis, “Cosmic Lordship,” 376-78: “[A]ll that is in view in Eph. 4:9 is a

reference to the descent of Christ to the grave—pointing to his death—as the author is not

interested here in developing the activities of Christ vis-à-vis any underworld deities.”

Similarly, John Muddiman (The Epistle to the Ephesians [BNTC; New York: Continuum,

2001] 195-96) argues that the descent and ascent are simultaneous, referring to Christ

being lifted up on the cross and at the same time being humiliated in death. In this he is

reading a Johannine irony into Ephesians that simply isn’t there, and also ignoring the

overwhelming emphasis in Ephesians on the ascension of Christ to a heavenly throne.

53
A descent “to the grave” also fails in terms of the social customs of the 1st cent.

C.E. The Gospels uniformly describe Christ’s burial in a tomb—which was likely at a

higher elevation and not a descent into the ground per se.
 21

mentioned at this point in the epistle.54 What must be in view in 4:9 is a descent of Christ

as divine warrior not simply to the grave, but to the realm of the dead in order to plunder

his adversary. This will become clearer with the author’s further explanation in 4:10.

The Divine Warrior’s Ascent in Victory (4:10)

In presenting Christ’s sovereignty over body diversity, the author in 4:8 connected the

divine warrior of the OT and the ascended Christ. He then went on to describe Christ’s

descent into the netherworld. But what does this have to do with his distribution of gifts?

In a careful study of another divine warrior victory hymn (like Ps 68), A. Cooper

demonstrated remarkable similarity between Ps 24:7-10 and Egyptian liturgical texts

describing a descent myth, i.e. “a myth in which a high god, forsaking his ordinary

domain, descends to the netherworld, where he must confront the demonic forces of the

infernal realm.”55 In Cooper’s view, Ps 24:7-10 describes Yahweh as the conqueror of the

abode of the dead, and now in command of its gatekeepers. He went on to explain the

widespread attestation of this mythology throughout the ANE, and to argue that it

underlies the NT description of the death of Christ.56 Along similar lines, Leonard

Greenspoon has shown that the victory of the divine warrior over chaos is the basis of

54
As we have already noted, Caird et al mistakenly understand the descent in

pneumatological terms, but nevertheless do a much better job than Gombis in connecting

the descent with the giving of gifts.

55
Alan Cooper, “Ps 24:7-10: Mythology and Exegesis,” JBL 102 (1983) 37-60,

here 43.
56
ibid., 59.
 22

nascent resurrection theology in OT passages like Dan 12, Isa 26 and Ezek 37, and full-

blown in the NT.57 Thus, in the NT the ascent of Christ in resurrection signals his triumph

over the abode of the dead. His defeat of chaos results in the revivification of the natural

world, especially for those people who have sworn allegiance to the divine warrior.

It is this restoration of life that is in view in 4:10. As the divine warrior who

descended to the underworld, Christ now ascends to the pinnacle, above all the heavens,

in order that plhrw,sh| ta. pa,nta. This expression is a direct reference to the climax of Eph

1, in which the church, identified as Christ’s body, is described as the fulness (plh,rwma)

of him (i.e., Christ) who fills (plhroume,nou) all things (ta. pa,nta) in every way (1:23). In

other words, as the body of Christ the church has become God’s storehouse, out of which

he is filling the cosmos.58 At first blush this may appear as a Gnostic innovation, but in

fact it is the language of Torah in the first directive given to the people of God. In the

cultural mandate given to Adam and Eve (Gen 1:28), God commands them to increase

and multiply, and plhrw,sate (LXX) the earth and subdue it. Essentially the same

57
Greenspoon, “Resurrection,” 280-91.
58
Heil, Ephesians: “The audience is thus to realize that the gifts of love that the

ascended Christ gave to people (4:8), to each one of us believers (4:7), are part of the

love of Christ who is filling ‘all things’ (ta. pa,nta) in all ways as part of God’s plan to

unite ‘all things’ (ta. pa,nta) under one head in the Christ as the ultimate gift of God’s

love (1:10).”
 23

command is repeated to Noah (LXX Gen 9:1, 7).59 As in Genesis, so also in Ephesians;

the Lord is extending his dominion by pushing back the chaos and filling up his territory

with life. What was formerly intended for the sons of the first man, Adam/Noah, is now

the inheritance (1:14, 18) of the sons of God through Christ (1:5; cf. 2:3), the new man

(2:15). Through Christ, it is the destiny of the church to fill all things. Thus, the author

prays in 3:14-19 that the Ephesian audience will have faith, love, power and knowledge,

in order that they may be filled (plhrwqh/te) with God’s fulness (plh,rwma). Likewise, he

exhorts them in 5:18 not to get drunk, but to be filled (plhrou/sqe) in the Spirit. The

ascent of the divine warrior far above all the heavens (4:10) is for this same purpose, that

he might fill all things.

In his ascension, Christ leads a triumphant procession of prisoners.60 Paul uses the

metaphor of the triumphant procession elsewhere in 2 Cor 2:14-17. There he describes

the prisoners on parade in ironic terms as smelling of death to unbelievers, but having the

fragrance of life to believers. It is this same irony that is at play here, inasmuch as Christ

is filling all things with the “living dead.” By faith, the Ephesians will recognize the

generosity of Christ’s gift and perceive it to be a gift of life rather than death.

59
This renewal of the cultural mandate is in dramatic contrast to the grim

circumstances before the flood, when the earth was filled (pi,mplhmi) with

unrighteousness (Gen 6:11, 13).

60
For a helpful summary of the Greco-Roman custom of triumphal procession,

see Paul Brooks Duff, “The March of the Divine Warrior and the Advent of the Greco-

Roman King: Mark’s Account of Jesus’ Entry into Jerusalem,” JBL 111 (1992) 56-64.
 24

The Divine Warrior Gives His Prisoners to the Church (4:11ff)

As we have seen, the body of Christ is the divine warrior’s plh,rwma, out of which he will

fill all things. But in order to accomplish this goal, the body must be complete (te,leion)

according to the stature of Christ’s plh,rwma (4:13). To this end, Christ gives gifts (4:7).

But unlike Rom 12 and 1 Cor 12, in which the gifts (cari,smata) are extraordinary

abilities or traits provided to persons, in Eph 4:7ff the gifts (do,mata) are persons. In

particular, Christ gave leaders—apostles, prophets, evangelists, prophets and teachers

(4:11). They work within the body to bring it to completion (4:13).

The source of these people-gifts is none other than the abode of the dead, for they

are the very prisoners Christ led forth in triumphant procession. This explains the tight

linkage between the two indicative verbs in the quotation of Ps 68, i.e. “he led captivity

captive, he gave gifts.” There is no intervening conjunction because the two lines

describe the same event.61 This also explains why the quotation was altered: the author

uses it with this deliberate change in order to show his audience where these gifts are

coming from. These are the plunder of the divine warrior, looted from the house of his

enemy and brought into his own temple to be used as its foundation (2:20).

This interpretation is corroborated by Paul’s so-called excursus on behalf of his

audience regarding his own status as a prisoner. Despite the provenance of the epistle, he

never mentions the location of his imprisonment, or the identity of his captors. Rather, he

is a prisoner tou/ Cristou/ (3:1) evn kuri,w| (4:1). He was made an apostle (1:1) and a

61
A kai, has been inserted between these verbs (4:8) in a number of mss., but the

earliest witnesses show that it did not occur in the original.

 25

minister (3:7) for their sakes (3:1, 8). He is therefore living proof and a chief example of

Christ’s captives, who are now being given to the church to the end that the body may be

complete. Christ’s taking captivity captive in 4:8 is exactly what he did in Paul’s life, not

in his current imprisonment, but on the road to Damascus (Acts 9; Eph 3:3).

Each one (4:7) in the audience is to understand his own situation to be the same as

Paul’s. They too were dead (2:1, 5) through their allegiance to the Christ’s enemies (2:2).

But Christ plundered the abode of the dead, and when he ascended, he led them out with

him (2:5-6). They are to do good works that God foreordained (2:10), according to their

unique vocations (4:1) and the measure of grace given each of them (4:7). They will

accomplish their ministry (4:12) as they grow into a united, complete body (4:13) under

the tutelage of leaders like Paul whom Christ has given specifically to them (4:11).

CONCLUSION

Through the lens of the divine warrior motif, the modified quotation of Ps 68 makes

sense in Eph 4. The warrior ascends in Eph 4:8 leading “captivity captive.” It is a

triumphant procession of the warrior king with prisoners in tow, reminiscent of 2 Cor

2:14-17. The prisoners are those who were taken captive during his descent, when he

battled and triumphed in the abode of the dead (4:9). Not only does his triumphant ascent

demonstrate victory, but it also is for the purpose of filling all things (4:10). The warrior

gives his prisoners, like the Apostle Paul, to the body (4:11) so that it might be complete

and protected from the attacks of the enemy.

In this light, the descent and ascent of Christ is a message of great encouragement

not only for the original audience, but also for readers today. Those once held in bondage
 26

by forces of evil (2:2) have been rescued by one who is stronger, Jesus Christ (1:22). He

entered into enemy territory on their behalf in order to bring them into his own family

(2:18) and build his temple with them (2:21-22). He places each person with care, as a

treasure given to the church, because he knows precisely what his body needs (4:7-11).

Together they can have peace (2:14) as they stand firm against the principalities and

powers (6:12), dressed in the full armor of God (6:13), in the service of Christ their

Warrior King.