REPAIR AND REHABILITATION OF BUILDINGS Module 1

 Introduction - Maintenance, rehabilitation, repair, retrofit and strengthening, need for

rehabilitation of structures. Cracks in R.C. buildings - Various cracks in R.C. buildings,
causes and effects Damages to masonry structures - Various damages to masonry structures
and causes

Maintenance

Maintenance is necessary to keep machines, buildings, roads, and other infrastructure in good
repair and functioning properly.

• It involves regular checks, cleaning, and fixing of worn-out or damaged parts to prevent problems
and minimize any impact of issues that arise.
• Maintenance also includes upkeep of software systems, databases, and other computer systems.
• The aim of maintenance is to ensure systems remain reliable and efficient over time.
• In civil engineering, maintenance refers to the upkeep and preservation of structures, buildings,
roads, bridges, and other infrastructure built for public use.
• The goal is to keep them safe and functional over time to serve the community's needs, through
tasks like inspections, cleaning, painting, and repairing or replacing damaged components.
• Maintenance in civil engineering may also involve upgrades and improvements to enhance
functionality, performance, and safety, such as new systems for water or waste management or
changes to structural design.
• The ultimate goal of maintenance in civil engineering is to extend the infrastructure's useful life
and maintain community and environmental health and well-being.

Maintenance of Civil Engineering Structures:

Civil engineering structures are designed to withstand various environmental conditions and loads for a
specified period of time. However, with time and continuous use, these structures may deteriorate and
lose their strength, which can lead to potential safety hazards and costly repairs. To avoid such situations,
it is crucial to carry out regular maintenance of these structures.

Some of the important aspects of maintenance of civil engineering structures are:

1. Inspection: Regular inspections are necessary to identify any signs of wear and tear or any other
damage caused to the structure. This can be done through visual inspections, non-destructive
testing techniques, and other specialized techniques such as ultrasonic testing and X-ray testing.

2. Cleaning: Dirt, debris, and other materials that accumulate on the structure over time can weaken
its strength and stability. Hence, regular cleaning is essential to maintain the structural integrity of
the building.

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3. Painting and Coating: The painting and coating of the structure provide protection against the
elements and prevent corrosion. Regular repainting or reapplication of the coating is necessary to
maintain the structure’s aesthetic appeal and its protective properties.

4. Repair and Rehabilitation: Repairs are necessary when damage to the structure is identified
through inspections. Repair work should be carried out promptly to prevent further damage and to
ensure the safety and stability of the structure. Rehabilitation, on the other hand, involves major
renovations to the structure to restore its original strength and functionality.

5. Upgrades and Retrofits: As new technologies and materials become available, it may be necessary
to upgrade or retrofit the structure to keep pace with the changing demands and to maintain its
structural integrity.

6. Record Keeping: Keeping accurate records of the maintenance activities carried out on the
structure is important to ensure that all the necessary steps have been taken to maintain the
structure. This information can be used to make informed decisions about future maintenance
activities.

In conclusion, regular maintenance of civil engineering structures is essential to ensure their safety,
stability, and longevity. It is important to follow a comprehensive maintenance plan to keep the structures
in good condition and to prevent potential hazards.

Rehabilitation

• Rehabilitation involves restoring or improving a damaged or worn-out structure to its original

state, with the goal of ensuring proper and effective functionality without extensive repairs or
replacements.
• In civil engineering, rehabilitation involves repairing or upgrading existing infrastructure such as
buildings, roads, bridges, and other structures to ensure they remain safe, functional, and efficient
over time.
• Rehabilitation may involve repairing or replacing damaged components, improving structural
design, or adding new features or technologies to enhance functionality.
• Civil engineering rehabilitation projects are undertaken when a structure is in need of repair or
when its performance has declined to the point where it no longer meets community needs.
• The goal of rehabilitation in civil engineering is to extend the structure's useful life, minimize
environmental impact, and ensure safe and reliable service to the public.
• Examples of rehabilitation projects in civil engineering include repairing aging bridges,
strengthening earthquake-damaged buildings, and improving transportation system efficiency.
• Civil engineers play a critical role in maintaining community and environmental health and well-
being through these rehabilitation projects.

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Repair

• The term "repair" refers to the act of fixing or restoring something that is broken or damaged.
• In civil engineering, "repair" refers to fixing or restoring structures such as buildings, bridges,
and roads that have been damaged or degraded over time.
• Civil engineers use techniques and materials such as steel reinforcement, concrete, and
grouting to repair structures and ensure their reliability and safety.
• The goal of repair in civil engineering is to extend the life of existing structures, minimize
downtime, and ensure safe and efficient use of the built environment.
• Repair work can range from simple cosmetic repairs to complex structural renovations.
• Civil engineers use testing and evaluation methods such as non-destructive testing and finite
element analysis to determine the extent of damage and design the most appropriate repair
solution.
• Repair work often involves collaboration with other professionals such as architects,
geotechnical engineers, and construction managers to meet safety and performance standards.
• Repair work in civil engineering is an important and complex field requiring a wide range of
skills and expertise to ensure the safety and reliability of structures and infrastructure.

Retrofit

• . The term "repair" refers to the act of fixing or restoring something that is broken or damaged.
• In civil engineering, "repair" refers to fixing or restoring structures such as buildings, bridges, and
roads that have been damaged or degraded over time.
• Civil engineers use techniques and materials such as steel reinforcement, concrete, and grouting
to repair structures and ensure their reliability and safety.
• The goal of repair in civil engineering is to extend the life of existing structures, minimize
downtime, and ensure safe and efficient use of the built environment.
• Repair work can range from simple cosmetic repairs to complex structural renovations.
• Civil engineers use testing and evaluation methods such as non-destructive testing and finite
element analysis to determine the extent of damage and design the most appropriate repair solution.
• Repair work often involves collaboration with other professionals such as architects, geotechnical
engineers, and construction managers to meet safety and performance standards.
• Repair work in civil engineering is an important and complex field requiring a wide range of skills
and expertise to ensure the safety and reliability of structures and infrastructure.

Strengthening

• Strengthening refers to making something stronger or more robust.

• In civil engineering, strengthening is about improving the structural capacity or performance of
existing structures such as buildings, bridges, or infrastructure.

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• Civil engineers use techniques and materials such as steel reinforcement, concrete, and grouting
to improve resistance to load or natural hazards.
• The goal of strengthening in civil engineering is to improve the long-term performance and safety
of existing structures and extend their life.
• Strengthening projects in civil engineering involve upgrades like adding new structural
components, enhancing seismic resistance, or increasing load-bearing capacity.
• Civil engineers use design and analysis tools such as building codes, seismic hazard maps, and
finite element models to determine appropriate upgrades and improvements.
• Advanced construction techniques such as precast concrete components and fiber-reinforced
polymers are used to minimize disruptions and ensure efficient completion.
• Strengthening projects in civil engineering involve close collaboration with other professionals
such as architects, MEP engineers, and construction managers to ensure coordinated upgrades
meeting safety and performance standards.

Need for rehabilitation of civil engineering structures.

Civil engineering structures, such as buildings, bridges, and infrastructure, play a critical role in our daily
lives. Over time, these structures can become worn and damaged due to factors such as weather, aging,
and increased use. In some cases, these structures may even become unsafe or inadequate for their intended
purpose.

That's why rehabilitation of civil engineering structures is so important. Rehabilitation involves upgrading
and improving existing structures to extend their service life, improve their performance, and enhance
their safety. This can be done through a variety of methods, such as repairing and strengthening,
retrofitting, and adding new components.

There are several compelling reasons for the need for rehabilitation of civil engineering structures,
including:

• Safety:

• Essential to ensure the safety of civil engineering structures

• Minimizes the risk of failure or collapse

• Performance:

• Improves the performance of civil engineering structures

• Makes them more efficient, reliable, and durable

• Sustainability:

• Extends the service life of existing structures

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• Reduces demand for new construction

• Conserves energy, material, and financial resources

• Economic benefits:

• Creates jobs

• Boosts productivity

• Increases property values

• Has a positive impact on the local economy

• Future generations:

• Ensures the continued performance and safety of civil engineering structures

• Ensures that these structures serve future generations effectively

Cracks in reinforced concrete (R.C.)

Cracks in reinforced concrete (R.C.) buildings can indicate a variety of issues, ranging from minor
cosmetic concerns to serious structural problems that require immediate attention.

• Cracks in buildings are common occurrence. It develops when the stress in a component exceeds
the strength.

• Stress is caused by either externally applied or internally generated force.

• External forces: Dead load, live load, wind load, seismic load, settlement of foundation

• Internal forces: Thermal moments, moisture changes, chemical action.

Here are some possible causes of cracks in R.C. buildings:

• Shrinkage: When concrete dries, it shrinks slightly. If the concrete is not reinforced properly or is
too thin, this shrinkage can cause cracks.
• Overloading: If a building is subjected to more weight than it can handle, it can cause cracks in
the R.C. structure. This can happen due to heavy equipment, snow or ice buildup, or other external
factors.
• Settlement: Over time, the soil underneath a building can shift or settle, causing the foundation to
move and resulting in cracks in the R.C. structure.
• Temperature changes: Extreme temperatures can cause concrete to expand and contract, leading
to cracks in the R.C. structure.

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• Poor construction: If the R.C. structure is not built to the proper specifications or if the concrete is
not mixed correctly, it can lead to cracks.

It's important to address cracks in R.C. buildings as soon as possible to prevent them from getting worse
and potentially compromising the safety of the structure

Classification

Structural cracks

• Result from incorrect design, faulty construction, or overloading.

• Can compromise the safety of the building.
• Examples include diagonal cracks in walls, cracks in columns or beams, and cracks in the
foundation.
• Require immediate attention from a qualified engineer.

Non-structural cracks:

• Typically caused by internal stresses or changes in temperature and moisture levels.

• Do not pose an immediate threat to the building's safety.
• Can allow moisture to seep into the building, leading to corrosion of steel reinforcements and
further weakening of the structure over time.
• A common example is vertical cracks in long walls or boundary walls without expansion joints.
• Should be evaluated by a qualified engineer to ensure that they do not compromise the building's
structural integrity in the long run.

Structural cracks are a major concern because they can affect the stability of the building. They can
occur due to a variety of reasons, such as incorrect design, faulty construction, or overloading of the
building. Some examples of structural cracks are diagonal cracks in walls, cracks in columns or beams,
and cracks in the foundation. These cracks can indicate serious structural problems and require
immediate attention from a qualified engineer.

Non-structural cracks, on the other hand, are typically caused by internal stresses within the building
materials or changes in temperature and moisture levels. They do not necessarily pose an immediate
threat to the building's safety, but they can allow moisture to seep into the building, which can lead to
corrosion of steel reinforcements and further weakening of the structure over time.

Vertical cracks in long walls or boundary walls without expansion joints are a common example of
non-structural cracks. These cracks are caused by thermal expansion and contraction, which create
internal stresses in the building materials. While these cracks may not pose an immediate threat to the

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building's stability, they should still be evaluated by a qualified engineer to ensure that they do not
compromise the building's structural integrity in the long run.

classification of cracks based on width

Thin cracks : Less than 1.00 mm wide

Medium cracks : 1 to 2 mm wide.

Wide cracks: More than 2 mm in width.

Cracks may be of uniform width or varying width, straight, toothed, stepped, map pattern or
random. They may be horizontal, vertical or diagonal.

Cracks may be just skin deep or may extend into the body of the material.

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF CRACKS:

i. Moisture changes:

• Changes in moisture content cause expansion and contraction of building materials, leading to
cracking.
• Can be caused by humidity, rainfall, flooding, or drying of wet building materials.

ii. Thermal variation:

• Changes in temperature cause materials to expand and contract, leading to cracking.

• Common cause of cracks in concrete and masonry structures.

iii. Elastic deformation:

• Temporary deformation of materials due to external forces.

• If the external force exceeds the elastic limit of the material, it can lead to cracking.

iv. Creep:

• Slow deformation of materials under constant load over time.

• Can cause cracking in concrete and other building materials.

v. Chemical reaction:

• Exposure to chemicals, such as acids, alkalis, or salts, can cause chemical reactions that lead
to cracking.
• Often seen in structures exposed to sea water or chemicals used for de-icing roads.

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vi. Foundation movement and settlement of soil:

• Movement of the foundation due to changes in soil moisture content, soil compaction, or other
factors can cause cracking in the structure above.

vii. Vegetation:

• Trees and other plants growing near buildings can cause cracks by their roots pushing against
foundations or walls or causing changes in soil moisture content.
• Understanding the causes of cracks is important in identifying potential problems and taking
preventive measures to avoid further damage to the building. Regular inspection and
maintenance can also help in preventing cracks from occurring in the first place.

Causes of Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Slab

1. Poor Concrete Quality

• Compromising with the concrete quality is one of the reasons for crack developments in reinforced
concrete slabs.
• Poor concrete quality results in lower concrete strength, specifically the tensile strength.
• As a result, the tensile strength of concrete reaches its maximum limit at a very low magnitude of
stress.
• Factors that can jeopardize the concrete quality include:
• Incorrect water to cement ratio
• Inadequate concrete mixing
• Improper placement of concrete
• Insufficient consolidation
• Therefore, to prevent crack developments in reinforced concrete slabs, it is important to:
• Prepare and pour concrete according to the designated mix
• Follow proper concrete placement procedure

2. Improper Structural Design

Another cause of crack development in an RCC slab is the low reinforcement ratio due to errors in the
design stage. A lower reinforcement ratio yields a lower slab capacity to support loads. As a result, the
RCC slab cracks at smaller loads.

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Figure-1: Patterns of Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Slabs Due to Improper Structural Design

3. Wrong Steel Bars Spacing

When the spacing between primary and distribution reinforcement is greater than the designated spacing,
then cracks may develop in the RCC slab.
4. Insufficient Concrete Cover
Insufficient concrete cover reduces the required protection for steel bars. As a result, chloride attacks
would cause steel corrosion, leading to cracking of concrete along steel bars.

Figure-2: Cracks Due to Insufficient Concrete Cover

5. Improper Curing

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Improper curing of concrete may cause concrete shrinkage and subsequently initiate cracks. Moreover, it
could reduce the strength of the concrete. The cracks due to improper curing can be shallow fine cracks
that are parallel to each other.

Figure-3: Shrinkage Cracks Appear on Slabs are Parallel to each Other

6. Large Slab Span

When the span of the slab is longer than that of applicable standards, then the development of cracks,
especially flexural cracks, is highly likely.

7. Errors in Formwork Placement

Improper installation of formworks could also be one of the reasons for crack development in the RCC
slab.

8. Wrong Material Selection

The selection of right concrete constituent, such as aggregate, is essential in reducing the risk of crack
initiation in the reinforced concrete slab. The use of alkali-aggregate in concrete can cause the
development of cracks. The map of cracks due to alkali-aggregate is shown below.

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Figure-4: Cracks in Reinforced Concrete slab Due to Alkali-aggregate reactions

9. Severe Environmental Conditions

Sulfate attacks occur when the reinforced concrete slab is constructed in harsh environmental conditions,
like, coastal areas. The pattern of cracks due to sulfate attack can be observed in the following figure.

Figure-5: Cracks Caused by Sulfate Attack

Types of Cracks in Concrete Columns

1. Diagonal Cracks

Diagonal cracks in reinforced concrete columns develops and encompass the entire face of column
anywhere along its height. The main cause of diagonal cracks in concrete columns is inadequate load
carrying capacity of the columns; insufficient cross-section and inadequate reinforcement steel.
Diagonal Cracks would influence structural soundness and hence it needs to be dealt with properly.

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Fig. 1: Diagonal Cracks in Concrete Column

2. Horizontal Cracks

Horizontal crack in reinforced concrete column is observed to initiate mostly at the beam-column
junction, and on column face where tensile stress is large. Columns with in adequate moment
resistance capacity, insufficient reinforcements, or disposition of installed reinforcement are prone to
horizontal cracking; due the effect of shear force and direct load and uniaxial bending. Finally,
horizontal cracks substantially reduce the shear strength of the column leading to a greatly increased
risk of failure. So, it is required to be tackled as soon as possible.

Fig. 2: Horizontal Cracks in Concrete Column

3. Splitting Cracks

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Splitting cracks in reinforced concrete column are short parallel vertical cracks with non-uniform
width. Columns with Insufficient steel reinforcement, and low concrete quality are susceptible to
experience such types of cracks. Splitting cracks in concrete columns initiated as a result of reaching
its maximum load carrying capacity. The ultimate Load carrying capacity of the column surpassed
when concrete cross section is inadequate or reinforcement ratio is insufficient or combination thereof.

Fig. 3: Splitting Cracks in Concrete Column

4. Corrosion Cracks

Corrosion cracks in concrete columns are developed along the line of reinforcements. This type of
cracks is commonly uniform in width and widen as the column is ageing. Possible reinforcement
corrosion and inadequate bond between concrete and steel bars are the cause of corrosion
reinforcement in concrete columns. If such type of cracks is not tackled the corrosion of reinforcement
would accelerate considerably.

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Fig. 4: Corrosion or Bond Cracks in Concrete Column

Types of Cracks in Concrete Beams

Cracks in beams due to increased shear stress

Cracks in concrete beams due to increase in shear stress appears near the support such as wall or
column. These cracks are also called as shear crack and are inclined at 45 degrees with the horizontal.
These cracks in beams can be avoided by providing additional shear reinforcements near the support
where the shear stress is maximum. Shear stress is maximum at a distance of d/2 from the support
where d is the effective depth of beam.

Cracks in concrete beams due to corrosion or insufficient concrete cover

Generally beams are provided with slab at the top, so top of the beam is not exposed to environment.
Bottom of the beam are exposed to environment and if the cover to reinforcement in insufficient, then
corrosion of reinforcement takes place. So, cracks due to corrosion of reinforcement appear at the
bottom of the beam. These cracks generally appear near the side face of the beam near the bottom

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reinforcement along the its length as shown in figure below. Cracks due to reinforcement corrosion
can cause spalling of concrete in severe cases and can be prevented by good quality control during its
construction by providing adequate rebar cover as per environmental conditions.

Cracks parallel to main steel in case of corrosion in beams

These cracks also appear due to corrosion of reinforcement but at the bottom face of the beam. These
appear parallel to main reinforcements at the bottom. The cause of this corrosion is also due to
provision of insufficient reinforcement cover which leads to corrosion of main reinforcement

Cracks due to increased bending stress in beams

Cracks due to increased bending stress in beams appear near the center of span of the beam at an angle
of 45 degree with horizontal as the bending moment is maximum at that point. If the reinforcement
provided is insufficient for the load the beam is exposed to, bending stress increases which leads to
increased deflection at the middle span of beam. Cracks due to increased bending moment can be
prevented by providing adequate main reinforcement at the midspan of beam. Care should be taken
during design of beam to consider all the probable loads and load combinations for its design. Under-
reinforced section of beam is the main cause of this crack.

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Cracks due to compression failure in beams

Cracks due to compression failure in beams appear a the top if the beam is over reinforced. In case of
over-reinforcement, the beam has the capacity to bear higher bending stress, but at the same time, if
the top reinforcement provided is insufficient to carry the compressive stress, the top of the beam gets
cracked. This type of failure can be prevented by designing a balanced section in which the capacity
of beam in compression is capable of carrying additional compressive stress.

Most Common Causes of Masonry Damage

Masonry structures remain popular in residential, commercial, and industrial construction. The
materials and technology used in masonry add to the strength, durability, energy efficiency, fire-
resistance, sound-proofing, and thermal mass of a building. Despite these advantages, masonry
damage can occur due to several reasons. Property owners should learn the causes of such damage and
work with professional restoration contractors to remedy the problem.

1. Moisture Penetration

One of the biggest threats to a masonry structure is moisture. Masonry walls exposed to the elements
can easily absorb water, and this compromises their structural integrity. Water leaking into a brick or
stone wall will also freeze and thaw, thus exerting pressure on the entire structure. Water penetration
poses a danger not only to the masonry materials but the adjacent assemblage including wood, metal,
doors, and windows. For these reasons, moisture control is one of the most common masonry
restoration projects.

2. Cracking

Cracks are a common problem with masonry construction. They can occur when a building settles or
because of moisture penetration. Poor preparation of mortar can also cause cracking in the joints.
Natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods can also exert pressure on a masonry wall or
foundation, leading to cracks.

3. Staining

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Staining is a big problem for exterior-facing masonry walls. It poses a costly problem for property
owners conscious of their home’s curb appeal. Staining occurs when masonry materials or mortar
come into contact with the elements. Water seepage and aging walls are the main causes of masonry
staining.

4. Bond Failure

Bricks and stones in masonry have to stay intact to guarantee the strength of a masonry structure.
However, the loss of adhesion between these materials is a common problem in construction. It leads
to bulging or peeling, hollow patches, and flaking top layers.

5. Displacement

It is a structural problem that occurs due to corrosion of steel systems, inadequate anchors for lateral
support, and freezing/thawing action. Displacement results in the shifting of the masonry materials.

TYPES OF CRACKS IN MASONARY STRUCTURES

1.Vertical cracks in sidewalls at corner

2. Vertical cracks around balconies

3. Vertical cracks below the openings in line with the window jambs

4. Vertical cracks at the junction of RCC column and masonry wall.

5. Vertical cracks in the top most stories at corners of structures having RCC slab.

6.Horizontal cracks at window lintel oz sill level in the top most story.

7.Horizontal cracks in the top most story below the RCC slab level.

8. Horizontal cracks at eaves level in the buildings having pitched roof with wooden

joists and purlins

9. Random cracks in all directions involving both external and internal walls

10. Diagonal cracks over RCC lintels spanning large opening

11. shrinkage cracks

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GENERAL CAUSES TO DEVELOP THE CRACK IN MASONARY STRUCTURES

1. poor quality of bricks

2. for masonry works , use porous stones
3. Absence of grading in before the use of fine aggregate fine mortar
4. If presence of clay and slit in fine aggregate exceed 3 percent
5. Due to the excessive amount of soluble sulphate
6. Plumb alignment
7. The position of the element in the structure
8. Differential loading
9. Weak mortar
10. Insufficient bond
11. Improper curing
12. Entered dampness from ground , roof and exterior faces
13. High daily temperature variations
14. Atmospheric pollutions
15. Lack of strength at corner and at the junction of walls
16. Improper binding of thick walls

Common Causes of Cracks in Masonry Walls

Settlement and subsidence of building walls is shown in figure below.

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Fig.1: Settlement and Subsidence of Masonry Wall

Settlement of masonry wall occurs due to downward pressure from the loads on wall and subsidence
occurs due to the removal of earth beneath the foundations. Settlement is usually easily dealt with via
cosmetic repair, whereas subsidence can prove difficult and costly to repair. There is a situation where
settlement of walls can cause subsidence. If the drains connected to a building shear or crack due to
settlement, the subsequent leakage can cause subsidence by washing away the subsoil. All buildings
settle when they are constructed; the trick is to keep the settlement to an infinitesimally low level. The
other causes of movement and cracking are due to poor design, poor construction methods, or poor
maintenance. For definition the diagrams are shown in brickwork; however cracks form in stonework
in a similar fashion.

Fig.2: Cracks in Masonry Walls

Types of Cracks in Masonry Walls and Causes

1. Expansion Cracks in Masonry Wall

2. Cracks Above Openings in Masonry Walls

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3. Cracks in Masonry Wall due to Tie Failure

4. Cracks in Masonry Wall due to Subsidence
5. Wall Cracks due to Ground Heave

1. Expansion Cracks in Masonry Wall

Causes of Expansive Cracks

Walls are affected by temperature and moisture change. Materials can suffer from initial shrinkage
and/or subsequent expansion and contraction. This movement gives rise to the expansion cracks in
masonry walls. The crack shown in the picture is shown as vertical, which is often the case. However,
the crack sometimes follows the line of least resistance and can end up stepped.

Fig.3: Expansion Cracks in Masonry Wall

The expansive cracks are often seen above window and door openings where the opening itself relieves
the crack. This type of crack has a consistent width and it is this that distinguishes from other more
serious cracks.

Repair of Expansive Cracks

Expansive crack is of no real structural significance, although it may allow water into the cavity in
brick built houses, and subsequence cause deterioration of the wall ties. Therefore filling the crack
with a mastic or sealastic compound is recommended. However, for more severe cracking it is
advisable to form an expansion joint. This would be cut into the wall, filled with a compressible
material with a waterproof stopper to the outside. On some modern buildings these are formed at
construction stage and then hidden behind rainwater downpipes.
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2. Cracks Above Openings in Masonry Walls

Causes

Four causes of cracks above openings in masonry walls are:

1. Removal of windows or doors with inadequate propping,

2. Inadequate bearings,

3. Loads applied directly over the opening,

4. No lintels.

Cause-1: Removal of windows or doors with inadequate propping

The most common reason for this type of cracks in wall is the removal of existing window frames to
install PVCu.

Repair of Cracks

The best repair is to reset the lintel and repoint or rebuild the brickwork above, and refit the window.
The poor repair is to do nothing more than repoint the cracks, as the brickwork is now resting on the
new frame. However, collapse of the brickwork above the opening will be likely when the window is
next replaced.

Cause-2: Cracks due to Inadequate Bearings

The correct overhang (bearing) of the lintels above openings is 150mm (6 inches) each side. If the
bearings are insufficient the lintel will drop and the cracks will appear.

Repair of Cracks due to Inadequate Bearing

Replacement of the lintel is recommended. However, once again repointing will suffice until the
window or door is replaced.

Cause-3:Cracks due to loads applied above the opening

This often occurs above first floor lintels where the roof purlins have been installed directly above the
window openings. The load imposed is too great for the lintel to cope with and the downward pressure
causes the cracking.

Repair

Once again replacement of the lintel is recommended. The severity and age of these cracks would
decide whether simple repointing would suffice until the window is replaced.

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Cause-4: Cracks in Masonry Wall due to No Lintels

In some properties no lintels are provided relying on the timber frame of the window to support the
masonry above, but once the window is replaced the cracks occur.

Repair

New lintels need to be installed and the cracks repaired.

3. Cracks in Masonry Wall due to Tie Failure

Wall ties are metal ties that are built into both solid and cavity walls built in stretcher bond to hold the
outside skin of brickwork to the inside. Failure normally occurs when the ties rust. When the metal
ties rust they expand causing the cracking normally seen every sixth course horizontally in the mortar
joints.

Repair

Replacement wall ties are essential. The cracking is an early indication of failure. Without
replacement, collapse of the wall could occur. Repointing and removal of the existing ties is
recommended.

4. Cracks in Masonry Wall due to Subsidence

This is the worst and most serious type of cracks in masonry walls and consequently the most difficult
to repair. Subsidence can occur due to a variety of reasons:

1. Mining activity

2. Leaking underground drainage

3. Tree root activity

4. Peak subsoil

5. Clay subsoil

6. Running sand

The list is endless; however, the basic problem is the same; the foundations of the house are moving.
The cracks are normally the first indication of a problem; often they are raking cracks (widest at the
top) and can occur to corners of the building or from the top to the bottom of the walls.

Repair of Cracks due to Subsidence

This will normally involve some form of underpinning. However, specialist advice from a structural
engineer will be required.

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5. Wall Cracks due to Ground Heave

The pattern of crack is similar to subsidence crack, however, the crack will be widest at the base of
the wall. The most common cause of ground heave is expansion of clay subsoils. On older properties
with shallow foundations the clay can expand and contract dependent upon the weather conditions. If
the clay becomes waterlogged it can expand and push the foundations upwards causing the cracks.
The removal of trees can also cause ground heave, which is why trees that are too close to the property
should be taken down in stages, slowly over a number of years to allow gradual ground movement.

Repair of Cracks due to Ground Heave

In extreme cases underpinning and/or deeper foundations will be the only solution. This is however, a
drastic measure. In cases of ground heave problems the solution will be to remove as much of the clay
from around the foundation as possible and to replace it with hardcore.

References

"Infrastructure Maintenance Management" by Roger L. Kobes and Michael J. Devries: This book provides
an in-depth examination of the principles and practices of maintenance management in the civil
engineering field.

"Civil Engineering Maintenance Management" by Peter W. B. Phillips and Paul J. B. Watts: This book
offers practical guidance for those involved in the maintenance of civil engineering structures and
infrastructure, including an overview of maintenance management techniques and best practices.

"Civil Engineering Maintenance Management: A Guide to Best Practice" by David Lloyd Jones: This
book provides a comprehensive guide to the best practices in maintenance management in civil
engineering, with a focus on both the practical and theoretical aspects of the field.

"Handbook of Maintenance Management and Engineering" edited by Keith Mobley and Oded Zeitoun:
This handbook provides a comprehensive overview of the various aspects of maintenance management
and engineering, including best practices, case studies, and practical examples.

"Rehabilitation of Structures in Civil Engineering" edited by H. S. Lew: This book provides an overview
of the principles and practices of rehabilitation in civil engineering, including the latest research, best
practices, and practical examples.

"Structural Rehabilitation and Retrofitting in Civil Engineering" edited by E. H. Waton and T. W. Scott:
This book provides a comprehensive guide to the theory and practice of structural rehabilitation and
retrofitting in civil engineering, including case studies and practical examples.

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"Rehabilitation and Retrofitting of Concrete Structures" by S. K. Chakraborty: This book provides an in-
depth examination of the rehabilitation and retrofitting of concrete structures in civil engineering,
including the latest research and best practices.

"Rehabilitation Engineering: An Overview" by C. A. Brey: This article provides an overview of the field
of rehabilitation engineering, including its history, goals, and current practices, and provides a useful
starting point for further research

. Books:

"Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting III" edited by K. T. W. Tang and S. L. Tam, published
by Taylor & Francis Group (2013)

"Structural Repair and Maintenance of Concrete Buildings" by J. H. Bungey and R. H. Halliwell,

published by "Retrofitting for Earthquakes" by M. A. Newmark, published by John Wiley & Sons (1978)

"Retrofitting of Buildings for Earthquake Risk Reduction" edited by V. S. Popov, published by Taylor &
Francis Group (2010) Spon Press (2003)

"Structural Rehabilitation of Buildings: Methods and Examples" edited by M. R. Horne and R. J. Rausch,
published by John Wiley & Sons (2015)

"Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Structures: Using Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRPs)" edited by

K. Elawny and A. Nanni, published by Taylor & Francis Group (2008)

Journal articles:

"Review of Repair and Rehabilitation Techniques for Concrete Structures" by D. C. Bartholomew,

published in the Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering (2008)

"Advances in Concrete Repair Materials and Techniques" by Y. Zhang and X. Wang, published in the
International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials (2017)

"Seismic Retrofit of Existing Buildings: A Review of Techniques and Technologies" by L. S. Chi and Y.
L. Wong, published in the Journal of Structural Engineering (2002)

"Retrofit of Tall Buildings for Seismic Resistance: A Review" by A. K. Chopra and M. Goel, published
in the Journal of Engineering Mechanics (2008)

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REPAIR AND REHABILITATION OF BUILDINGS Module 1

"Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Structures Using Fiber-Reinforced Polymers: A Review" by A.

Nanni, M. Scalera, and A. Carpinteri, published in the Journal of Composites for Construction (2004)

"Strengthening of RC Beams Using Externally Bonded FRP Sheets: A Review" by Y. S. Wong and L. S.
Teng, published in the Journal of Composites Science and Technology (2003)

Websites:

The Concrete Repair Association (www.concreterepair.org.uk)

The International Union of Laboratories and Experts in Construction Materials, Systems and Structures
(www.rilem.net)

The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (www.eeri.org)

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (www.fema.gov)

The American Concrete Institute (www.aci.org)

The International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (www.iabse.org)

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