Damage Diagnosis and Assessment of Concrete Structures

REPAIR AND REHABILITATION OF BUILDINGS Module 2
Damage diagnosis and assessment - Various aspects of Inspection, Assessment procedure for
evaluating a damaged structure, Visual inspection, Non Destructive Testing using Rebound
hammer, Ultra sonic pulse velocity, Semi destructive testing, Probe test, Pull out test, Chloride
penetration test, Carbonation, Carbonation depth testing, Corrosion activity
measurement, Core test, Load test.
Damage diagnosis and assessment of concrete structures

Damage diagnosis and assessment of concrete involves evaluating the extent and severity of damage to
concrete structures such as buildings, bridges, and roads. This process is typically performed by structural
engineers and other professionals with expertise in concrete technology and materials.
The first step in damage diagnosis and assessment is to identify and locate any visible signs of damage,
such as cracks, spalling, or discoloration. Non-destructive testing techniques such as ultrasonic testing,
radiography, and ground-penetrating radar can also be used to detect internal damage that may not be
visible.
Once the damage has been identified and located, the severity of the damage is assessed by evaluating the
impact on the structural integrity of the concrete. This involves assessing factors such as the size and
location of the damage, the type and extent of reinforcing materials, and the load-bearing capacity of the
structure.
Based on the assessment, recommendations may be made for repairing or reinforcing the damaged
concrete structure. Repair options can range from simple patching or filling of cracks to more complex
solutions such as reinforcing with additional steel or other materials.
Overall, damage diagnosis and assessment of concrete is an important process for ensuring the safety and
longevity of concrete structures, and requires a thorough understanding of concrete materials, testing
techniques, and repair strategies.
Damage diagnosis and assessment of concrete structures can be done through various methods. Some of
the common methods are:
1. Visual Inspection: A visual inspection can be done to assess the condition of the concrete. This
can help in identifying cracks, spalls, stains, and other visible damage.
2. Non-destructive Testing: Non-destructive testing techniques like ultrasonic testing, rebound
hammer, and ground penetrating radar can be used to detect cracks and voids in concrete without
causing any damage.
3. Destructive Testing: Destructive testing involves the removal of concrete samples from the
structure for laboratory testing. Tests like compressive strength, flexural strength, and permeability
tests can be performed on these samples to assess the condition of the concrete.
4. Chemical Analysis: Chemical analysis can be used to determine the cause of concrete
deterioration. Tests like chloride ion content, sulfate content, and pH levels can provide insight
into the chemical reactions taking place within the concrete.
5. Structural Analysis: Structural analysis can be performed to assess the load-carrying capacity of
the concrete structure. This can help in determining the extent of damage and the need for repair
or replacement.
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Based on the results of these tests, a concrete specialist can provide recommendations for repair and
maintenance of the concrete structure.
Various aspects of Inspection on concrete structures
Inspection of concrete structures is a critical process that ensures the safety, durability, and reliability of
the structure. The following are various aspects of inspection on concrete structures:
1. Visual inspection: Visual inspection is the primary method used to evaluate the condition of
concrete structures. It involves a thorough visual examination of the concrete surface, looking for
any signs of cracking, spalling, corrosion, or other damage.
2. Non-destructive testing (NDT): NDT methods are used to detect internal defects or flaws without
damaging the concrete structure. Some common NDT methods used for concrete inspection
include ultrasonic testing, radar testing, and thermal imaging.
3. Material testing: Material testing is used to evaluate the properties of the concrete, such as
compressive strength, tensile strength, and permeability. Material testing is usually conducted in a
laboratory using samples taken from the structure.
4. Structural evaluation: Structural evaluation involves assessing the overall stability and load-
bearing capacity of the concrete structure. This includes analyzing the structural design, assessing
the condition of the foundation, and determining the potential for collapse or failure.
5. Environmental factors: Environmental factors, such as exposure to water, chemicals, and extreme
temperatures, can significantly impact the durability and integrity of concrete structures.
Inspection should take into account these factors and their potential effects on the structure.
6. Maintenance and repair: Regular maintenance and repair are critical to ensuring the long-term
integrity and durability of concrete structures. Inspection should identify any necessary repairs or
maintenance, such as patching cracks, sealing joints, or reinforcing weak areas.
7. Documentation and Record Keeping: It is important to document and keep records of all
inspections and testing performed on concrete structures. This helps to track any changes or
deterioration over time, and to plan for maintenance or repairs as needed.
Overall, inspection is a crucial process in ensuring the safety and longevity of concrete structures. By
identifying and addressing potential issues early, inspection can help prevent costly repairs or structural
failure in the future.
• Visual inspection:
• Surface examination for cracks, spalling, scaling, and other signs of damage
• Inspection of reinforcement bars for corrosion, rust stains, or other degradation
• Review of construction documents to compare with current conditions
• Non-destructive testing (NDT):
• Ultrasonic testing to detect flaws and voids within the concrete
• Radar testing to locate reinforcement bars and identify their spacing and depth
• Thermal imaging to detect temperature variations that could indicate moisture or
delamination
• Material testing:
• Compressive strength testing of concrete cores or cylinders
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• Tensile strength testing of concrete beams or prisms

• Permeability testing to evaluate resistance to water penetration
• Structural evaluation:
• Load testing to measure the structural capacity and deflection
• Analysis of structural design and construction methods
• Inspection of foundations and substructures for stability and integrity
• Environmental factors:
• Review of exposure to moisture, chemicals, and temperature variations
• Assessment of damage due to freeze-thaw cycles or alkali-silica reaction
• Evaluation of potential for environmental degradation or exposure to corrosive materials
• Maintenance and repair:
• Identification of necessary repairs or maintenance activities
• Recommendations for appropriate repair materials and methods
• Development of maintenance plans and schedules to ensure long-term durability and
safety.
Overall, inspection of concrete structures requires a thorough understanding of the properties of concrete
and the factors that can affect its performance. Regular inspections can help to identify problems early
and prevent more costly repairs in the future.
Assessment Procedure for Evaluating Damages in Structure and Repair techniques:

For assessment of damage of a structure the following general considerations have to be take account.
1) Physical inspection of damaged structure.
2) Presentation and documenting the damage.
3) Collection of samples and carrying out tests both in situ and in lab.
4) Studying the documents including structural aspects.
5) Estimation of loads acting on the structure.
6) Estimate of environmental effects including soil structure interaction.
7)Diagnosis
7) Taking preventive steps not to cause further damage.
8) Retrospective analysis to get the diagnosis confirmed.
9) Assessment of structural adequacy.
10) Estimation of future use.
11) Remedial measures necessary to strengthen and repairing the structure.
12) Post repair evaluation through tests.
13) Load test to study the behavior.
14) Choice of course of action for the restoration of structure.
A simple flow chart incorporating the above points is presented in fig 1.1
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Testing Techniques
A number of non-destructive, partially destructive and destructive techniques for
assessment of concrete structure and to predict the cause of deterioration of the concrete in
the existing structures are available. Interest in the field of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
of structure is increasing worldwide. These NDT techniques can be broadly classified into
following four groups:
Strength Tests
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Pull out and Pull off Tests
Break off
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Schmidt Hammer Test

Core Test
Windsor Probe
Pulse Eco Technique
Durability
Test for Alkali Aggregate Reaction
Rebar Locator Test
Abrasion Resistance Tests
Corrosion Tests
Absorption and Permeability
Performance and Integrity Tests
Infrared Thermography Test
Radar Test
Radiography and Radiometry Tests
Acoustic Emission
Optical Fiber Test
Impact Echo Tests
Load Testing test
Dynamic Response
X-Ray Diffraction
1.3.1.2 Chemical Tests
Chloride Determination Test
Thermoluminescence Test
Thermo gravimetric analysis Test
Differential Thermal analysis
Dilatometric Test
Carbonation test
Sulphate Determination Test
With these tests it would be possible to know in-situ strength/quality of concrete to

precise identify the damage and causes of the deterioration of the structure, to predict the
residual life measures to enhance the life of the structure.
Details of few of the tests, which are in syllabus , are described below,
Non-destructive testing
• Non-destructive testing is a testing method used to evaluate the strength and durability of concrete
structures without causing any damage.
• This testing method involves using various techniques to evaluate the properties of the concrete
without extracting samples or damaging the structure.
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• Non-destructive testing is often used to evaluate the quality of new concrete structures, as well as
to assess the condition of existing structures.
• Common non-destructive testing techniques for concrete include ultrasonic testing, radar testing,
infrared thermography, and ground-penetrating radar.
• Ultrasonic testing involves sending high-frequency sound waves through the concrete and
analyzing the reflected waves to evaluate the concrete's properties.
• Radar testing uses electromagnetic waves to evaluate the condition of the concrete and identify
any defects or weaknesses.
• Infrared thermography uses thermal imaging to detect temperature variations in the concrete,
which can indicate the presence of defects or weaknesses.
• Ground-penetrating radar involves sending electromagnetic waves into the concrete and analyzing
the reflections to determine the concrete's properties and identify any defects or weaknesses.
• Non-destructive testing can provide valuable information about the condition of concrete
structures, which can be used to assess their safety and lifespan and to plan maintenance and repair
activities.
1. Schmidt Hammer Test IS 13311 (Part 2): 1992.
• The Schmidt hammer test is also known as the rebound hammer test.
• It measures the rebound of an impact mass from the surface of a material.
• The test is based on the principle that the rebound of the mass is related to the hardness and strength
of the material.
• The instrument used in the test is a handheld device that consists of a spring-loaded hammer that
strikes the surface of the material and a measuring unit that records the rebound.
• The result of the test is expressed in terms of the rebound number, which is a dimensionless value
between 0 and 100.
• The rebound number is correlated with the compressive strength of the material, and the correlation
varies depending on the type and age of the material.
• The test can be used for quality control of concrete during construction, assessment of concrete
structures for maintenance and repair, and evaluation of the strength of rock and masonry.
• The test is simple, quick, and inexpensive, but it has some limitations, such as sensitivity to surface
conditions, variations in test results, and difficulty in testing irregular or curved surfaces.
Rebound Hammer Test, is a non-destructive test used to determine the compressive strength of concrete.
The Indian Standard code for this test is IS 13311 (Part 2): 1992.
The procedure for conducting the Schmidt Hammer Test according to Indian Standard is as follows:
1. Preparation of the Test Surface: The test surface should be clean, free from dust, loose particles,
and other materials that may affect the test results.
2. Calibration of the Schmidt Hammer: The Schmidt Hammer should be calibrated before use. This
involves checking the hammer's rebound values against the calibration curve provided by the
manufacturer.
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3. Taking Measurements: Place the Schmidt Hammer perpendicular to the test surface and press the
trigger to release the hammer. The hammer will rebound off the surface, and the rebound distance
will be recorded by the instrument. Take at least 12 measurements at different locations on the
surface to get a representative average.
4. Calculation of Compressive Strength: Use the rebound values to determine the compressive
strength of the concrete using a conversion chart provided by the manufacturer. This chart relates
rebound values to compressive strength.
5.
6.
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2. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) - IS: 13311 (Part 1): 1992

• Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) is a non-destructive testing method used to evaluate the quality
and integrity of concrete structures.
• The UPV test involves sending high-frequency sound waves through concrete and measuring the
time it takes for the waves to travel through the material.
• The test results can provide information on the strength, density, and uniformity of concrete, as
well as the presence of any cracks or voids within the structure.
• The UPV test is typically performed on newly constructed or repaired concrete structures, as well
as on existing structures to monitor their condition over time.
• The test equipment consists of a generator that produces high-frequency sound waves and a
receiver that detects the waves after they have traveled through the concrete.
• The test results are typically reported in meters per second (m/s) and can be used to calculate the
elastic modulus and compressive strength of the concrete.
• The UPV test is a fast and reliable method of assessing the quality of concrete, and it is widely
used in the construction industry to ensure the safety and durability of concrete structures.
• The UPV test can be performed on different types of concrete structures, including walls, slabs,
columns, and beams.
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• The test can also be used to assess the bonding between concrete and reinforcement bars (rebars)
by measuring the velocity of sound waves traveling through the concrete and rebars together.
• The accuracy and reliability of the test results can be affected by various factors, such as the
moisture content, temperature, and type of aggregate used in the concrete, as well as the presence
of surface coatings or other materials that can interfere with the sound waves.
• The UPV test is often combined with other non-destructive testing methods, such as rebound
hammer or core sampling, to obtain a more comprehensive evaluation of the concrete structure.
• The test results can be interpreted based on established standards and guidelines, such as the ASTM
C597 or the BS EN 12504-4, which provide criteria for assessing the quality and durability of
concrete based on its UPV values.
• In addition to assessing the quality of newly constructed or repaired concrete structures, the UPV
test can also be used for monitoring the performance and condition of existing structures,
especially in cases where there are concerns about the safety or integrity of the concrete.
The procedure for ultrasonic pulse velocity testing in India is described in the Indian Standard
code IS: 13311 (Part 1): 1992 - Non-destructive testing of concrete - Methods of test (Part 1):
Ultrasonic pulse velocity.
The procedure for conducting ultrasonic pulse velocity testing in accordance with this standard is
as follows:
1. Preparation of test specimens: a. The test specimens should be prepared according to relevant
standards. b. The surfaces of the test specimens should be clean and free from any loose material.
2. Calibration of the equipment: a. The ultrasonic pulse velocity equipment should be calibrated using
a calibration block made of the same material as the test specimen. b. The calibration block should
have a known velocity and thickness. c. The equipment should be adjusted to give a pulse velocity
reading equal to the known velocity of the calibration block.
3. Testing of the specimens: a. The transducers should be placed on opposite sides of the test
specimen. b. The transducers should be coupled to the specimen using a suitable coupling agent.
c. The ultrasonic pulse velocity equipment should be used to measure the time taken for the pulse
to travel through the specimen. d. The pulse velocity readings should be taken at multiple locations
on the test specimen. e. The test should be repeated for each specimen.
4. Calculation of results: a. The average pulse velocity for each specimen should be calculated. b.
The results should be reported in meters per second (m/s). c. Any anomalies or variations in the
pulse velocity readings should be noted.
5. Interpretation of results: a. The pulse velocity readings can be used to determine the quality of the
concrete. b. Higher pulse velocities generally indicate better quality concrete. c. The results should
be compared to relevant standards or specifications to determine if
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Semi-destructive testing
• Semi-destructive testing is a non-intrusive testing method used to evaluate the strength and
durability of concrete structures without causing any significant damage.
• This testing method involves drilling or coring small holes in the concrete structure to extract
samples for analysis.
• Semi-destructive testing is often used to evaluate the in-situ strength of concrete structures, as well
as to identify any defects or weaknesses in the concrete.
• Common semi-destructive testing techniques include ultrasonic testing, rebound hammer testing,
pull-off testing, and core drilling.
• Ultrasonic testing involves sending sound waves through the concrete to measure the velocity of
the waves and determine the strength of the concrete.
• Rebound hammer testing involves striking the concrete surface with a hammer and measuring the
rebound to determine the concrete's compressive strength.
• Pull-off testing involves applying a tensile force to the concrete surface and measuring the force
required to pull the concrete off.
• Core drilling involves drilling a small hole in the concrete and extracting a cylindrical sample for
laboratory analysis.
• Semi-destructive testing can provide valuable information about the strength and durability of
concrete structures, which can be used to assess their safety and lifespan
probe test IS: 13311(Part 2) – 1992
• A probe test is a non-destructive testing method used to assess the quality and strength of concrete.
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• This testing method involves inserting a steel probe into the concrete and measuring the resistance
of the concrete to penetration.
• The probe test is also known as the Windsor probe test, named after the inventor of the test.
• The probe test is typically used to evaluate the compressive strength of concrete, as well as to
identify any areas of low strength or defects in the concrete.
• The probe test is particularly useful for testing the compressive strength of concrete structures that
are difficult or impossible to access, such as bridges or high-rise buildings.
• The probe test is relatively simple and inexpensive to perform, but it requires some experience and
expertise to interpret the results accurately.
• The probe test results are typically presented as a graph that shows the depth of penetration versus
the resistance of the concrete.
• The probe test results can be used to evaluate the quality of new concrete structures, as well as to
assess the condition of existing structures and plan maintenance and repair activities.
• The probe test involves using a small, cylindrical steel probe that is typically around 4 mm in
diameter and 70 mm long.
• The probe is inserted into the concrete at a perpendicular angle using a spring-loaded firing
mechanism.
• The probe test measures the resistance of the concrete to the penetration of the probe, which is
directly related to the compressive strength of the concrete.
• The probe test is often used in combination with other non-destructive testing methods, such as
ultrasonic testing or ground-penetrating radar, to get a more complete picture of the condition of
the concrete.
• The probe test has some limitations, including its sensitivity to surface irregularities, moisture
content, and the presence of rebar or other reinforcement in the concrete.
• The probe test is a reliable and widely used testing method for assessing the quality and strength
of concrete structures. However, it is important to use the results of the probe test in conjunction
with other testing methods and to interpret the results in the context of the specific structure being
tested.
The Indian Standard Code of Practice for the Probe Test is given in the IS: 13311(Part 2) - 1992 "Non-
destructive Testing of Concrete - Methods of Test, Part 2: Estimation of Strength in Situ, Compressive
Strength."
Here are the general steps outlined in the code for performing the probe test:
1. Preparation: The surface of the concrete to be tested should be cleaned and any loose material or
debris should be removed. The probe should be checked for accuracy and calibration before use.
2. Drilling: A small hole should be drilled into the concrete at the desired test location. The hole
should be perpendicular to the surface of the concrete and should have a diameter of 12 mm and a
depth of at least 70 mm.
3. Inserting the probe: The probe is inserted into the hole using a spring-loaded firing mechanism
until it reaches the bottom of the hole. The probe should be left in place for at least 10 seconds to
allow the concrete to compress around the probe.
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4. Measuring the resistance: The resistance of the concrete to the penetration of the probe is measured
using a gauge that is attached to the probe. The gauge should be calibrated before use.
5. Repeat testing: The probe test should be repeated at least two more times at different locations on
the same surface of the concrete. The average of the three measurements is used to estimate the
compressive strength of the concrete.
6. Interpretation: The compressive strength of the concrete is estimated using a chart provided by the
manufacturer of the probe. The chart correlates the resistance of the concrete to the penetration of
the probe with the compressive strength of the concrete.
It's important to note that the above steps are just a general outline, and that the full procedure for
performing the probe test according to the Indian Standard Code should be followed for accurate results.
Fig: Probe Device Used for Penetration Resistance Testing
Positions of Testing Stations are Specified by Tringular Device through Which a Probe is Fired
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Penetration Resistance Testing
Penetration Test Result for Soft and Hard Surfaces
Pull out test (IS 5816:1999)
• The pull-out test is a standard test used to determine the bond strength between concrete and
reinforcing steel.
• It involves inserting a steel rod into a drilled hole in the concrete, and then applying a tensile load
to the rod until it pulls out of the concrete.
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• The test measures the force required to pull the rod out of the concrete, which provides an
indication of the bond strength between the concrete and the steel.
• Pull-out tests can be performed on-site or in a laboratory, and are commonly used in the
construction industry to ensure the quality and safety of concrete structures.
• Factors that can affect the results of the pull-out test include the diameter of the drilled hole, the
length of the embedment, the type of steel used, the age and strength of the concrete, and the
surface preparation of the hole.
• The results of the pull-out test are typically reported in terms of bond strength or bond stress, which
is the force per unit area required to pull the steel out of the concrete.
• Pull-out test results can be used to verify the design of concrete structures, evaluate the quality of
concrete materials and construction practices, and assess the effectiveness of repair or retrofitting
work on existing structures.
• While the pull-out test is a useful tool for evaluating bond strength, it is not the only test available
and may not always provide an accurate representation of the actual bond strength between the
concrete and steel in a given structure.
The procedure for the pull-out test in India is outlined in the Indian Standard Code of Practice for Testing
Concrete (IS 5816:1999). The following is a brief summary of the procedure:
1. Sample Preparation: Prepare the concrete specimen by drilling a hole with a diameter of 20-25 mm
and a depth of at least 50 mm. Clean the hole with a brush and air blow it to remove any debris.
2. Insertion of Test Rod: Insert a steel rod with a diameter of 12-16 mm and a length of at least 200
mm into the hole. The rod should be coated with a thin layer of grease to prevent it from bonding
with the concrete.
3. Test Set-Up: Fix the end of the rod to the testing machine using a suitable grip. Apply the load to
the rod at a rate of 0.2-0.3 MPa/s until the rod is pulled out of the concrete.
4. Calculation of Results: Calculate the bond strength of the concrete by dividing the maximum load
applied during the test by the cross-sectional area of the rod. The results should be reported in
N/mm².
5. Recording of Results: Record the test results, including the date, time, location, and other relevant
details in a test report.
6. Interpretation of Results: Interpret the results based on the design requirements and the expected
bond strength of the concrete. If the results are below the required minimum bond strength, further
investigations may be necessary to identify the cause and to determine appropriate remedial
measures.
It is important to note that this is just a summary of the procedure and the full details can be found in the
IS 5816:1999 standard.
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LOK Test
Relationship between the pullout force and

compressive strength:
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Chloride penetration test (IS 13311:1992).

• The chloride penetration test is a widely used method to assess the susceptibility of concrete to
chloride-induced corrosion.
• Chloride ions can penetrate concrete through various sources, such as seawater, de-icing salts, or
industrial effluents, and can cause corrosion of the reinforcing steel within the concrete.
• The test involves drilling a hole into the concrete and extracting a core sample.
• The core sample is then sliced into sections of different depths, and each section is tested for
chloride ion concentration using various methods, such as titration, potentiometric, or colorimetric
analysis.
• The depth of chloride penetration is then determined based on the concentration of chloride ions
in each section and the distance from the surface of the concrete.
• The test results can be used to assess the durability of the concrete and to determine if protective
measures, such as surface coatings or corrosion inhibitors, are necessary.
• Factors that can affect the results of the chloride penetration test include the type of concrete, the
age and condition of the concrete, the environmental exposure, and the testing method used.
• There are various standards and guidelines for conducting the chloride penetration test, such as
ASTM C1202, AASHTO T277, or BS EN 14629.
• The test is widely used in the construction industry, especially for concrete structures exposed to
marine or de-icing environments, such as bridges, tunnels, or offshore platforms.
• The test can also be used for quality control purposes during concrete production, to ensure that
the concrete meets the required specifications for chloride resistance.
The procedure for the chloride penetration test on concrete in India is outlined in the Indian Standard Code
of Practice for Non-destructive Testing of Concrete (IS 13311:1992). The following is a brief summary
of the procedure:
1. Sample Preparation: Prepare the concrete specimen by drilling a hole with a diameter of at least
50 mm and a depth of at least 50 mm.
2. Surface Preparation: Thoroughly clean the surface of the hole and remove any loose particles or
debris.
3. Testing Solution Preparation: Prepare the testing solution by dissolving a known amount of sodium
chloride in distilled water to obtain a solution with a concentration of 0.3 M/L.
4. Testing Set-Up: Fill the hole with the testing solution and cover it with a plastic sheet to prevent
evaporation. Allow the solution to remain in contact with the concrete for 24 hours at a temperature
of 27 ± 2°C.
5. Testing Procedure: After 24 hours, remove the plastic sheet and extract a sample of the solution
from the hole using a pipette. Test the sample for chloride ion concentration using a suitable
method, such as potentiometric or colorimetric analysis.
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6. Calculation of Results: Calculate the chloride ion penetration depth by multiplying the chloride
ion concentration by a factor that depends on the thickness of the concrete cover and the type of
concrete.
chloride ion penetration depth. If the results are above the maximum allowable limit, further
investigations may be necessary to identify the cause and to determine appropriate remedial
measures.
IS 13311:1992 standard.
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Carbonation in concrete
• Carbonation is a natural process that occurs in concrete over time as carbon dioxide in the air reacts
with the calcium hydroxide in the cement paste.
• The reaction results in the formation of calcium carbonate, which reduces the alkalinity of the
concrete and lowers its pH level.
• Carbonation can also occur due to exposure to carbon dioxide from other sources, such as exhaust
fumes, industrial emissions, or natural sources.
• The rate of carbonation depends on various factors, such as the type of cement, the curing
conditions, the thickness of the concrete cover, the environmental exposure, and the presence of
other contaminants.
• Carbonation can reduce the passivation layer of the reinforcing steel in the concrete, which can
lead to corrosion and eventual structural damage.
• The extent of carbonation can be assessed by drilling a hole in the concrete and testing the pH
level of the extracted core sample using a suitable method, such as litmus paper or pH meter.
• The test results can be used to estimate the carbonation depth and to determine if protective
measures, such as coatings or inhibitors, are necessary.
• Preventive measures against carbonation include using low permeability concrete, providing
adequate concrete cover, and minimizing exposure to carbon dioxide sources.
• The repair and rehabilitation of carbonated concrete structures involve removing the carbonated
layer, cleaning the surface, and applying protective coatings or inhibitors.
• There are various standards and guidelines for assessing and managing carbonation in concrete,
such as ASTM C856, BS EN 14683, or ACI 318.
carbonation depth testing:
• Carbonation depth testing is a non-destructive test method used to assess the extent of carbonation
in concrete.
• The test involves drilling a hole into the concrete and extracting a core sample from the depth of
interest.
• The pH level of the extracted core sample is then measured using a suitable method, such as litmus
paper, pH indicator solution, or pH meter.
• The pH level indicates the alkalinity of the concrete, and the depth of carbonation can be estimated
based on the pH level profile along the length of the core sample.
measures, such as coatings or inhibitors, are necessary.
• Factors that can affect the results of the carbonation depth test include the type of concrete, the age
and condition of the concrete, the environmental exposure, and the testing method used.
• There are various standards and guidelines for conducting the carbonation depth test, such as
ASTM C856, BS EN 14683, or ACI 318.
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carbon dioxide sources, such as tunnels, parking garages, or industrial facilities.
the concrete meets the required specifications for carbonation resistance.
• It is important to note that the carbonation depth test provides only an estimate of the extent of
carbonation, and other test methods may be necessary to confirm the results or to identify the cause
of carbonation, such as chloride ion penetration test or corrosion monitoring.
The procedure for carbonation depth testing in India is outlined in the Indian Standard Code of Practice
for Non-destructive Testing of Concrete (IS 13311:1992). The following is a brief summary of the
procedure:
1. Sample Preparation: Select the concrete specimen to be tested and drill a hole with a diameter of
at least 50 mm and a depth of at least 10 mm greater than the expected carbonation depth.
2. Surface Preparation: Thoroughly clean the surface of the hole and remove any loose particles or
debris.
3. pH Measurement: Measure the pH level of the extracted core sample using a suitable method, such
as litmus paper, pH indicator solution, or pH meter.
4. Calculation of Carbonation Depth: Calculate the carbonation depth by measuring the pH level
profile along the length of the core sample and comparing it to the pH level of the uncarbonated
concrete.
carbonation depth. If the results are above the maximum allowable limit, further investigations
may be necessary to identify the cause and to determine appropriate remedial measures.
IS 13311:1992 standard. The standard also provides guidelines for the calibration of pH meters, the
correction of temperature effects, and the interpretation of results.
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Corrosion activity measurement test

• Corrosion activity measurement is a non-destructive test method used to assess the corrosion rate
of reinforcing steel in concrete structures.
• The test involves measuring the electrical potential difference between the reinforcing steel and a
reference electrode placed on the concrete surface.
• The potential difference is then converted to a corrosion rate using a suitable empirical relationship
or corrosion model.
• The test can be conducted using various types of electrodes, such as half-cell electrodes, embedded
electrodes, or surface-mounted electrodes.
measures, such as cathodic protection or coatings, are necessary.
• Factors that can affect the results of the corrosion activity measurement include the type of
concrete, the age and condition of the concrete, the environmental exposure, and the location of
the measurement.
• There are various standards and guidelines for conducting the corrosion activity measurement,
such as ASTM C876, BS EN 12696, or ACI 222.3R.
aggressive environments, such as marine structures, bridges, or parking garages.
the concrete meets the required specifications for corrosion resistance.
• It is important to note that the corrosion activity measurement provides only an estimate of the
corrosion rate, and other test methods may be necessary to confirm the results or to identify the
cause of corrosion, such as chloride ion penetration test or carbonation depth test.
The procedure for corrosion activity measurement in India is outlined in the Indian Standard Code of
Practice for Non-destructive Testing of Concrete (IS 13311:1992). The following is a brief summary of
the procedure:
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AJCE FSP
1. Sample Preparation: Select the concrete specimen to be tested and prepare the surface by removing
any loose particles or debris.
2. Electrode Placement: Place the reference electrode on the concrete surface and connect it to the
voltmeter. Place the half-cell electrode on the concrete surface near the reference electrode and
connect it to the voltmeter.
3. Electrical Potential Measurement: Measure the electrical potential difference between the half-cell
electrode and the reference electrode using a suitable voltmeter.
4. Calculation of Corrosion Rate: Calculate the corrosion rate using a suitable empirical relationship
or corrosion model based on the measured electrical potential difference and other relevant
parameters, such as concrete cover depth, pH level, and temperature.
corrosion rate. If the results indicate a high corrosion rate, further investigations may be necessary
to identify the cause and to determine appropriate remedial measures.
IS 13311:1992 standard. The standard also provides guidelines for the selection and placement of
electrodes, the calibration of the voltmeter, the correction of temperature effects, and the interpretation of
results
.
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AJCE FSP
Core test in hardened concrete

• Core testing is a commonly used method for evaluating the strength and integrity of hardened
concrete.
• It involves drilling a cylindrical core from a concrete structure and subjecting it to various tests to
assess its properties.
• The size and number of cores to be taken for testing depend on the size and complexity of the
structure, as well as the desired level of accuracy in the results.
• The most common tests performed on concrete cores include compressive strength testing,
splitting tensile strength testing, and petrographic analysis.
• Compressive strength testing involves subjecting the core to a load until it fails, and measuring the
maximum load it can withstand. This is typically done using a hydraulic testing machine.
• Splitting tensile strength testing involves applying a force perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the core until it fractures, and measuring the force required to do so.
• Petrographic analysis involves examining the core under a microscope to identify its mineral
composition and microstructure, and to detect any defects or anomalies that may affect its strength
and durability.
• Core testing can provide valuable information on the quality and durability of concrete structures,
and can help identify potential problems or defects that may require corrective action.
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AJCE FSP
The Indian Standard code for core testing in hardened concrete is IS 516:1959. Here are the
general procedures outlined in the code:
1. Selection of location and number of cores to be tested: The location and number of cores to be
tested should be decided based on the structure's size and complexity, and the desired level of
accuracy. Generally, at least three cores should be taken from each designated area.
2. Drilling of cores: Cores should be drilled using a drilling machine that is appropriate for the size
and shape of the cores required. The cores should be extracted carefully to avoid damage.
3. Measurement of core diameter and length: The diameter and length of the core should be measured
to the nearest 0.1 mm.
4. Capping of ends: The ends of the core should be capped to ensure a flat and smooth surface for
testing. The caps should be made of sulfur or a high-strength cement-based material.
5. Testing of cores: The cores should be tested for compressive strength using a compression testing
machine. The load should be applied gradually until the core fails.
6. Calculation of compressive strength: The compressive strength of the core should be calculated by
dividing the maximum load by the cross-sectional area of the core.
7. Interpretation of results: The results should be interpreted based on the compressive strength of
each core, and the average strength of all the cores tested. Any deviations from the expected
strength should be investigated.
The code also provides detailed guidelines on the equipment and materials required for core testing, as
well as the methods for preparing and testing cores.
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AJCE FSP
Load testing of hardened concrete

• Load testing of hardened concrete involves applying a specified load to a concrete structure or
element to evaluate its strength and durability.
• Load testing can be conducted using destructive or non-destructive methods, depending on the
nature of the structure and the test requirements.
• In destructive testing, the concrete is subjected to an increasing load until failure occurs, allowing
engineers to determine the ultimate strength of the structure.
• Non-destructive testing methods include ultrasonic testing, rebound hammer testing, and pullout
testing. These methods are less destructive and can provide valuable information about the strength
and durability of the concrete without causing damage to the structure.
• Load testing can be used to assess the effectiveness of concrete reinforcement, such as steel bars
or fibers, and to evaluate the quality of concrete mixes.
• The results of load testing can be used to make informed decisions about the design, construction,
and maintenance of concrete structures, as well as to identify potential areas of weakness that may
require repair or reinforcement.
• Load testing should always be carried out by experienced professionals using appropriate
equipment and safety measures to ensure accurate results and to minimize the risk of injury or
damage to the structure.
The Indian Standard Code of Practice for Load Testing of Concrete Structures is IS 1893:1984 (Criteria
for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures). It outlines the procedure for load testing of concrete
structures as follows:
1. Planning and Preparation: The first step is to plan the load test and prepare for it. This involves
determining the location of the test, selecting the type of load to be used, and preparing the
necessary equipment.
2. Application of Load: Once the preparation is complete, the load is applied to the structure using a
suitable testing apparatus. The load is applied gradually and continuously until the desired level is
achieved.
3. Monitoring: During the load test, the structure is carefully monitored using various instruments
such as strain gauges, displacement sensors, and load cells. The data obtained from these
instruments is recorded and analyzed.
4. Unloading: After the desired level of load is achieved and the structure is adequately monitored,
the load is gradually removed until the original state of the structure is restored.
5. Interpretation of Results: Finally, the data obtained from the load test is analyzed to determine the
strength and behavior of the structure under load. This information is used to evaluate the safety
and stability of the structure.
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AJCE FSP

Damage Diagnosis and Assessment of Concrete Structures

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REPAIR AND REHABILITATION OF BUILDINGS Module 2

Damage diagnosis and assessment of concrete structures

• Tensile strength testing of concrete beams or prisms

Assessment Procedure for Evaluating Damages in Structure and Repair techniques:

Schmidt Hammer Test

With these tests it would be possible to know in-situ strength/quality of concrete to

1. Schmidt Hammer Test IS 13311 (Part 2): 1992.

2. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) - IS: 13311 (Part 1): 1992

Fig: Probe Device Used for Penetration Resistance Testing

Penetration Resistance Testing

Penetration Test Result for Soft and Hard Surfaces

Pull out test (IS 5816:1999)

Relationship between the pullout force and

Chloride penetration test (IS 13311:1992).

carbonation depth testing:

Corrosion activity measurement test

Core test in hardened concrete

Load testing of hardened concrete

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