PBS 2 TRANSES - Introduction To HAPP Until Basic Cell Structures and Functions

PBS 2 (2018): HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Institute of Pharmacy S.Y. 2022 - 2023

1st Year I 2st Semester I Midterms
Prof. Joshua Kenneth Ng
Importances:
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 1. Understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli.
Why do we need to study Human Physiology and 2. Understand how the body’s internal conditions within a
Pathophysiology? narrow range of values in the presence of continually
● Human body has many parts with coordinated functions changing internal and external environments.
maintained by a complex system of checks and balances
also known as “homeostasis”. Understanding Branches of Physiology:
● Coordinated function is responsible for the body to 1. Human physiology
interact with surroundings. ❖ study of a specific organism.
● adapts to changes in environments and interactions of 2. Cellular physiology
both inside and outside of the body or also known as ❖ biological study concerned with transport of
“stimuli”. nutrients, ions and water into and out of a cell.
❖ The way the body adjusts to the environmental 3. Systemic physiology
information. ❖ deals with organ specific systems and how they
function.
Understanding Anatomy
Anatomy Understanding Pathophysiology
● scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the ● study of the disturbance of normal, mechanical, physical
body. and biochemical functions, either caused by a disease or
● means to dissect, cut apart and separate, the parts of the resulting from a disease or abnormal syndrome or
body for the study. condition that may not qualify to be called a disease.
● covers a wide range of studies, including the structure of ● An alternate definition is "the study of the biological and
body parts, their microscopic organization, and the physical manifestations of disease as they correlate with
processes by which they develop. the underlying abnormalities and physiological
● examines the relationship between the structure of a disturbances”.
body part and its function. ● entails the study of not only disease, but also the study of
disorder and syndrome.
Two (2) Approaches of Anatomy:
➢ Systemic anatomy Disease, Disorder, and Syndrome
❖ study of the body system. Disease
❖ e.g. cardiovascular, reproductive, muscular etc. ● health disease with definite reason behind it.
➢ Regional anatomy ● e.g. osteoarthritis or the wear and tear of the bones due
❖ study of the organization of the body by area. to lack of synovial fluid.
Disorder
Two (2) General Ways in Examining Internal Structures: ● no organization, or disorganization that can lead to
1. Surface anatomy impairment.
● external features. Syndrome
2. Anatomical anatomy ● from the greek word meaning “run together”, a number of
● use of other technologies to create images. symptoms without an identifiable cause.
● e.g. ● e.g. Down Syndrome
❖ CT (Computerized Tomography) Scan
❖ PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan Structural and Functional Organization of the Human Body
❖ MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Scan Chemical level
❖ Ultrasounds ● hydrogen and carbon -> molecule structure
❖ X-Ray (X-Radiation) - uses different ● starts with atoms of hydrogen and carbon that eventually
wavelengths such as: combines and turns into a molecular structure.
➔ Alpha Additional Information:
➢ superficial wavelength; ➢ For example, collagen fibers or molecules have
weakest penetration. strong rough fibers that give skin structural
➔ Beta strength and flexibility.
➔ Gamma ➢ Aging process of collagen begins to deteriorate
➢ highest or strongest at age 20.
penetration wavelength. ➢ That’s why we should drink Vitamin C that has
Anatomists antioxidants and stimulates collagen
● person involved in studying anatomy. production or fibroblast.
Cell level
Understanding Physiology ● forms into organelles -> cell structure
● scientific that deals with the processes or functions of Tissue level
the living things. ● group of similar and the materials surrounding them
● structures -> dynamic rather than fixed -> unchanging (epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous).
Organ level
● composed of two or more tissue types that are used
together to perform one or more common functions
Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 1

(heart, stomach, liver and urinary bladder). It can result in an increase of cell size, number or amount
of substance surrounding the cells.
Additional Information: Additional Information:
➢ Heart - carries oxygen-rich blood to the whole ➢ Chlorella Growth Factor (CGF) - only supports
body, and carries deoxygenated blood away the growth of the body and is only a
from our body through respiration, urination etc. supplement. No approved therapeutic claims.
○ oxygenated blood - bright red Development
○ deoxygenated blood - dark red ● includes the changes an organism undergoes through
Organ System level time.
● group of organs classified as a unit because of a Differentiation
common function or set of functions. ● change in cell structure and function from generalized to
Organism level specialized.
● any living thing considered as a whole, whether Reproduction
composed of one cell such as bacterium or trillions of ● formation of new cells or new organisms.
cells such as human.
HOMEOSTASIS
1. Atoms ● hōʹmē-ō-stāʹsis; “homeo-”, meaning the same; “-stasis”
2. Molecules meaning to stop.
3. Organelle ● existence and maintenance of a relatively constant
4. Cell environment within the body despite fluctuations in either
5. Tissue the external environment or the internal environment
6. Organ similar to a “buffer” in inorganic chemistry.
7. Organ System ● narrow range of conditions including temperature,
8. Organism volume and chemical content (these can change;
variables).
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE Homeostatic mechanisms
Organization ● mechanisms that maintain normal body temperature
● refers to the specific relationship of many individual parts near an average value or set point.
of an organism, from cell organelles to organs, ● e.g. sweating, shivering
interacting and working together. ❖ In sweating, hypothalamus senses high
Metabolism temperatures e.g. in exercising, then it signals
● ability to use energy to perform vital functions growth, the body to produce sweat in order to cool
movement and reproduction. down.
Additional Information: ❖ In shivering, there’s continuous and short
➢ Anabolism - synthesis of complex molecules contractions of the muscles as it produces heat
from simpler ones. Requires energy. that will normalize body temperature, a.k.a. “the
➢ Catabolism - breakdown of complex molecules compensation process”.
into simpler ones. These reactions release ❖ Note:
energy. ➔ Body temperature increases and
➢ Intermittent fasting or 8-12 hrs of fasting decreases slightly around the set
forces our body to break down stored fat. point producing a normal range of
➢ When you don’t eat for 24 hrs your body breaks values.
down proteins from the muscle to convert it into ➔ Homeostatic mechanisms are not
energy and this is called “catabolism”. able to maintain body temperature
Responsiveness precisely at a set point.
● ability of an organism to sense changes in the
environment and make adjustments that help maintain Negative Feedback
its life. ● any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is
Additional Information: resisted.
➢ Circadian rhythm - helps control your daily ● Negative feedback does not prevent variation but
schedule for sleep and wakefulness or most maintains variation within a normal range.
commonly known as our ‘body clock’. ● e.g. body temperature
➢ Melatonin Additional Information:
➔ responsive only when the ➢ Catapres affects negative feedback to lower
environment is dark. blood pressure. It works by relaxing and
➔ taking melatonin has first-pass effect. widening blood vessels in lowering blood sugar
➔ can possess antioxidant activity. levels.
➔ Note that you shouldn’t take this more
than 10 mg. 1. Receptor
➔ It is a prescription drug in certain ● monitors the value of a variable such as body
countries like Dubai. temperature by detecting stimuli.
Growth ● sends a message to the control center (brain)
● refers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism. ● e.g. skin

❖ There’s various receptors in the skin or dermis ❖ In other words, positive means that the
layer. deviation from the set point becomes even
2. Control center greater.
● determines the set point for the variable and receives ❖ required to re-achieve homeostasis.
input from the receptor about the variable before making ❖ e.g. birth and blood loss
an output or action. In birth,
3. Effector 1. When a woman is giving birth, the uterus becomes
● can change the value of the variable when directed by the greatly expanded than normal to compensate for the
control center to produce a stimulus. baby’s large size.
● e.g. nerves, effector nerves when are connected will then 2. The body senses that the baby needs to be delivered. It
create a stimulus. stimulates the contraction of uterine muscles to deliver
4. Stimulus the baby which is the initial stimulus that is needed to
● a changed variable that initiates the homeostatic enhance in order to re-achieve homeostasis.
mechanism 3. When the uterus begins to contract, it pushes the baby
● e.g. sweating against the opening of the uterus stretching it further.
This stimulates additional contraction providing
Pyrexia additional stretching until the baby is released.
● medical term for fever. 4. Positive feedback is when the baby is delivered and the
stretching of the uterus is eliminated.
A PERSON WITH PYREXIA
1) Rise in body temperature In extreme blood loss,
2) Sweat and the body cools. 1. Blood pressure decreases, to the point that delivery of
3) Thermoreceptors in the skin detect an increase of the blood to the cardiac muscle is inadequate.
temperature. 2. To compensate, blood transfusion must immediately be
4) Sends to control center done because extreme blood loss weakens cardiac
5) Hypothalamus stimulates blood vessels in the skin to muscles even if the brain persists in communicating the
relax and sweat glands to produce sweat. heart to pump more blood.
6) Sends more blood to the body's surface to radiate heat 3. If not further treated, it can lead to death.
away from the body.
7) Body temperature returns to normal. Note:
8) Control center regulates and sends signals to sweat ● There are positive and negative side in positive feedback.
glands to reduce sweat.
9) Blood vessels (BV) constricts and returns to normal
diameter.
Additional Information:
➢ Medulla a.k.a. “brain stem”
➔ controls heart rate, and other
involuntary movements such as
digestion, and releasing of hormones.
➔ For example, there’s very little chance
of surviving if a person has a cancer
in medulla e.g. glioma because it is
inoperable. Any wrong move will
immediately cut-off involuntary
actions such as breathing.
➢ Thermoreceptors
➔ located in the dermis.
➢ Thermogenesis
➔ rising of temperatures.
A PERSON WITH HYPOTHERMIA

1) A drop in body temperature. ORGAN SYSTEM OF THE BODY
2) Control center does not stimulate sweat glands. Major Organs of the Body
3) Blood vessels constrict more than normal. Brain
4) Blood is directed to deeper regions of the body. ● control center of the body meaning it controls everything
5) Conserves heat in the interior of the body. from voluntary to involuntary movements.
6) Hypothalamus stimulates shivering processes. Lungs
7) Generates heat through quick cycles of muscle ● site of respiration particularly gas exchange of oxygen
contractions. and carbon dioxide.
8) Body temperature returns to normal. Heart
● main pump of the blood that carries oxygenated blood
throughout the body or carries oxygen away from the
Positive Feedback
heart and also carries deoxygenated blood from the
● occur when the initial stimulus further stimulates the
body.
response.
❖ Deoxygenated blood can be excreted through ➔ caused for weight loss.

respiration, kidneys, saliva, and mucous ➔ causes fatty or oily stool “fatty
membranes. spotting”.
Liver ➢ Loperamide
● home of many enzymes, site of metabolism as well as ➔ Diphenoxylate
drug interactions. ➔ opioid drug that relieves pain for
Additional Information: diarrhea.
➢ The LADMER (System Liberation, Absorption, ➔ does not treat diarrhea but masks
Distribution, Metabolism, Elimination, and underlying issues.
Response) in the relationship between dose Kidneys
and its effectiveness. ● major filtering organ in the body.
➢ Cytochrome P450 (CYP) ● helps in the excretion of excess water and salts.
➔ enzymes for metabolism and filtering ● responsible for the RAAS Mechanism.
toxins, are a protein superfamily Additional Information:
involved in the synthesis and ➢ Edema
metabolism of drugs, toxins and ➔ swelling caused by excessive fluid or
normal cellular components. water retention in the body.
Pancreas ● Treated with diuretics
● responsible for releasing insulin (regulates blood sugar specifically Furosemide,
levels) to form metabolic processes, also responsible for Spironolactone.
regulation of blood sugar. ➔ Its hallmark symptom is Congestive
Additional Information: Heart Failure (CHF) treated with
➢ Glucose Tolerance Factor (GTF) Digoxin which came from the Digitalis
➔ synthesized in vivo from absorbed plant a.k.a. Purple foxglove plant.
dietary chromium, and acts as a Large Intestine
physiological enhancer of insulin ● for elimination and excretion.
activity. ● binds undigested material with water to form firm stool.
Spleen
● humans can live without it. Additional Information:
● eliminates toxins ➢ Watery stools means there’s a leakage of water
Stomach meaning undigested food is not fully absorbed
● responsible for churning process. resulting to loose bowel movement (LBM).
● releases potent HCl and enzymes. Small Intestine
● absorbs some drugs that are meant to be absorbed in ● site of certain nutrient absorption e.g. organic molecules,
the stomach. vitamins and minerals.
Additional Information: ● contains microvilli, function is to absorb nutrients.
➢ Bisacodyl (Brand name: Dulcolax) Urinary Bladder
➔ stimulant laxative that is enteric ● temporary storage of urine until it completely passes to
coated; can be very irritating. the urethra.
➔ Bisacodyl + milk = coating will Urethra
dissolve and can irritate stomach. ● a long, hollow tube similarly to a “straw” which serves as
Gallbladder a passage of urine until excretion process is done.
● The gallbladder holds a digestive fluid called bile that's
released into the small intestine.
➢ Amylase
➔ an enzyme, a type of protein that
helps your body break down
carbohydrates.
➢ Protease
➔ enzymes that break the peptide bonds
of proteins
➢ Lipase
➔ enzyme that helps the body digest
fats.
➢ Lactase
➔ enzyme responsible for the digestion
of the milk sugar called “lactose”.
➢ Malabsorption
➔ difficulty in the digestion or
absorption of nutrients from food.
➢ Orlistat
➔ drug that is otc that rescue absorption
of fat-soluble.

Integumentary System ● helps us breathe in diaphragm

➢ Muscle Atrophy
➔ wasting of muscle and is life
threatening.
➔ e.g. when bedridden
Nervous System
● provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents

water loss, and helps produce vitamin D.
● consists of skin, hair, nails, sebaceous glands and sweat
glands. ● a major regulatory system that detects sensations and
controls movements, physiological processes, and
intellectual functions.
Skeletal System ● consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory
receptors.
Endocrine System
● provides protection and support, allows body

movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals
and adipose tissue.
● consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and ● a major regulatory system that influences metabolism,
joints. growth, reproduction, and many other functions.
● framework of the body. ● consists of endocrine glands such as the pituitary (that
secretes hormones).
Muscular System Additional info:
➢ Cortisones
➔ hormone that the endocrine system
releases.
➔ hormone for anti-inflammatory
processes and stress response.
● produces body movements, maintains posture, and

produces body heat.
● consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.

Cardiovascular System Digestive System
● transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and

hormones throughout the body.
● plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of ● performs the mechanical and chemical processes of
body temperature. digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of
● consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. wastes.
● consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines,
Lymphatic System and accessory organs.
➢ Appendix
➔ accessory of the body.
➔ When a person walked or ran after
eating, the stomach pain is not due to
appendix, it is because of muscle
cramps.
➢ Appendicitis
➔ inflammation of the appendix when
an infection passes through.
➢ Sepsis
➔ response to an infection.
Urinary System
● removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph,

combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and
absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract.
● consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and
other lymphatic organs.
Respiratory System
● removes waste products from the blood and regulates

blood pH, ion balance, and water balance.
● consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ureters.
● exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood

and air and regulates blood pH.
● consists of the lungs and respiratory passages.

Female Reproductive System
Directional Terms
● describe parts of the body relative to each other
1. Superior (cranial)
● above or up
2. Inferior (caudal)
● below or down
3. Anterior / Ventral
● produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal ● front
development. ● it goes first
● produces milk for the newborn, produces hormones that ● e.g belly is front
influence sexual function and behaviors. 4. Posterior / Dorsal
● consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, ● back
mammary glands, and associated structures. ● follows the anterior
Additional Information: 5. Proximal
➢ Kids until 2 years old must drink breast milk. ● nearest
➢ Breastmilk 6. Distal
➔ has antibodies that detect antigens. ● distant
Male Reproductive System 7. Medial

● midline
8. Lateral
● away from the midline
● e.g. legs is lateral from stomach
9. Superficial
● structure close to the surface of the body
● e.g. skin
10. Deep
● toward the interior of the body
● e.g. digestive system, thorax
● produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and

produces hormones that influence sexual function and
behaviors.
● consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts, and
penis.
TERMINOLOGIES AND ANATOMICAL BODY PLANE
Understanding Body Positions & Directional Terms
Anatomical Position
● refers to a person standing upright with the face directed
forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides and the
palms of the hands facing forward.
1. Supine
● when lying face upward.
2. Prone
● when lying face downward.

Body Parts and Body Planes

1. Quadrants
● often in abdomen which is subdivided superficially into
four sections by two imaginary lines (one vertical and
one horizontal).
2. Regions
● quadrants are sometimes subdivided into four imaginary
regions (two vertical and two horizontal)
➢ Chest x-radiation
➔ radiation particles will capture frontal
areas.
➔ will not see deeper regions unlike MRI
that will give 3D visual.
Body Planes
1. Sagittal plane
Body Cavities and Serous membranes
● runs vertically through body and separates it into right
and left parts
2. Median plane Body Cavities
● a sagittal plane passes through the midline of the body, ● spaces/ empty area where organs can fit in a specific
dividing it into equal right and left halves cavity
● while the sagittal plane separates the body into left and 1. Thoracic cavity
right portions, the medial plane divides the body into two surrounded by the rib cage and separated from the
equal halves. abdominal cavity by the muscular diaphragm
3. Transverse or horizontal plane 2. Mediastinum
● runs parallel to the surface of the ground, dividing the ● divided into right and left parts by a center structure. The
body into superior and inferior parts section at which it houses the heart, the thymus, trachea,
4. Frontal or coronal plane esophagus and other structure
● runs vertically from right to left and divides the body into 3. Abdominal cavity
anterior and posterior parts. ● bounded primarily by the abdominal muscles and

contains the stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen

and the kidneys
● also called as “abdominopelvic cavity”
4. Pelvic cavity
● small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis which
houses urinary bladder, part of the large intestines and
reproductive organs.
● found in lower level.
2. Pleural cavity
● as seen on each lung which is covered by visceral pleura
and parietal pleura lines the inner surface of the thoracic
wall
❖ parietal pleura - outermost covering film
❖ visceral pleura - second layer
Symphysis pubis
● space/ little bone structure found in pubic area or in
pelvic structure.
Serous Membranes
● a membrane that lines the trunk cavities and cover the
organs of these cavities
● secretes fluid that fills space between parietal and
visceral membranes Additional Information:
Additional Information: ➢ -itis
➢ Serous Membrane is like the white film in ➔ suffix denoting diseases
boiled eggs. characterized by inflammation, itself
➔ protects the inner membrane against often caused by an infection.
shock, mechanical protection, and ➢ Pericarditis
infections. ➔ inflammation of pericardium (a thin
➔ Film but rigid structure sac that surrounds your heart. It
➔ Without the fluid secreted by the protects and lubricates your heart and
serous membrane, the organs will not keeps it in place within your chest.)
be stable. ➢ Pleurisy
➔ inflammation of the pleura (a large,
1. Visceral serous membrane thin sheet of tissue that wraps around
● inner part membrane that covers the internal organs the outside of your lungs and lines the
2. Parietal serous membrane inside of your chest cavity).
● outer part membrane that forms walls of the body
cavities Abdominopelvic Cavity Serous Membrane
● involves the abdomen and the pelvic region.
Thoracic Cavity Serous Membrane 1. Peritoneal cavity
1. Pericardial cavity ● a serous membrane lined cavity that houses visceral
● surrounds the heart at which visceral pericardium covers peritoneum and covers many organs of the
the heart whilst parietal pericardium forms the outer abdominopelvic cavity whilst parietal peritoneum lines
layer of the sac around the heart. the wall of abdominopelvic cavity inferior to the
● Pericardial fluid is also present in the said cavity diaphragm.
❖ visceral pericardium 2. Mesenteries
➔ white film in the heart. ● consist of two layers of peritoneum fused together.
➔ visceral means fat. These anchors the organs to the body wall and provides
❖ parietal pericardium pathways for nerves and blood vessels to reach the
organs.
3. Retroperitoneal
● other abdominopelvic organs that are closely attached,
do not have mesenteries but covered with parietal
peritoneum.

Electron cloud
● the region where electrons can be found
Chemical bonding
● level of interaction between atoms to form molecules by
either sharing or transferring their outermost electrons.
● In a chemical bond, the fate of the electrons between two
atoms depends on the relative difference in
electronegativity between the atoms.
1. Valence shell
● outermost shell
● There is a maximum number of electrons that each shell
can hold.
Additional Information: ● Outer shells do not contain electrons until the inner shells
➢ Peritonitis have reached their maximum.
➔ inflammation of the peritoneal cavity ● The innermost shell (the shell closest to the nucleus)
holds a maximum of 2 electrons, and the remaining
shells hold a maximum of 8 electrons.
CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
2. Octet rule
● tendency of atoms to combine with other atoms until
Basic Chemistry of Life each has 8 electrons in its valence shell.
Chemistry 3. Electronegativity
● scientific discipline concerned with the atomic ● ability of the atom’s nucleus to pull electrons toward it.
composition and structure of substances and the ● In a chemical bond, the fate of the electrons between two
reactions they undergo. atoms depends on the relative difference in
electronegativity between the atoms.
Matter Additional Information:
● anything that occupies space and has mass. ➢ Free Radicals
● all living things are composed of matter. ➔ unstable electrons that can cause
Mass various diseases.
● amount of an object of a given mass. ➔ causes cancer, dementia, etc.
● the amount of matter in an object. ➢ Antioxidants
Weight ➔ stabilize unstable electrons.
● the gravitational force acting on an object of a given ➔ e.g. drugs such as ascorbic acid
mass. Conzace
● vitamin supplement that
1. Elements contains electrons that can
● simplest type of matter having unique chemical transfer to the other
properties electron.
● 96% of the body’s weight results from the mixture of ➢ Hydroquinone
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. ➔ delays oxidation process of cells
● e.g. ➔ Hydroquinone + tretinoin
❖ Calcium - helps form bones ● component of Maxipeel.
❖ Sodium - essential for neuronal activity
2. Atom Three Types of Chemical Bonding
● smallest particle of an element that has the chemical
1. Ionic Bonding
characteristics of that element
● occurs when the electrons are transferred between
3. Molecules
atoms, creating opposite charged ions.
● resulting combination of atoms.
2. Covalent Bonding
● forms when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.
Atomic Structures ● sharing of electrons, rather than the transfer of electrons,
1. Protons occurs because the atoms have similar
● positive charge electronegativities.
2. Electrons ● the strongest bonding
● negative charge 3. Hydrogen bonding
3. Neutrons ● a dipole-dipole interaction which has positive end of one
● neutral charge polar molecule and can be weakly attracted to the
negative end of another polar molecule
Nucleus ● Generally, it is a weaker type of bonding than ionic or
● proton + neutrons in an atom and accounts for 99.97% of covalent bonding
an atom’s mass ● Specifically for Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

● Water
❖ universal solvent because it is non-reactive.
● the weakest bonding
DISSOCIATION OF IONS
● m each When ionic compounds dissolve in water, their
ions dissociate or separate, from the other because the
positively charged ions are attracted to the negative ends
of the water molecules, and the negatively charged ions
are attracted to the positive ends of the water molecules.
Electrolytes
● also known as “dissociated ions”.
● have the capacity to conduct electric current or the flow
of charged particles
● e.g.
❖ Electrocardiogram (ECG)
➔ a recording of electric currents
produced by the heart.
Hydrogen bonding vs. Covalent bonding
Chemical Reactions
● formation or breaking of chemical bonds between atoms,
ions, molecules, or compounds.
Molecules and Compounds
Molecules Types of Chemical Reactions
● formed when two or more atoms chemically combine to 1. Direct Union
form a structure that behaves as an independent unit. ● a.k.a. Combination, Synthesis
Compounds ● formation of more complex compounds e.g. atoms
● a substance resulting from the chemical combination of wherein the reactants can be both elements, an element,
two or more different types of atoms. a compound, or both compounds.
2. Decomposition/Analysis
● breaking down of more complex compounds from larger
to simpler compounds or elements.
3. Single Replacement
● a.k.a. Displacement, Single displacement, Substitution
● reaction of an element with an ionic compound.

● single element replaces one of the ions in the compound. Acidic Solution
4. Double Replacement ● has a greater concentration of H+ than of OH− and thus a
● a.k.a. Double displacement, Metathesis pH less than 7.0
● reaction of two ionic compounds to form two different Basic/Alkaline Solution
ionic compounds. ● has fewer H+ than OH− and thus a pH greater than 7.0.
Rate of Chemical Reactions

Reactants
● substances that enter into a chemical reaction.
Concentration
● substances that result from the chemical reaction.
Temperature
● Because molecular motion changes as environmental
temperature changes, the rate of chemical reactions is
partially dependent on temperature.
Catalysts
● increases the rate of a chemical reaction, without itself Salts
being permanently changed or depleted. ● a compound consisting of a positive ion other than H+
and a negative ion other than OH−.
Enzyme Buffers
● protein molecule that acts as a catalyst. ● a chemical that resists changes in pH when either an
acid or a base.
INORGANIC MOLECULES
Organic Chemistry
● the study of carbon-containing substances.
Inorganic Chemistry
● deals with those substances that do not contain carbon.
● e.g. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) are
Acid, Bases, and Salts classified as inorganic molecules, even though they
1. Acid contain carbon.
● substance that dissociates into 1 or more (H+) and one or
more negative ions. Inorganic Molecules
● Proton donor ● deals with those substances that do not contain carbon
2. Base with exceptions of molecules such as carbon monoxide
● substance that dissociates into 1 or more negative (OH-) and carbon dioxide.
and one or more positive ions. ● Inorganic substances play many vital roles in human
● Proton acceptor anatomy and physiology such as oxygen, carbon dioxide
3. Salt and water
● substance that dissociate in water into cations and
anions. Carbon dioxide
● Salts are formed by the reaction of an acid and a base. ● consists of one carbon atom bound to two oxygen
● Neither H+ or OH- atoms. Each oxygen atom is bound to the carbon atom
by a double covalent bond.
pH Scale ● Carbon dioxide is produced when food molecules, such
● a measure of the H+ concentration of a solution as glucose, are metabolized within the cells of the body
Neutral Solution Oxygen
● an equal number of H+ and OH− and thus a pH of 7.0. ● a small, nonpolar, inorganic molecule consisting of two

oxygen atoms bound together by a double covalent bond. ❖ Triglycerides

● About 21% of the gas in the atmosphere is O2, and it is ➔ most common type of fat molecules
essential for most living organisms. bound to a glycerol molecule.
Water ❖ Saturated fatty acid
● an inorganic compound that consists of one atom of ➔ contains only single covalent bonds
oxygen joined by polar covalent bonds to two atoms of between carbon atoms which
hydrogen declares full with hydrogen or
● Polar molecule – Hydrogen bonding ‘saturated’ (no space/full).
● have a unique properties that contributes to its functions ➔ reason why coconut or vegetable oil
for living organisms. solidify at room temperature is
because of full atoms.
Critical Functions of Water:
1. Stabilizing body temperature. Because heat energy
causes not only movement of water molecules, but also disruption
of hydrogen bonds, water can absorb
large amounts of heat and remain at a stable
temperature.
2. Providing protection. Water is an effective lubricant. For
❖ Unsaturated fatty acid
example, tears protect the surface of the eye from the rubbing of
➔ contains one or more double covalent
the eyelids
bonds and can occur anywhere along
3. Facilitating chemical reactions. Most of the chemical reactions
the carbon chain (there’s space for a
necessary for life do not take place unless the reacting molecules
hydrogen to bond with the chain). It is
are dissolved in water.
also the best or healthier type of fats
4. Transporting substances. Many substances dissolve in water
compared to saturated fatty acid
and can be moved from place to place as the water moves.
because of the spacing happening in
its carbon chain, particularly
ORGANIC MOLECULES polyunsaturated fatty acids.
● study of carbon-containing substances. ➢ Monounsaturated fats - one
● key element for organic molecules is carbon. Carbon can double covalent bond
form covalent bonds with other atoms forming large, between carbons atoms.
diverse and complicated molecules necessary for life. ➢ Polyunsaturated fats - two
● carbon atoms bound together by covalent bonds and or more double covalent
constitute the framework of many large molecules. bonds between carbons
● organic molecules have four (4) major groups essential atoms.
to living organisms: ➢ Trans fat - is not healthy
1. Carbohydrates because it is chemically
2. Lipids altered by addition of H-
3. Proteins atoms (affects/increases
4. Nucleic acids shelf-life).
Lipids
● substances that dissolve in non-polar solvents such as
alcohol or acetone but not in polar solvents such as
water e.g. oil in water.
● composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and other
elements such as phosphorous, nitrogen and other minor Example of Lipids: Phospholipids
components.
● composed of a polar region containing phosphate and a
● Examples of lipids are fats, phospholipids, eicosanoids
non polar region consisting of two fatty acid chains.
and steroids.
● Important in structural components of cell membranes.
❖ Glucocorticoids, anabolic steroids, etc. fall
❖ Hydrophilic (water-loving)
under the category of steroids and are naturally
➔ dissolves in water.
produced in our body.
❖ Hydrophobic (water-fearing)
➔ Nonpolar molecules that do not
Example of Lipids: Fats dissolve in water.
● important energy storage molecules.
● also store vitamins, particularly vitamin A, D, E, K Example of Lipids: Eicosanoids
(fat-soluble vitamins).
● composed of a polar region containing phosphate and a
❖ the reason why you don’t have to frequently
nonpolar region consisting of two fatty acid chains.
take in these vitamins is because (1) it is stored
● Important in structural components of cell membranes.
in the liver and (2) it is stored in our own
❖ Hydrophilic (water-loving)
adipose tissues(body fat) / fat cells.
➔ dissolves in water.
Glycerol & Fatty acids
❖ Hydrophobic (water-fearing)
● building blocks of fats.

➔ Nonpolar molecules that do not contains genes, which determine the amino acid
dissolve in water. sequence, and thus the structure of proteins. Mutations
● main distinction is its ‘Prostaglandin’ responsible for in the DNA can lead to consequences such as disorders
inflammation and most NSAIDS (Non-Steroidal Anti (down syndrome).
Inflammatory Drugs) target this. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
● important for protein synthesis via translation process
Example of Lipids: Steroids which carries genetic information translated by
● composed of carbon atoms bound together into four ribosomes into various proteins.
ringlike structures. ❖ COVID 19 Vaccines use mRNA or messenger
❖ Cholesterol RNA.
➔ important example of steroid
molecule which can be synthesized
into bile salts, reproductive hormones
and others.
Proteins
● composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
● Amino acids
❖ building blocks of proteins.
● There are twenty (20) amino acids existing.
● A protein consists of many amino acids joined together
in a specific sequence to form a chain.
● Denaturation
❖ If the hydrogen bonds that maintain the shape
of the protein are broken, the protein becomes
nonfunctional.
❖ e.g. egg
➔ translucent before heating and BASIC CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
becomes white & opaque after
heating.
Additional info: Functions of a Cell
➢ Serine Functions of a CellFunctions of a CellFunctions of a Cell
➔ naturally found in silk worms. The following are four important functions performed by our body
➔ beneficial to health and skin health. cells:
➢ Tryptophan 1. Cell metabolism and energy use. The chemical reactions that
➔ Neurotransmitters derived from occur within cells are collectively called “cell metabolism”. Energy
tryptophan amino acid released during metabolism is used for cell actIvitIes, such as the
➔ When synthesized it can produce the synthesis of new molecules, muscle contractIon, and heat
happy hormone known as the production, which helps maintain body temperature.
‘serotonin’.
➢ Tyrosine 2. Synthesis of molecules. Cells synthesize various types of
➔ starting amino acid for epinephrine molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.
and noradrenaline a.k.a.
norepinephrine. 3. Cell Communication. Cells produce and receive chemical and
Enzymes electrical signals that allow them to communicate with one
● protein catalysts that increase the rate at which a another. For example, nerve cells communicate with one another
chemical reaction proceeds without the enzyme being and with muscle cells, causing muscle cells to contract.
permanently changed.
● increase the rate of chemical reactions by lowering the 4. Reproduction and inheritance. Each cell contains a copy of the
activation energy, which is the energy necessary to start geneIc informatIon of the individual. Specialized cells (sperm cells
a chemical reaction. and egg cells “oocytes”) transmit that geneIc informatIon to the
next generation (fertilization occurs which lead to a living
organism).
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA
● large molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and phosphorus. Movement through the Cell Membrane
● DNA and RNA are building blocks of nucleotides. ● cell membranes are selectively permeable
● Each nucleotide is composed of a sugar Selective permeability
(monosaccharide) to which a nitrogenous organic base ● allows some substances and materials to pass through
and a phosphate group are attached (deoxyribose / but with exemption of some molecules.
ribose). ● e.g. P (Potassium) I (Inwards/Intracellular)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) S (Sodium) O (Outwards/Outercellular)
● genetic material of cells, and copies of DNA are ❖ Ca2+ ion since positive has an outward
transferred from one generation of cells to the next. DNA movement.

❖ Cl- since negative, has an inward movement.
1. Passive Transport - stationary; does not require cell energy.

● Diffusion
❖ movement from an area of higher
concentration of a solute to an area of lower
concentration of that same solute in solution.
● Osmosis
❖ there is water involved.
❖ diffusion of water (a solvent) across a
selectively permeable membrane, such as the ➢ Isotonic
cell membrane, from a region of higher water ➔ iso = same; tonic = strength
concentration to one of lower water ➔ outside = inside
concentration. ➢ equal concentration
● Facilitated Diffusion ➢ same concentration of
❖ a carrier-mediated transport process that solutes and solvent
moves substances across the cell membrane ➔ Result: cell remains constant
from an area of higher concentration to an area ➢ Hypotonic
of lower concentration of that substance. ➔ hypo = less; tonic = strength
➔ outside < inside
2. Active Transport - does require energy in the form of ATP ➢ lower concentration
(Adenosine Triphosphate). ➢ fewer solutes and more
● Endocytosis solvent
❖ endo- meaning within, or inside. ➔ water moves into the cell
❖ movement into cells by vesicles. ➔ Result: Cell expand and lyse (burst)
➔ Phagocytosis - cell-eating ➢ Hypertonic
➔ Pinocytosis - cell-drinking ➔ hyper = more; tonic = strength
● Exocytosis ➔ outside > inside
❖ exo- meaning outer, or outside. ➢ higher concentration
❖ movement out of cells by vesicles. ➢ more solutes and less
solvent
➔ water move out from cell
➔ Result: Causing crenation (shrinkage
of cells)
➢ Sodium-potassium pump
➔ usually seen on the lining of the
stomach. Structures of Eukaryotic Cell
➔ responsible for the cleaning of Cell membrane
hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the ● outermost component of a cell.
stomach. ● encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary between
➔ PPIs (proton pump inhibitors) are material inside the cell and material outside it.
used such as Omeprazole, ● supports the cell contents, acts as a selective barrier that
Esomeprazole and Rabeprazole, determines what moves into and out of the cell, and
which inhibits the sodium-potassium plays a role in communication between cells.
pump. ● selectively permeable (only allows smaller molecules to
pass through the cell).
❖ Bigger molecules such as lipids, and fats can

hardly pass through on this phospholipid Golgi Apparatus

barrier. ● functions in membrane formation and protein secretion
● Fluid-mosaic model - phospholipids ● collects, modifies and distributes proteins and lipids
manufactured by endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes
● Specifically, 80s ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm or
attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
● “ribo” meaning site of protein synthesis.
● e.g.
Lysosomes
● stores digestive enzymes.
60s + 40s = 80s ribosomic units

Nucleus
● contains DNA in the form of chromosomes.
Peroxisomes
● break down fatty acids, amino acids and hydrogen
peroxide particularly the free radicals or foreign
materials.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
● series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extend from the outer nuclear membrane into the
cytoplasm.
● serves as the transporting network.
❖ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
➔ synthesizes large amounts of proteins Vacuoles
for export from the cell (with ● helps bring food into the cells.
ribosomes). ● maintains cell size and rigidity.
❖ Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
➔ site for lipid synthesis and
detoxification of chemicals within the
cells (without ribosomes).
➔ store calcium ions.

Mitochondria 3. Microvilli
● primary site for ATP production. ● specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are
supported by microfilaments.
● aid in absorption of vitamins and nutrients in small
intestines.
● can be seen in the intestines particularly small intestines.
Chloroplast
● contains enzymes necessary for photosynthesis.
Vesicle
● a small, membrane-bound sac that transports or stores
materials within cells.
Centrosomes
● involved in mitotic spindle and microtubule formation.
● can be seen in DNA and RNA structures.
Projections of Eukaryotic Cell

1. Cilia
● project from the surface of cells.
● coordinated movement transports mucus, in which dust
particles are embedded, upward and away from the
lungs.
● tiny hairs in the nose and lungs which is responsible for
the movement of mucus.
2. Flagella
● have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much
longer, and they usually occur only one per cell.
● responsible for the movement of the cell.
● e.g. tail of a sperm cell

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PBS 2 (2018): HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Institute of Pharmacy S.Y. 2022 - 2023

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 1

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 2

A PERSON WITH HYPOTHERMIA

❖ Deoxygenated blood can be excreted through ➔ caused for weight loss.

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 4

Integumentary System ● helps us breathe in diaphragm

● provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents

● provides protection and support, allows body

● produces body movements, maintains posture, and

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 5

Cardiovascular System Digestive System

● transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and

● removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph,

● removes waste products from the blood and regulates

● exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 6

Female Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System 7. Medial

● produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and

TERMINOLOGIES AND ANATOMICAL BODY PLANE

Understanding Body Positions & Directional Terms

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 7

Body Parts and Body Planes

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 8

contains the stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 9

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 10

Hydrogen bonding vs. Covalent bonding

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 11

Rate of Chemical Reactions

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 12

oxygen atoms bound together by a double covalent bond. ❖ Triglycerides

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 13

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 14

❖ Cl- since negative, has an inward movement.

1. Passive Transport - stationary; does not require cell energy.

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 15

hardly pass through on this phospholipid Golgi Apparatus

60s + 40s = 80s ribosomic units

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 16

Projections of Eukaryotic Cell

Transcribed by: I-A BSP (S.Y. 2022-2023) 17

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