ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF

MATERIALS III
MST31A

WELCOME – UNIT 2
Struts
Chapter 15 ( Drotsky)

JOSEPH NSENGIMANA, Rm BHP140

Office phone: 051 507 3894
Email: jnsengimana@cut.ac.za
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Central University of Technology (CUT)
Private Bag X20539
Bloemfontein
Free State
2023
 Introduction
1. The strength of structural
members depends mostly
upon the strength
properties of the material
from which they are
fabricated.
2. However, structural members
subjected to axial
compressive loads may fail in
a manner that depends upon
the ratio between their
geometrical properties rather
than their material
properties.
 Introduction
3. It is common experience, for
example, that a long slender
structural member will suddenly
bow with large lateral
displacements when subjected to
an axial compressive load.
4. This phenomenon is known as
instability and the member is said to
buckle. If the member is
exceptionally long and slender, it
may regain its initial straight
shape when the load is removed.
 Struts
1. The term strut is usually used to refer to structural
members under axial compressive loads.
2. When the length of the members is considerably
longer than the cross-sectional dimensions then the
member is referred to as slender and is prone to
failure by buckling or crippling before the compression
yield stress is reached.
3. The buckling load of a strut is that axial load that will
keep a strut in its bent form.
4. As buckling occurs at loads lower than the yield load
(stress), they are used to determine the cross-
sectional area of compression structural members,
rather than the yield or failure (maximum) stress, with
a safety factor.
 Struts
Assumptions:
A strut is assumed to be:
1. Initially perfectly straight and homogeneous,
2. Loaded axially: the compressive load is applied
precisely along the perfectly straight centroidal axis.

Types of struts
Struts are normally subdivided into the following two
categories, each with a different method of analysis:
1. Long struts – Euler theory
2. Short struts – Rankine-Gordon theory
 Design considerations
1. As struts are normally not straight, the above theories
will give buckling loads greater than the true buckling
loads.
This difference is minimised by the fact that design is
normally based on safety factors.
2. The Euler’s theory assumes the effects of direct
compression on struts to be negligible.
3. The Rankine formulae takes into account the effect of
direct compression.
4. The form of buckled shape of a strut is dependent on
the type of end restraints (Boundary conditions) of the
strut and the type of loading applied on the strut.
 Struts
EULER THEORY for a Pin-Jointed Strut

A strut that is pinned on both ends and which carries an

axial load P. Let be the deflection at a distance x from A be y.
 Struts-Euler formula
From the general equation for curvature of a beam
(Drotsky, 4th ed. Chap. 14, p.193),

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2 = 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥 = −𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2 + 𝑃𝑃𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑃𝑃
2
+ 𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑃𝑃⁄𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝜇𝜇2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2
+ 𝜇𝜇 2
𝑦𝑦 = 0,
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥
 Struts-Euler formula
The foregoing equation is as a second order homogenous
differential equation with the known solution:

𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥

The symbols (A and B) in the equation are constants of

integration, whose values are determined by introducing
the boundary conditions of the loaded strut into the
equation, thus:

𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥=0 = 0 = 𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥=𝑙𝑙
 Struts-Euler formula
𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥=0 = 0 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝜇𝜇 × 0 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 × 0 = 𝐴𝐴 × 1 + 𝐵𝐵 × 0

∴ 𝐴𝐴 = 0

𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥=𝐿𝐿 = 0 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝜇𝜇𝐿𝐿 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 = 0 × 𝐿𝐿 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿

This equation will be satisfied only if either the constant B

is equal to zero and/or the term 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝐿𝐿 is.

The first condition will imply no deflection occurs

whatsoever and therefore no buckling and is ignored. The
equation is therefore reduced to:
 Struts-Euler formula
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 0 ⇒ 𝜇𝜇𝑙𝑙 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … … . .

𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
∴ 𝜇𝜇 = , 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … … . .
𝑙𝑙

It is clear that (µ) has an infinite number of solutions. The

𝑛𝑛 = 0 term is ignored as it reduces the differential
equation to a non-trigonometric form. Noting that
(𝑃𝑃⁄𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝜇𝜇2 ) allows the foregoing equation to be written
as:
𝜋𝜋 2 𝑛𝑛2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
∴ 𝑃𝑃 = 2
, 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … … . .
𝐿𝐿
Practically, n represents the number of curves in the
deflected shape of the column.
 Struts-Euler Formula
Therefore, the number of solutions for the axial load P at
which the strut buckles are infinite as the values of the
parameter n are also infinite. Each value of n represents a
different buckling mode of the strut (column), thus:

𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 4𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 9𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 16𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑃𝑃1 = ,
𝑃𝑃2 = , 𝑃𝑃3 = , 𝑃𝑃4 = ………..
𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿2
The maximum axial load that a column can support when
it is on the verge of buckling is called critical axial load or
Euler load (𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 ). The critical load is the one at which
buckling occurs at the lowest load and gives rise to the
fundamental mode of buckling, and is expressed as:
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 2
𝐿𝐿
 Struts-Euler formula
At this load the strut (column) buckles in the form of a
single half sine wave.
The next mode of buckling gives rise to two half waves,
the third mode to three half waves as shown below.
 Struts-Euler formula
At 𝑃𝑃 > 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , the strut is said to be in unstable
equilibrium and collapses upon the initiation of
buckling. It can only be restored to the straight
position upon reduction of the axial load to a
magnitude below the critical load.
 Struts-Boundary conditions
Struts with other types of loads and end-restraints (Boundary
conditions). T-the spatial period (in metres) for the fitting curve.

Ymax  2π 
y ( x)
= 1 − cos x
2  L 

Rewriting the equation for the critical load of a pin-jointed

strut in the form of an effective length (𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 ):
 Struts
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 2
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒

The effective lengths for cases:

1. (b): fixed on one end and free on the other end
2. (c): fixed on one end and pinned on the other end and
3. (d): fixed on both ends are by inspection equal to,
2𝐿𝐿, 𝐿𝐿⁄ 2, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿⁄2, respectively.

The equations for buckling in these three types of struts, defined by

the given loads and restrains are therefore represented by this
same equation with these three definitions of the effective length.
For instance in the second case (c):
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 2 = 2 = 2
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿⁄ 2 𝐿𝐿
Boundary conditions and equivalent length and critical axial
load
 Struts
Question 1 – Example 15.1 on Page 223 (Drotsky, 4th ed.)
Calculate the buckling load for a bar 1 m long and 20 mm in
diameter using the Euler formula and assuming:
(a) both ends pin-jointed;
(b) both ends fixed;
(c) One end fixed and the other end pinned;
(d) one end fixed and the other end free,
(e) For case (a), calculate the maximum central deflection at the
yield stress of 300 MPa (E = 200 GPa).

Solution (a)
𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑4 𝜋𝜋 × 0.024
𝐼𝐼 = = = 7.854 × 10−9 𝑚𝑚4
64 64

𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜋𝜋 2 × 210 × 109 × 7.854 × 10−9

𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 2 = = 15.503 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐿𝐿 1×1
 Struts

Solution (b)
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 4 × 15.503 = 62.013 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Solution (c)
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 2 × 15.503 = 31.006 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Solution (d)
15.503
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = = 3.876 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
4

Solution (e)
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 15.503 × 103
Direct stress (𝜎𝜎𝑑𝑑 ) = = 2
= 49.347 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐴𝐴 𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑 4⁄
 Struts

Bending stress at yield 𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 = 300 − 49.347 = 250.653 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

But from the general equation for bending:

𝐼𝐼𝜎𝜎 7.854 × 10−9 × 250.653 × 106

𝑀𝑀 = = = 196.863 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑦𝑦 0.01
Note that y- is the maximum height of the cross-section from the centroidal axis
d 0.020
y= = = 0.010m
2 2
The Euler load bending moment is equal to:
𝑀𝑀 196.863
𝑀𝑀 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦′ ∴ 𝑦𝑦′ = = 3
= 0.0127 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 15.503 × 10
y ′- is the maximum central deflection of the bar before the yield strength is reached
 Struts
Question 2 – Example 15.2 on Page 224 (Drotsky, 4th ed.)
A column consists of a hollow tube of length 2.5 m and with an outside diameter
equal to 1.5 times that of the inside diameter. The column must carry an axial
load of 40 kN without buckling. Using a factor of safety of 5, calculate the
dimensions of the tube if the one end is fixed and the other end is free. Use the
Euler formula and take E = 200 GPa.

The buckling load is equal to, 40 x SF = 40 x 5 = 200 kN.

The equivalent length of the strut, 𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 = 2𝑙𝑙 = 5 𝑚𝑚

𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 2 =
𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 4𝑙𝑙2

4𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙2
∴ 𝐼𝐼 = 2
𝜋𝜋 𝐸𝐸
 Struts
4 × 200 × 103 × 2.52 −6 𝑚𝑚4
𝐼𝐼 = = 2.533 × 10
𝜋𝜋 2 × 200 × 109

𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖4 𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖4 1.54 − 1

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐼𝐼 = =
64 64

4 64𝐼𝐼
∴ 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 =
𝜋𝜋 1.54 − 1

4 64 × 2.533 × 10−6
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 = 4
= 59.699 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝜋 1.5 − 1

∴ 𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑜 = 1.5𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 = 89.549 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

 Struts
Question 2 – Example 15.3 on Page 224 (Drotsky, 4 ed.)
A strut is 9 m long with the cross-section shown in the figure below. Use Euler's
formula and calculate the buckling load, if (a) the ends are ball-jointed; (b) the
ends are pinned, restricting rotation about the YY axis (E = 200 GPa). Take 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 =
249.729 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚4 and 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 59.735 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚4 .

[Drotsky, © 2011]
 Struts
Solution (a)
A pin-jointed strut will bend about the axis that has a more compact
distribution of material; the yy-axis, thus:
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜋𝜋 2 × 200 × 109 × 59.735 × 10−6
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 2 = 2
= 1.456 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑙𝑙 9

Solution (b)
The strut is pinned about the xx axis and therefore:
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜋𝜋 2 × 200 × 109 × 249.727 × 10−6
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 2 = 2
= 6.086 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑙𝑙 9

The strut is fixed about the yy axis and therefore:

𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 4𝜋𝜋 2 × 200 × 109 × 59.735 × 10−6
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 2 = 2
= 5.823 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 9

The lower one of the two critical loads is the crippling load.
 Struts
Slenderness Ratio (𝑳𝑳⁄𝒌𝒌)
The slenderness ratio is defined as the ratio of the
length (𝐿𝐿) of a strut to its radius of gyration (k) for the
axis about which buckling will occur. This is the axis
with the least radius of gyration if end fixings of both
the xx and yy axes are the same.

The effective slenderness ratio (𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 ⁄𝑘𝑘) gives rise to a

general expression that allows struts of the same
material and different end fixings to be compared to
one another.
 Struts
Validity Limit for the Euler Formula
The Euler formula has no validity beyond the
proportional limit as it is dependent on the elastic
modulus.

However, in some cases, the yield stress or proof

stress is used to define the proportional limit stress
(critical stress) arising from application of the critical
load (𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 ) on a strut, thus:

𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘 2
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 = 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴 = 2 =
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿2𝑒𝑒
 Struts
The effective slenderness ratio (𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 ⁄𝑘𝑘) also referred to as
the validity limit for the Euler equation is from the
foregoing equation equal to:

𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
=
𝑘𝑘 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐

The effective slenderness ratio (𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 ⁄𝑘𝑘) for steel with a

modulus of elasticity of 200 GPa and a yield stress of 240
MPa is approximately equal to 91.

This is less than the upper limiting value of 200 for most
struts used in industry
 Struts
The Rankine-Gordon Formula

The Rankine Gordon formula defines the relationship:

1 1 1
= +
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐
Where:
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 − the buckling or Euler load
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 - load causing attainment of the proportional limiting
stress (𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 ) in a short strut, and
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 −load required to cause failure that is not necessarily
buckling due to the Rankine formula.
As the length of the strut approaches zero so does the
inverse of the Euler load, for which then (𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 ) tends to (𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 ).
 Struts
As the length of the strut increase so does the inverse of the
Euler load become larger than the inverse of the
proportional stress load, and therefore (𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 ) tends to (𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸 ).
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = = =
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 + 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 1 + 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 ⁄𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 1 + 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴𝐿𝐿2𝑒𝑒 ⁄𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = 2 =
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒 2
1+ 2 1 + 𝑎𝑎
𝜋𝜋 𝐸𝐸 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
The term a is referred to as the Rankine constant for a pin-
jointed strut , is the inverse of the square of the validity limit
for the Euler formula. The value a is normally determined
experimentally to yield values that are different from the
theoretical values.
 Comparison of the Euler and Rankine Gordon formulae

The Euler load cannot be used for values of slenderness ratios

less than the validity limit, as at this point the yield stress of
the material is reached.

For large values of slenderness ratio, struts fail at small values

of compressive stress.

This can be countered by increasing the second moment of

area of the struts or using materials with higher values of
elastic modulus.
Comparison of the Euler and Rankine Gordon formulae

[Drotsky, © 2011]
 Struts
Question 3 – Example 15.4 on Page 228 (Drotsky, 4th ed. )
 Struts
Solution - Pages 228 (Drotsky, 4th ed.)
Struts
Struts
Struts
 Struts
Question 4 – Example 15.5 on Page 231 (Drotsky, 4th ed.)
 Struts
Solution –Pages 231 (Drotsky, 4th ed.)
Struts
Struts
 ENGINEERING STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS III
MST31A

THANK YOU FOR YOUR AUDIENCE

Joseph Nsengimana, Office BHP140

Office phone: 051 507 3894
Email: jnsengimana@cut.ac.za
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Central University of Technology (CUT)
Private Bag X20539
Bloemfontein
Free State
2023