1.solar Radiation

ME – 414 2(2, 0)
ENERGY RESOURCES &

UTILIZATION (ERU)
Arranged By
PROF. DR. ASAD NAEEM SHAH
anaeems@uet.edu.pk
ME-414 2(2, 0)
ENERGY RESOURCES & UTILIZATION
Introduction, Fossil fuels, Fossil fuels in solid, liquid and
gaseous state, Types of Renewable Energy, Solar
Energy/Power, Hydro Power, Wind Power & Turbines,
Compatible Electric Generators, Wind Turbine Design Issues,
Fuel Cells, Tidal Power, Biomass Energy, Geothermal Power,
Modern Renewable Energy Plants, Operations and
maintenance problems, Energy Conservation and Storage
Techniques, Energy Audit And Management Systems.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

RECOMMENDED BOOKS
1) Renewable Energy Resources by John Twidell and
Tony Weir, 2nd Edition
2) Renewable energy by Godfrey Boyle
3) Renewable Energy Resources by T Abbasi & S A
Abbasi
4) Energy Resources, Utilization and Technologies by A
Yerramilli and F Tuluri
ENERGY
• Energy is an engineering concept that might best be
described in terms of what it can do.
• We can not see energy, only its effects; we can not make it,
only use it; and we can not destroy it, only waste it through
inefficient use.
• Energy can be converted or redistributed from one form to
another, such as from wind energy to electrical energy or
from chemical energy to heat etc. However total amount of
energy in the universe is constant.
• Energy may be renewable, sustainable or non-renewable.

ENERGY Cont.
• Renewable energy may also be called Green Energy or
Sustainable Energy. It includes the technologies that convert
natural resources into useful energy services:
a. Wind, wave, tidal, and hydropower (including micro- and
river-off hydropower).
b. Solar power (including photovoltaic), solar thermal, and
geothermal technologies.
c. Biomass and biofuel technologies (including biogas).
d. Renewable fraction of waste (household and industrial
waste).
• Household and industrial waste is composed of different types
of waste. Only the fraction of waste that is naturally
replenished is usually included in the definition.

ENERGY Cont.
• Non-Renewable energy supplies are also called finite supplies or
Brown Energy. This energy is initially an isolated energy potential,
and external action is required to initiate the supply of energy for
practical purposes.
These two definitions

are well portrayed in
Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Contrast between

renewable (green) and
finite (brown) energy
supplies.
Environmental energy flow
ABC, harnessed energy
flow DEF.
ENERGY Cont.
RENEWABLE VERSUS SUSTAINABLE:
• Although in many situations, these two terms are used
interchangeably. In typical definitions, however, significant
differences can be found between the two terms.
• Even though sustainable energy sources are most often
considered to include all renewable sources, some renewable
energy sources do not necessarily fulfill the requirements of
sustainability.
• For instance some biomass resources may prove not to be
sustainable i.e., Ethanol. Similarly nuclear and fossil fuels may
be considered to be sustainable.

ENERGY CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES
• Energy conversion technologies are technologies that can
convert from one demand (heat, electricity, or fuel) to
another. For example:
a) Conversion of fuel into heat and/or electricity by the use of
technologies such as power stations, boilers, and CHP
(including steam turbines as well as fuel cells)
b) Conversion of electricity into heat by the use of technologies
such as electric boilers and heat pumps
c) Conversion of solid fuels into gas or liquid fuel by the use of
technologies.

ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
• Energy storage technologies are defined as technologies that
can store various forms of energy from one hour to another,
such as:
a) Fuel, heat, and electricity storage technologies
b) Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
c) Hydrogen storage technologies
• It is important to note that the definition of storage
technologies is broader than the concept of storage itself as it
requires conversion technologies as well. For example
electrolyzers.

INTRODUCTION TO FOSSIL FUELS
• Coal, petroleum, natural gas and the related carbonaceous fuels
are called 'fossil fuels'.
• In case of fossil fuels (FF), the word fossil is used to indicate that
the fuels are derived from plants and animals that had lived
millions of years ago.
• Some 300-400 million years ago, the land masses were just
forming, and there were swamps and bogs everywhere. The
climate was warmer and there was much more C02 in the
atmosphere than is present today, leading to generation of
great quantities of biomass.
• Ancient trees and plants grew everywhere. Animals, in earlier
states of their evolution, walked on the land and swam in the
rivers and seas. When these ancient live forms died, they
decomposed and became buried under layers and layers of
mud, rock, and sand.
INTRODUCTION TO FOSSIL FUELS Cont.
• Eventually, hundreds even thousands of feet of earth covered
them. In some areas, the decomposing materials were
covered by ancient seas, then the seas dried up and receded.
• During the millions of years that passed, the dead plants and
animals slowly decomposed into organic materials and
formed fossil fuels.
• Different types of fossil fuels were formed depending on
different conditions.
• For example, oil and natural gas were created from organisms
that lived in the water and were buried under ocean or river
sediments. In most areas, a thick liquid which is now called
'crude oil' formed as a result of slow 'cooking' over tens of
thousands of years. Subsequently, natural gas and cap rocks
were formed.
INTRODUCTION TO FOSSIL FUELS Cont.
• The same types of forces which created oil and natural gas also
created coal, but there are a few differences. Coal formed from
the dead remains of trees, ferns and other plants that lived 300
to 400 million years ago.
• In some areas, coal was formed from swamps covered by sea
water. The sea water contained a large amount of sulphur, and as
the seas dried up, the sulphur was left behind in the coal. When
this coal burns, the sulphur is converted to SOx which causes air
pollution.
• Some coal deposits, however, were formed from freshwater
swamps which had very little sulphur in them. These coal
deposits, located largely in the western part of the United States,
have much less sulphur in them.
• Contrary to popular belief fossil fuels are not the remains of dead
dinosaurs.
HISTORY OF FOSSIL FUELS (FF)
• Historical records exist of fossil fuel use by humans since over
four thousand years ago, but it was in the latter half of the 18th
century when large-scale mining of fossil fuels (coal) began.
• Till this happened, mankind was almost entirely dependent on
woody biomass for its energy needs. But the availability of
wood was not always as high as its need. Once coal mining
began, it opened a very vast—seemingly inexhaustible—
reservoir of energy for mankind to use.
• The availability of coal enabled the industrial revolution and
very strongly influenced the course of the world history.
• Through the 19th and the mid-20th centuries, use of fossil fuels
kept increasing, but during the latter half of the 20th century its
use grew exponentially, and has now precipitated global climate
change. A brief history of major fossil fuels is presented here.
HISTORY OF COAL
• The Chinese have recorded the use of coal 1100 years before
the Christian Era and there is mention in the Bible that King
Solomon (now Syria) was familiar with coal. There is evidence
that the Bronze Age people used coal for funeral pyres, and that
the Romans used coal, too.
• So, the knowledge that coal would burn, and even some uses of
that knowledge, go back thousands of years. There is evidence
of occasional use of coal by the American Indians.
• The mining of coal was done in China and Europe, but the first
discovery of coal was by the French explorers, who reported
exposed coal rocks on the Illinois River in 1679.
• Following this, other discoveries were made by French and
British explorers, and first time a French settler was granted
permission to use coal for his forge in Virginia in 1702.

HISTORY OF COAL Cont.
• The earliest recorded commercial mining of coal occurred in
1750, from the James River coal field near Richmond, Virginia.
• The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 1700s,
and later spread to Europe, North America, and Japan, led to
the availability of coal to power steam engines.
• International trade expanded exponentially when coal-fed
steam engines were built for the railways and steamships in
the 1810-1840 Victorian Era.
• Coal was cheaper and much more efficient than wood fuel.
This helped greater and greater mining of coal, the method
shifted away from surface extraction to deep shaft mining to
extract larger quantities of coal in shorter and shorter time to
meet the need of rapidly spreading industrial revolution.
HISTORY OF PETROL & DIESEL
• Petroleum (petr means 'rock', oleum means 'oil'), in one form
or another, has been in use since over four thousand years.
• Asphalt was employed in the construction of the walls and
towers of Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near
Babylon), and a pitch spring on Zacynthus. Great quantities of
pitch were found on the banks of the river Issus, one of the
tributaries of the Euphrates.
• Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting
uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society.
Evidence exists that oil was used in the Roman province of
Dacia, now in Romania.
• The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China in the fourth
century AD or earlier. They had depths of up to about 800 feet
and were drilled using bits attached to bamboo poles.
HISTORY OF PETROL & DIESEL Cont.
• By the 10th century, extensive bamboo pipelines were used to
connect the oil wells with salt springs in China.
• Petroleum was known as 'burning water' in Japan in the 7th
century. In his book Dream Pool Essays written in 1088, Shen
Kuo of the Song Dynasty coined the word 'Shiyou' (literally
'rock oil') for petroleum.
• The first street of Baghdad was paved with tar, derived from
petroleum. In the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in
Baku, Azerbaijan, to produce naphtha. These fields were
described by the Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan in the 10th
century, and by Marco Polo in the 13th century.
• Petroleum was distilled by the Persian alchemist Muhammad
bin Zakariya Razi in the 9th century, producing chemicals such
as kerosene which was used for kerosene lamps.
• The processes of petroleum distillation developed in the Islamic
Spain were utilized by Western Europe from the 12th century
onwards.
• The modern history of petroleum began in 1846 with the
discovery of the process of refining kerosene from coal by a
Canadian Abraham Gesner. The first rock oil mine was built in
Galicia(Poland/Ukraine) in the 1853. In 1854, Benjamin Silliman
of Yale University became the first to fractionate petroleum by
distillation.
• Meerzoeff built the first Russian refinery in the oil fields at Baku
in 1861. At that time, Baku produced ~90% of the world's oil.
• The first commercial oil well was drilled in 1857 (in Romania),
and the world's first oil refinery opened at Ploiesti. Romania
became the first country in the world with a crude oil output
officially recorded in international statistics, namely 275 tonnes.
• By 1910, significant oil fields had been discovered in Canada,
Sumatra, Persia, Peru, Venezuela, and Mexico for large-scale
extraction.
• The word 'diesel' honours the German inventor Rudolf
Christian Karl Diesel who in 1892 invented the diesel engine.
Diesel is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum.
• Until the mid-1950s, coal was the world's foremost fuel, but oil
gradually took over as it was a much cleaner fuel than coal.
Coal generates copious smoke, soot, and fly ash, petroleum
distillates like petrol and diesel produce fewer (and finer)
particulates and no fly ash.
• Moreover petroleum's worth as a portable, high energy density
fuel powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of
many industrial chemicals made it one of the world's most
important commodities.
HISTORY OF NATURAL GAS
• Natural gas is believed to have been first discovered and used by
the Chinese, perhaps as early as 1000 B.C., but human encounters
with natural gas date back to ancient Mesopotamia, known today
as the Middle East.
• Historical and biblical references to humankind's encounters with
natural gas include burning springs created when something
(perhaps lightening) ignited natural gas seeping out from the earth.
• Early cultures and religions often attributed such phenomena to
divine origins and built shrines at the sites for worship, where
flares remained burning sometimes for centuries (Ingersoll, 1996).
• One of the most famous legends about natural gas originated in
Greece at 1000 B.C. A herdsman discovered a burning spring on the
mountain. A temple was built on that spot and the priestess,
Oracle of Delphi, made prophecies in a state of trance.
HISTORY OF NATURAL GAS Cont.
• The first known natural gas well was drilled by the Chinese in 211
B.C. In later centuries, the Chinese adapted bamboo pipelines to
transport natural gas to provide fuel for boiling water, heating,
and lighting. The Japanese dug gas wells as early as A.D. 615.
• In the early 17th century, French explorers observed indigenous
people in North America igniting seeping gases near Lake Erie.
Meanwhile, natural gas manufactured as a byproduct of coal
began lighting houses and streetlights in UK by the late 18th
century.
• In 1821, an American gunsmith−W.A Hart drilled the first natural
gas well in the United States. It was covered with a large barrel,
and the gas was directed through wooden pipes that were later
replaced with lead pipe. In the early 1900s, huge amounts of
natural gas were found in Texas and Oklahoma, and modern
seamless steel pipes were introduced.
HISTORY OF NATURAL GAS Cont.
• As reliable welding and leak-proof pipe coupling technology
developed in the early twentieth century, the pipeline network
began to grow, and natural gas applications increased along with
the supply networks.
• The materials—particularly associated hydrocarbon liquids such
as ethane, propane, and butane—are removed from natural gas
so it can be safely transported and processed (including
liquefaction and compression) and used in natural gas
applications, from heating houses and businesses to propelling
motorized vehicles (Speight, 2007).
• Vehicles running on compressed natural gas (CNG) have become
increasingly common because they generate much lesser NOx and
SOx than vehicles running on petrol or diesel.
HYDRATES & OTHER FOSSIL FUELS
• Hydrates − huge quantities of natural gas (primarily methane) exist
in the form of hydrates under sediments on offshore continental
shelves and on land in arctic regions that experience permafrost
such as those in Siberia. However, no technology has been
developed to produce natural gas economically from hydrates.
• Oil shales − sedimentary rocks from which significant amounts of
shale oil and combustible gas can be extracted—are found in many
parts of the world. Global resources of shale oil are conservatively
estimated at 2.8 trillion barrels. Oil shale deposits have been
identified in 38 countries, with the largest resources located in the
USA and the Russian Federation.
• The production costs of oil shale are generally higher than those
involving conventional crude oil. Consequently only a few deposits
are presently being exploited, with oil-shale rock mining believed to
be confined to Brazil, China, Estonia, Germany and Israel.
HYDRATES & OTHER FOSSIL FUELS Cont.
• The US Office of Naval Petroleum has announced that the
state of Colorado would soon be producing oil from shale on a
commercial basis.
• Natural bitumen (tar sands or oil sands) and extra-heavy
oil−are characterized by their high density and viscosity and
high concentrations of nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and heavy
metals. In each category, one country is predominant—
Canada in the case of natural bitumen, with over 70% of
worldwide reserves, and Venezuela in the case of extra-heavy
oil, with about 98% of presently recorded reserves.
• The only natural bitumen deposits presently being
commercially exploited on a significant scale are those in
western Canada.

USE OF FOSSIL FUEL (SQUNDERING)
• Coal was the first of the fossil fuels to be mined on a large
scale and became the key fuel of the industrial revolution. The
steam engine, which was the pivot of the industrial
revolution, operated by the force of steam that was generated
in coal- fired boilers.
• As the industrial revolution spread from England to other
parts of Europe, North America, and Japan, the use of coal
grew by leaps and bounds. Steamships became larger and
more powerful, steam-based automobiles were developed
(Fig. 1) and steam-powered railway engines began criss-
crossing the landscapes across the world.
• With the increasing use of coal also spread the pollution of
smoke, soot, and fly-ash generated continuously by the
burning coal.
USE OF FOSSIL FUEL Cont.
Fig. 1: The 'steam wagon' built by Cugnot.

• In the early years of the 19th century, the internal combustion
(IC) engine was invented. The IC engine was to pave the way
for the transportation revolution, but in its early years its
development was hampered for want of suitable liquid fuels.
• Interestingly, the earliest IC engines were powered with
hydrogen as a fuel, not only to meet the need of power but
also to address the issue of global warming. However, the plan
could not be executed owing to the transportation problem of
hydrogen as a fuel (in early 19th century).
• Search for a suitable fuel for automobiles then took the
inventors to ethanol and biodiesel, which also happen to be
the fuels the world is trying to switch back to. Then someone
thought of petrol. That was it! Petrol turned out to be an ideal
transportation fuel.
• The world's first vehicle to be powered by petrol was seen in
Vienna, Austria. It consisted of an engine mounted on a cart
(Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: The worlds first gasoline-run vehicle (Vienna Austria, 1870).

• But the first practical automobiles with petrol/gasoline-
powered internal combustion engines were completed
almost simultaneously by several German inventors working
independently− Karl Benz built his first automobile in 1885
(Fig. 3) and began production in 1888.
Fig. 3: The world's first ever

petrol-driven model to go into
production (Benz, 1885).

• One of the first four-wheeled petrol-driven automobiles in
Britain was built in Birmingham in 1895 by Frederick William
Lanchester, who also patented the disc brake. So, within the
space of less than 145 years several models of automobiles
were rolling out of production lines in Europe and America.
• In another years, the Wright brothers were to make the first-
ever manned flight. The world was beginning to use more and
more of petroleum.
• This did not reduce the consumption of coal, but actually
helped to increase it because faster and better transportation
made possible by petrol-driven vehicles and aeroplanes
stimulated regional economies. It boosted production of new
goods which, in turn, boosted the use of coal as well.
• The manner in which fossil fuel use has risen from 1850 onwards is
reflected in Fig. 4, which shows estimates of carbon released
(mainly as C02) into the atmosphere due to fossil-fuel burning.
A
As the use of coal crossed 1000 million
metric tonnes per year by early 1900,
the use of petroleum began to increase
sharply and that of natural gas also
began to rise. As a result, the total
carbon emissions due to fossil fuel use
doubled between 1900 and 1950. Total
fossil fuel use increased more than five
times by the year 2000 from the 1950
levels.
Fig. 4: Emissions of carbon due to fossil fuel used in the world. A: Total, B: Petroleum, C: Coal,
D: Natural gas, E. carbon emissions due to cement production. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
• Figure 5 shows the trends of petroleum consumption by the world's
two most populous countries—India and China—as compared to
USA, Japan, and South Korea.
As the economies of these countries are growing, the people are
copying the lifestyle which the consumerist western countries had
adopted till recently.
Million barrels per day
Fig. 5: Trends in the

oil consumption.
Years
• The increasing use of vehicles, other materials, and power
surely has contributed to the degradation of the environment
at much faster rate than the ability of the environment to
assimilate. From 2004 onwards, the demand for petroleum by
India and China has begun to rise faster than it has ever
before.
• The world's oil reserves are now 'peaking', which means there
are no new reserves to be found and if we continue to use the
existing reserves at the present rate, from now onwards the
reserves will keep declining till they get totally exhausted by
about 2080 (Fig.6).
• All other fossil fuels are expected to peak by 2030 and exhaust
by 2230.
Fig. 6: Peaking of fossil fuel use and the eventual exhaustion of fossil fuels.
A: All fossil fuels combined, B: Petroleum crude, C: Coal, D: Natural gas.
• Thus, within a matter of less than 200 years we have burnt
away half of all the fossil fuels which the earth had taken
several million years to generate.
• The carbon that had been 'plucked' from the atmosphere (and
water bodies), and had been sequestered over millions of
years has been released back to the atmosphere (and oceans)
by us in just under 200 years. And if we continue at the
present rate we would release all of the sequestered carbon
in another 200 years.
• Can such a massive interference with the global ecosystems
be done without any side effects showing up?
𝑵𝒐, 𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏′ 𝒕 𝒃𝒆!
• So we have global warming and ocean acidification on our
hands now!
GLOBAL WARMING
The increasing trends of atmospheric C02 concentration in the 140
years, during which large quantities of fossil fuels were used, are
given in Table 1.
TABLE 1: Trends in atmospheric C02 and average air temperature (IPCC, 2007)
Year Atmospheric C02 (ppmv) Average temperature
(°C)
1800 280 15
1870 280 15
1950 305 15.2
1970 325 15.2
1988 350 15.5
2000 360 15.8
2006 375 16
2008 380 16 +
2050 forecast -550 Up to 17.2
2100 forecast Up to ~800 Up to ~19.2

GLOBAL WARMING Cont.
• Between 1950 to 2000, the atmospheric C02 levels have risen
by 55 ppmv (parts per million by volume), i.e. at an average
rate of 1.1 ppmv per year. From the year 2000 onwards the
average rate of C02 increase has doubled to 2.5 ppmv per year.
Already it has warmed the earth by 1°C.
• If we continue increasing C02 emissions at the present rate, the
atmospheric C02 levels will nearly double from their 1871
figure of 280 ppmv to 550 ppmv by the year 2050, leading to
the mean global temperature up to 17.2°C.
• Even with the average 1°C rise in the earth's temperature that
has occurred, massive adverse impacts are being caused.
Trillions of tonnes of extra ice has melted at the poles and
elsewhere; glaciers are thinning down and disappearing;
extreme events of rainfall, hurricanes, cyclones and draught are
being faced around the globe.
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
• Ocean acidification is the name given to the lowering of ocean
pH that is beginning to occur because the oceans are being
forced to absorb C02 at much faster rate during the last few
decades.
• The term does not imply that the oceans (covering almost 70%
of the earth's surface) have actually become acidic, it signifies a
shift of ocean pH towards less alkaline levels. This shift has
already threatened coral reefs and calcifying organisms.
• The average ocean pH should remain at about 8.2. But the
dissolution of C02 has already lowered the average pH of the
oceans by about 0.1 units from the pre-industrial levels (Palley,
2005).
• The pH is measured on a logarithmic scale; and a change of 0.1
units means a whopping 30% increase in the concentration of
hydrogen ions (H+) in the oceans.
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION Cont.
• By the end of this century the pH is projected to drop another
0.3-0.4 pH units (Feely et al., 2008). This leads to increase in
bicarbonate ion concentrations, with a concomitant reduction
in the concentration of carbonate ions.
• Moreover, calcite saturation and aragonite saturation of the
oceans will decrease.
• All these changes have very ominous portents for the ocean's
environmental balance, and are expected to significantly
reduce the buffering capacity of the natural processes that
have moderated changes in ocean chemistry over most of
geological time.

SOLAR RADIATION
“Sun is the primary source of all renewable energy
resources. The technology based on solar energy are eco-
friendly with environment.”

INTRODUCTION
 SOLAR RADIATION: The emission from the sun into every
corner of space appears in the form of electromagnetic (EM)
waves that carry energy at the speed of light.
 DIFFERENT SHAPES OF INCOMING IRRADIATION: Depending
on the geometry of the earth, its distance from the sun,
geographical location of any point on the earth, astronomical
coordinates, and the composition of the atmosphere,
radiations at any given point may take different shapes.
 THE SUN AS A SPHERE OF HOT GASES: It is a sphere of
intensely hot gaseous matter. The solar energy strikes our
planet after leaving the giant furnace, the sun which is 1.5 ×
1011 m away.
INTRODUCTION Cont.
 SOLAR SPECTRUM A AS BLACK BODY: It is roughly equivalent
to a perfect black body. The temperature in the central region
is estimated at 8 × 106 to 40 × 106 K.
 SUN AS A REACTOR: It is a continuous fusion reactor in which
hydrogen is turned into helium. The sun’s total energy output
is 3.8 × 1020 MW. This energy radiates outwards in all
directions. Only a tiny fraction of the total radiation is
intercepted by our earth. It reaches the Earth’s surface at a
maximum flux density of about 1 kWm-2.
 SUN AS AN ORIGIN OF ENERGY: Basically, all the forms of
energy in the world are solar in origin.
INTRODUCTION Cont.
 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY: It is used to heat and cool
buildings (both active and passive), to heat water for domestic
and industrial uses, to heat swimming pools, to power
refrigerators, to operate engines and pumps, to desalinate
water for drinking purposes, to generate electricity, even to
grow food or dry cloths, and many more.
 CATEGORIES OF THE SUN LIGHT: It may be split into three
categories:
a) Photovoltaic (PV): to produce electricity directly from the
sun’s light.
b) Photochemical (PC): to produce electricity or light & gaseous
fuels by means of non-living chemical processes, e.g.
degradation of plastics.
c) Photobiological (PB): to produce food & gaseous fuels by
means of living organism or plants. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM
 SUN’S ACTIVE CORE & PASSIVE LAYERS: The reactions in the
active core of the Sun produce very high temperatures
( ~107 𝐾 ) and an inner radiation flux of uneven spectral
distribution. This internal radiation is absorbed in the outer
passive layers which are heated to about 5800K and so become
a source of radiation with a relatively continuous spectral
distribution.
 VARIATION OF RADIANT FLUX: The radiant flux (W/m2) from
the Sun at the Earth’s distance varies through the year by
±4%. Moreover, the radiance also varies by perhaps ±0.3 per
cent per year due to sunspots.
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.
 EM AS WAVE & PARTICLE:
Wave and particle are two forms
of light or EM radiation.
 EM waves consist of electric and
magnetic fields, which are
perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of
travel as shown in Fig. 1. The
wavelength and frequency are Fig. 1: EM waves
related through the speed of
light, c, as: 𝜆𝑓 = 𝑐 →→→ (1)
 Particle nature of EM radiation exhibits properties as photons
(having mass) made up of packets of energy E, which is related to
frequency f as:
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 → (2)
where h is the Plank constant, h = 6.626×10−34 J.s.
ℎ𝑐
𝐸= → (3)
𝜆
 THE SOLAR ENERGY SPECTRUM: It contains wavelengths that are
too long to be seen by the naked eye, and also wavelengths that are
too short to be visible. Thus the solar spectrum can be divided into
three main regions:
a) Ultraviolet region (λ < 0.4 µm); about 5% of the irradiance
b) Visible region (0.4 µm < λ < 0.7 µm); about 43% of the irradiance
c) Infrared region (λ ˃ 0.7 µm); about 52% of the irradiance
 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION: Figure 2
shows the spectral distribution of the
solar irradiance at the Earth’s mean
distance, uninfluenced by the
atmosphere.
 SOLAR CONSTANT: The area beneath
this curve is the solar constant G0 =
1367Wm−2. This is the RFD (Radiant
flux density) incident on a plane
directly facing the Sun and outside Fig. 2: Spectral distribution of
the atmosphere at a distance of 1.5 extraterrestrial solar irradiance.
× 1011 m from the Sun (i.e. at the
Earth’s mean distance from the Sun).
 MAXIMUM SOLAR IRRADIANCE: As it can be seen from Fig. 2
that the maximum solar irradiance occurs at λ= 0.5 μm. The
proportions given in figure are received at the Earth’s surface
with the Sun incident at about 45°. The contribution to the
solar radiation flux from wavelengths greater than 2.5 µm is
negligible, and all three regions contributing to the irradiance
are classed as solar short wave radiation.
 WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW: According to the law, the
wavelength corresponding to the maximum of solar irradiance
from the sun can be obtained from:
λmaxT = 2897.6 µm K→→→ (4)
 INTENSITY OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION (𝑮𝒆𝒙𝒕. ):
 The orientation of the earth’s orbit around the sun-earth distance
varies slightly and since the solar radiation outside the earth’s
atmosphere at the mean sun-earth distance is nearly of fixed
intensities, so the RFD is considered constant throughout the year.
 However, this extraterrestrial radiation suffers variation due to the
fact that the earth revolves around the sun not in a circular orbit but
follows an elliptic path (Fig.3), with sun at one of the foci.
 The intensity of extraterrestrial radiation measured on a plane
normal to the radiation on the nth day of the year is given as :
360𝑛
𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐺0 1 + 0.033 𝑐𝑜𝑠 → (5)
365
Fig. 3
PROBLEM
 Obtain Wien's displacement law by using Plank’s law of
radiation i.e.
𝑪𝟏
𝑬𝝀𝒃 = 𝑪𝟐
𝝀𝟓 . 𝒆 𝝀𝑻 − 𝟏
where 𝐶1 = 3.743 × 108 𝑊. 𝜇𝑚4 . 𝑚−2 &
𝐶2 = 14387.9 𝜇𝑚. 𝐾
HINTS: Differentiate the above equation w.r.t. 𝜆 and set it equal

to zero to get 𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙
RADIATION COMPONENTS
 DIRECT & DIFFUSE RADIATION:
Solar radiation incident on the
atmosphere from the direction of
the sun is the solar extraterrestrial
beam or direct radiation. Beneath
the atmosphere, at the Earth’s
surface, the radiation will be
observable from the direction of
the Sun’s disc as beam as well as Fig. 1: Origin of direct beam
diffuse radiation as shown in Fig. 1. and diffuse radiation.
 GENERATION OF DIFFUSE RADIATION:
Diffuse radiation is first intercepted
by the constituents of the air and
then released as scattered
radiation in many directions.
RADIATION COMPONENTS Cont.
 CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFUSE RADIATION: Even on a cloudless,
clear day, there is always at least 10% diffuse irradiance from the
molecules in the atmosphere.
 DISTINCTION: The practical distinction between the two
components is that only the beam radiation can be focused. The
ratio between the beam irradiance and the total irradiance thus
varies from about 0.9 (on a clear day) to zero (on a completely
overcast day).
 TOTAL IRRADIANCE: The total irradiance on any plane is the sum
of the beam and diffuse components, so:
Gt = Gb + Gd
GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN

GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN
 Latitude(𝝓): The angular distance (north
or south of the earth's equator),
measured in degrees along a meridian
from the equator to a point on the earth’s
surface. Latitude is positive for points
north of the equator, negative south of
the equator. If C is the center of the Earth,
a point P on the Earth’s surface is
determined by its latitude.
 Longitude (𝝍) : The angular distance
measured (in degrees) from the prime
(solar noon) meridian through Greenwich Fig. 1: Sketch for latitude
(UK), west or east to a point on the earth’s and longitude
surface. By international agreement it is
measured positive eastwards from
Greenwich. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN Cont.
 NOON SOLAR TIME: It is the
time when a local meridional plane
includes the sun (i.e. CEP includes
the sun) so that all points having
that longitude. It occurs once every
24 h.
 It represents the solar altitude at
noon above the horizon and
changes by 47° from 21 June to 21
December owing to change in
declination angle.
 CIVIL TIME: It is the time that a larger part of a country (15° of
longitude) observe in order to share the same official zone.
 THE HOUR ANGLE 𝝎 : It is the angle through which the
Earth has rotated since solar noon. It is positive in the evening
and negative in the morning.
𝝎 = 𝟏𝟓°𝒉−𝟏 𝒕𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 − 𝟏𝟐𝒉
where 𝑡𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦.
 DECLINATION ANGLE 𝜹 : The angle between the line joining
the center of the sun and the earth & its projection on the
equatorial plane.
Fig. 1: View of declination angle.

 It is due to the rotation of the earth, and varies from +23.5˚ (on
June, 21) to -23.5˚ (on December, 21). Analytically, it may be
calculated as:
360° 284 + 𝑛
𝛿 = 23.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛
365
where n is the day in the year (For example, n = 1 on 1 January).
Fig. 2: Variation of δ. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

GEOMETRY OF COLLECTOR & THE
SOLAR BEAM
 SLOPE (𝜷): It is the angle between the plane surface under consideration
and the horizontal. It is positive for the surface sloping or pitching towards
south and negative for the surface sloping towards north.
 ZENITH ANGLE 𝜽𝒛 : The angle b/w normal to H.P & beam radiation.
 SURFACE AZIMUTH ANGLE (𝜸): It is the angle between the line due
south and the projection of the normal to inclined plane in an H.P. For east of
south i.e. eastward orientation of the surface, it varies 0˚ to -180˚. For a
horizontal surface, it is 0˚ always.
Fig. 3: View of various angles.

GEOMETRY OF COLLECTOR & THE
SOLAR BEAM Cont.
 SOLAR AZIMUTH ANGLE 𝜸𝒔 :
It is the angle in a horizontal
plane (H.P) between the line due
south and the projection of beam
radiation on the H.P.
 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE 𝜽𝒊 : It
is the angle between beam
radiation on a surface & normal
to that surface.
 SOLAR ALTITUDE ANGLE 𝜶𝒔 :
It is the angle between the sun
ray and its projection in a
horizontal plane. It is
complement to the zenith angle
(i.e. 𝛼𝑠 + 𝜃𝑧 = 90°).
ANGLE BETWEEN BEAM AND
COLLECTOR
 SOLAR MODELING: It is performed through the following equation
involving the various attributes:
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒊 = 𝑨 − 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝑪 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎 + 𝑫 + 𝑬 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 → (𝟏)
where
𝐴 = sin 𝜙 cos 𝛽
𝐵 = cos 𝜙 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾
𝐶 = sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾
𝐷 = cos 𝜙 cos 𝛽
𝐸 = sin 𝜙 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾

EXAMPLE
Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface located
at Glasgow (56˚N, 4˚W) at 10 a.m. on 1 February, if the surface is
oriented 20˚ east of south and tilted at 40˚ to the horizontal.
SOLUTION:
Hints: n = 32 (1 February), Thus
360° 284 + 𝑛
𝛿 = 23.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = −17.5℃
365
 Also 𝜔 can be calculated at 10 AM, which is −30°
 Thus from the Eqn. given below, 𝜃𝑖 may be calculated:
cos 𝜃𝑖 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 sin 𝛿 + 𝐶 sin 𝜔 + 𝐷 + 𝐸 cos 𝜔 cos 𝛿
𝜽𝒊 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟓° Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

LATITUDE, SEASON AND DAILY
INSOLATION Cont.
Fig. 1 : Variation with 𝝓. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

INSOLATION Cont.
 ROLE OF ORIENTATION OF RECEIVING SURFACE: The horizontal
plane at a certain location (positioning in the northern hemisphere) is
oriented much more towards the solar beam in summer than in
winter as shown in Fig. below.

INSOLATION Cont.
 EFFECT OF ZENITH ANGLE 𝜽𝒛
ON RADIATION: The zenith
angle 𝜃𝑧 is given as:
cos 𝜃𝑧 = cos(𝜙 − 𝛿) → (3)
 The location of the place, 𝜽𝒛
hence, plays an important role
in the variation of 𝜃𝑧 .
 The solar radiation is, actually,
attenuated in the atmosphere
depending upon the value of 𝜃𝑧 .
The larger 𝜃𝑧 means larger
distance (𝐴𝐵 > 𝐴𝐶) covered by
the solar radiation in the
atmosphere, and thus intensity
of attenuation increases with
increase in θz and vice versa. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
OPTIMUM ORIENTATION OF A
COLLECTOR
 A concentrating collector should always point towards the
direction of the solar beam (i.e. 𝜃𝑖 = 0 ). However, the
optimum direction of a fixed flat plate collector may not be
obvious, because the collector insolation (𝐻𝑐 ) is the sum of
both the beam and the diffuse components:
𝑯𝒄 = 𝑮𝒃∗ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒊 + 𝑮𝒅 𝒅𝒕
where * denotes the plane perpendicular to the beam.
 A suitable fixed collector orientation for most purposes is

facing the equator with a slope equal to the latitude. As the
angle of solar noon varies considerably over the year, it is
sensible to adjust the ‘fixed’ collector slope month by month.
HOURLY VARIATION OF IRRADIANCE
 The variation of solar radiation on a horizontal plane (𝐺ℎ ) for clear and cloudy
days is given in Fig. 1(a) & Fig. 1(b), respectively.
Fig. 1: variation of solar radiation.

HOURLY VARIATION OF IRRADIANCE
Cont.
 On clear days the form of Fig. 1(a) follows the relation given as:
𝝅𝒕
𝑮𝒉 ≈ 𝑮𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒉 𝒔𝒊𝒏 → 𝟏
𝑵
where 𝑡 = time after sunrise & N = the duration of
daylight for a particular clear day.
 Integrating Eqn.(1) over the daylight period (N) for a clear day
yields:
𝑯𝒉 ≈ 𝟐𝑵 𝝅 𝑮𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒉 → (𝟐)
 The horizontal insolation 𝑯𝒉 depends on N, and may be

calculated using Eqn. (2).
AIR-MASS-RATIO
 The increased mass encountered,
compared with standard mass (i.e.
mass that caused by normal path
due to the normal incidence of
direct beam, if the beam is at 𝜃𝑧 ) is
called the air-mass-ratio or air-
mass, with symbol m or AM. It is,
basically, a distance travelled by the
sun’s rays to reach the earth’s Fig. 1: Air-mass-ratio.
surface.
 If the distance-dependent density
is ρ(s) then the actual optical mass,
ma, can be expressed as:
∞
𝑚𝑎 = 𝜌 𝑠 𝑑𝑠 → (1)
0 Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
AIR-MASS-RATIO Cont.
 If the sun is at its zenith at a location then Eq. (1) can be written
as:
∞
𝑚𝑧 = 𝜌 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 → (2)
0
where 𝑧 is the distance on the zenith direction.
 If the path is different than the zenith direction then its optical
path can be expressed as the ratio, m, of Eqs. (1) & (2):
∞
𝑚𝑎 0
𝜌 𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑚= = ∞ → (3)
𝑚𝑧 𝜌 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
0
 From Fig. (1) it is clear that: 𝑚𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑧
𝑚 = 𝐴𝑀 = sec 𝜃𝑧 → (4)
AIR-MASS-RATIO Cont.
 POSSIBLE CASES:
𝑖 𝑚𝑎 = 0;
𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑧 ;
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑎 ≠ 𝑚𝑧 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑎 > 𝑚𝑧
 Thus 𝐴𝑀0 refers to zero atmosphere, i.e. radiation in outer
space; 𝐴𝑀1 refers to 𝑚 = 1, i.e. sun overhead; 𝐴𝑀2 refers to
𝑚 = 2; and so on.

ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND
RELATED PROCESSES
As the solar short wave radiation passes through the Earth’s atmosphere,
a complicated set of interactions occurs. The interactions include
reflection, scattering, and absorption. These processes are outlined in
Fig. 1, while the effects and interactions are summarized as follow:
 REFLECTION: On average, about 30% of the extraterrestrial solar
intensity is reflected back into space (i.e. 𝜌0 = 0.3). This reflectance
𝜌0 (into space) is called the albedo, and varies with atmospheric
conditions and angle of incidence.
 Greenhouse effect, climate change and long wave radiation: At
thermal equilibrium (the power received is equal to the power
radiated from the Earth system of emittance 𝜀 = 1 & mean
equilibrium temperature = 𝑇𝑒 ) as observed from space:
𝜋𝑅2 1 − 𝜌0 𝐺0 = 4𝜋𝑅 2 𝜍𝑇𝑒4 → (1)
where R = radius of the earth Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION AND RELATED
PROCESSES Cont.
Fig.1: Effects of extraterrestrial

radiations on atmosphere.

RELATED PROCESSES Cont.
 Thus, in space, the long wave radiation from the Earth has
approximately the spectral distribution of a black body at
~250 − 255𝐾 𝑖. e. , from − 18 to − 23℃ . The peak spectral
distribution at this temperature occurs at 10 𝜇𝑚 , and the
distribution does not overlap with the solar distribution (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Short (including visible) and long wave (far infrared) spectral
distributions at the top of the atmosphere.
 It is obvious from Fig. 2 that a definite distinction can be made
between the spectral distribution (i) of the Sun’s radiation
(short wave) and (ii) that of the thermal sources (long waves).
 The infrared long wave fluxes, however, at the Earth’s surface
are themselves complex and large. The atmosphere radiates
both down to this surface and up into space.
 The temperature of the Earth’s system in space is that of the
outer atmosphere and not of the ground and sea surface.
 The Earth’s average surface (not space) temperature is 17℃ i.e.
~40⁰C greater than the effective temperature 𝑇𝑒 of the outer
atmosphere or space.
 Actually, the atmosphere acts as an infrared blanket, because some of
its gases absorb long wave radiation. Thus increase in surface
temperature (relative to what it would be without the atmosphere) is
called the greenhouse effect, and the gases responsible for it are called
greenhouse gases (GHG).
 The glass of a horticultural glasshouse (a greenhouse) likewise prevents
the transmission of infrared radiation from inside to out, but does
allow the short wave solar radiation to be transmitted.
 Thus the Earth’s atmosphere is not only a source and sink of chemical
substances for life, it provides the physical mechanisms for controlling
the environmental temperature at which life continues and at which
water for life remains liquid.
 ABSORPTION IN THE ATMOSPHERE: In order to explain the
absorption processes, the solar short wave and the atmospheric long
wave spectral distributions may be divided into following regions:
 Short wave ultraviolet region (𝝀 < 𝟎. 𝟑𝝁𝒎): Solar radiation is
completely removed at sea level by absorption in O2, O3, O and N2
gases and ions.
 Near ultraviolet region ( 𝟎. 𝟑𝝁𝒎 < 𝝀 < 𝟎. 𝟒 μm): Only a little
radiation is transmitted, but enough to cause sunburn.
 Visible region (𝟎. 𝟒𝝁𝒎 < 𝝀 < 𝟎. 𝟕μm): The pure atmosphere is
almost totally transparent to visible radiation, and becomes an
open ‘window’ for solar energy to reach the earth. About half of
the solar irradiance is in this spectral region as shown in Fig. 3.
However, aerosol particulate matter (PM) and pollutant gases can
cause significant absorption effects.
 Near infrared region (𝟎. 𝟕𝝁𝒎 < 𝝀 < 𝟐. 𝟓μm): About 50% of the
extraterrestrial solar radiation is in this region. Up to about 20% of
this may be absorbed, mostly by water vapor and also by carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 Far infrared region λ > 𝟏𝟐 μ𝒎 : The atmosphere is almost
completely opaque in this part of the spectrum.
Fig. 3: Spectral distributions of solar irradiance received above the

atmosphere (upper curve) and at sea level (lower curve).
MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR
RADIATION
 Some useful instruments used for measuring the solar radiation are
listed in Tables. They are basically divided into two categories:
a) PYROHELIOMETER: An instrument using a collimated detector for
measuring the beam irradiance at normal incidence. It is also known
as actinometer.
b) PYRANOMETER OR SOLARIMETER: An instrument used for
measuring total irradiance (beam + diffuse), usually on a horizontal
surface.
 The active cavity radiometer (ACR) gives an absolute reading. In this
instrument, the solar beam falls on an absorbing surface of area A,
whose temperature increase is measured and compared with the
temperature increase in an identical absorber heated electrically. In
principle, we may write:
𝛼𝐴𝐺𝑏∗ = 𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 → (1) where 𝛼 = 0.999
MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR RADIATION Cont.

MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR RADIATION Cont.

1.solar Radiation

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ME – 414 2(2, 0)

ENERGY RESOURCES &

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

These two definitions

Fig. 1: Contrast between

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Fig. 1: The 'steam wagon' built by Cugnot.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Fig. 2: The worlds first gasoline-run vehicle (Vienna Austria, 1870).

Fig. 3: The world's first ever

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Fig. 5: Trends in the

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

where 𝐶1 = 3.743 × 108 𝑊. 𝜇𝑚4 . 𝑚−2 &

HINTS: Differentiate the above equation w.r.t. 𝜆 and set it equal

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Fig. 1: View of declination angle.

Fig. 2: Variation of δ. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Fig. 3: View of various angles.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

𝐵 = cos 𝜙 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾

𝐸 = sin 𝜙 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

cos 𝜃𝑖 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 sin 𝛿 + 𝐶 sin 𝜔 + 𝐷 + 𝐸 cos 𝜔 cos 𝛿

𝜽𝒊 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟓° Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Fig. 1 : Variation with 𝝓. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

where * denotes the plane perpendicular to the beam.

 A suitable fixed collector orientation for most purposes is

Fig. 1: variation of solar radiation.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 The horizontal insolation 𝑯𝒉 depends on N, and may be

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Fig.1: Effects of extraterrestrial

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Fig. 3: Spectral distributions of solar irradiance received above the

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

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