IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 28, NO.
I, JANUARY 1992
Chaos in Semiconductor Lasers with Optical
Feedback: Theory and Experiment
Jesper Mark, Bjame Tromborg, and Jannik Mark
Abstract-We present a detailedtheoreticaland experimental
investigation of the nonlinear dynamicsof a semiconductorlaser
with optical feedback. The results show that the coherence col-
lapsed state is a chaotic attractor and that chaos is reached for
increasing feedback level through a quasi-periodicroute inter-
rupted by frequency locking. Furthermore, the coexistence of
two attractors associated with the same external cavity mode,
but having different relaxation oscillation frequencies, is dem-
onstrated and explained.
I. INTRODUCTION
S EMICONDUCTOR laser diodes exposed to optical
feedback have been found to undergo a dramatic spec-
tral broadening for a large range of feedback levels [1]-
[5]. The phenomenon is denoted coherence collapse [2]
and has been interpreted as a manifestation of chaotic dy-
namics [2], [4], [6]-[ll]. This paper presents a detailed
theoretical and experimental investigation of the nonlin-
ear dynamics involved in coherence collapse. Brief ac-
counts of some of the results presented in this paper were
published in [ 121 and [ 131.
For applications of laser diodes requiring narrow line-
width operation (e.g., coherent communication systems)
coherence collapse places severe demands on the optical
isolation of the laser diode. Thus, spurious back reflec-
tions on the order of lop4(i.e., -40 dB) of the emitted
laser beam from various interfaces (e.g., optical fibers)
are of sufficient magnitude to drive the laser into coher-
ence collapse, with the laser linewidth broadening from a
few MHz to several GHz. On the other hand, intentional
optical feedback may be employed to significantly reduce
the laser linewidth [ 11, [ 141, [ 151 (subhertz linewidth op-
eration has been demonstrated using Rayleigh backscat-
tering from a fiber [16]) and such external cavity lasers
are commonly used for applications where the spectral
purity of monolithic laser diodes does not suffice. How-
ever, the utilization of feedback effects requires either
antireflection coated Fabry-Perot lasers or very careful
control of the amount of feedback, in order to avoid the
regime of coherence collapse. From a practical point of
view it is therefore important to have a detailed under-
standing of the behavior of a laser diode with optical feed-
back.
Manuscript received February 5 , 1991.
The authors are with TFL Telecommunications Research Laboratory,
DK-2970 H$rsholm, Denmark.
IEEE Log Number 9103724.
0018-9197/92$03.00 0 1992 IEEE
93
The system also deserves attention from the basic
standpoint, since it represents an important example of an
active type of delayed feedback optical system with a be-
havior quite different from that of the well-studied passive
Ikeda system [171, [ 181. The phase space associated with
a delayed feedback system is of infinite dimensions, and
the study of such systems is important in order to inves-
tigate, to what extent the results previously obtained for
low-dimensional systems carry over to infinite-dimen-
sional systems [ 191.
Experimental characterization of the behavior of a
semiconductor laser diode with optical feedback has
shown that five regimes (I-V) of qualitatively different
effects can be distinguished for increasing feedback level
[3]. For very small feedback levels, regime I, only one
external cavity mode exists. In regime I1 the laser shows
noise-induced hopping between several external cavity
modes. The rate of mode hopping decreases for increas-
ing feedback level, and in regime I11 the laser is observed
to operate only in one dominant mode, which is the mode
with minimum linewidth. Coherence collapse occurs in
regime IV which extends over several decades of feed-
back level. It is bounded from above by regime V of sin-
gle-mode narrow linewidth operation, but in order to reach
this regime of very strong feedback it is necessary to
antireflection coat the laser facet facing the external cav-
ity or to use a very low bias current [20], [ 111.
Theoretical investigations of optical feedback effects are
usually based on the Lang and Kobayashi rate equations
[21] which have proven to contain all the dominant effects
observed experimentally. For weak feedback, regimes I-
11, a small-signal analysis has been demonstrated by many
authors to give a correct description of linewidth, spectral
behavior and modulation properties, etc. [22]. For mod-
erate or strong feedback, regimes 11-V, the nonlinearities
must be taken into account. Computer simulations have
shown that the occurrence of mode hopping [23], [24],
low-frequency intensity fluctuations [25], [7], and the
onset of coherence collapse [4], [23], [26] is correctly
predicted by the Lang and Kobayashi equations. The in-
finite-dimensional nature of the system makes analytical
investigations very difficult and in order to gain insight
into the physics behind the various phenomena, it is there-
fore desirable to employ some kind of simplifying ap-
proximations that reduce the dimensionality of the sys-
tem. Several approaches have been taken.
For feedback levels below about -45 dB one may as-
94
sume the light intensity to be constant which leaves the
phase of the electric field as an independent variable of
the system. This approximation leads to a potential model
[24], [27], [28] which explains why external cavity lasers
prefer to oscillate at the mode with minimum linewidth
instead of the mode with minimum threshold gain. The
model also predicts the experimentally observed rates of
mode hopping to a surprising accuracy [27]. However, it
does not apply to the regime of coherence collapse. In the
work by Lenstra, Cohen, and collaborators [2], [29], [30],
the light injected from the external cavity is considered as
a noise source, when the system is in a coherence col-
lapsed state. By self-consistency calculations they obtain
a statistical description of the collapsed state (see also
[31]) that agrees well with experiments, although some
discrepancies between theory and measurements have re-
cently been detected [30]. A similar approach was used
by Wang and Petermann [32] to put an upper limit on the
relative intensity noise (RIN) due to optical feedback. The
approach cannot, though, resolve the question as to which
route to chaos the laser undergoes. Another way to sim-
plify the system is to use the so-called injection locking
model which was first introduced in [34] and by which
the feedback system is replaced by a laser diode exposed
to injection of the stationary feedback field. In [7] this
was shown to explain the characteristic pattern of inten-
sity dropouts observed in the time evolution of the inten-
sity for low bias currents [25], [33], [8], [lo]. In [ l l ] we
investigated the nonlinear dynamics and the regimes of
bistability in the injection locking model, and we showed
how this can be used to roughly predict the regime of co-
herence collapse for the feedback system.
In reducing the dimensionality of a feedback system,
one should, in general, be aware that this may profoundly
change the nonlinear dynamics of the system. This was
explicitly shown in [ 181 for the case of the Ikeda system.
In this paper we study numerically the dynamics of the
full set of rate equations. The results show, however, that
in most cases the laser dynamics is confined to low-di-
mensional attractors, which may then be characterized
using well-known techniques from nonlinear dynamics
1351.
We will mainly focus our attention on the phenomena
(bifurcations) involved in the transition between regime
I11 of single mode narrow linewidth operation and regime
IV of coherence collapse, which takes place for a feed-
back level in the range of -45 to -30 dB. Our calculated
bifurcation diagrams demonstrate that for increasing feed-
back level the laser undergoes a quasi-periodic (Ruelle-
Takens) route to chaos [35] which may be interrupted by
frequency locking. The calculated attractors within the re-
gime of coherence collapse have the typical multisheeted
appearance of chaotic attractors [35]. A small-signal sta-
bility analysis shows that the quasi-periodic route to chaos
is initiated by a Hopf bifurcation which corresponds to
undamping of the relaxation oscillations. Experimentally,
we verify this route to chaos through study of the evolu-
tion of the intensity noise spectrum with feedback level.
IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 28, NO. 1, JANUARY 1992
Time domain studies are hindered by the very fast time
scale (2.0.25 ns) on which the dynamics take place.
However, we show that the use of a heterodyne down-
conversion technique allows the recording of experimen-
tal phase portraits.
The system determinant for operation in a specific ex-
ternal cavity mode has several resonances, which are dis-
placed in frequency by approximately the inverse of the
external cavity round-trip time. The resonances closest to
the relaxation oscillation frequency of the solitary laser
(i.e., the laser without feedback) exhibit the smallest
damping. As mentioned above, the route to chaos is ini-
tiated when one of these resonances becomes undamped.
However, for some choices of parameters, two reso-
nances may become undamped almost simultaneously.
Our numerical calculations show that in such cases two
coexisting attractors are created which belong to the same
external cavity mode. Mathematically, the second attrac-
tor is created, somewhat unexpectedly, by a Hopf bifur-
cation from an unstable external cavity mode. Experi-
mental observations of intensity noise spectra with two
strong relaxation oscillation peaks are well known, and
were previously explained by noise excitation of the res-
onances of the system. However, our time and frequency
resolved studies of the system clearly demonstrate that the
laser randomly jumps between two periodic solutions,
which have different oscillation frequency but are asso-
ciated with the same external cavity mode. This is in good
agreement with our theoretical prediction.
The transition to chaos from the regime V to regime IV
for fixed moderately strong feedback and increasing bias
current has been suggested to follow an intermittency
route to chaos [8] , [ 101. The time evolution of the inten-
sity for bias currents around the threshold of the solitary
laser is characterized by randomly occurring sudden drops
in intensity followed by a stepwise intensity buildup and
damped low-frequency relaxation oscillations. Inbetween
the dropouts there may be bursts of noise at the external
cavity round-trip frequency (see, e.g., [lo], Fig. 3, and
[8], Fig. 2). The sudden drops in intensity and subsequent
stepwise buildup was, in [7], [ l l ] , explained by the in-
jection locking model as being due to bistable switching
and dynamic formation of bistability. In [33], [7], [ l l ] ,
[lo] the peak in the intensity noise spectrum at low fre-
quencies (0-50 MHz) was associated with the average
frequency of the power dropouts, while in other publica-
tions [36]-[40] the peak was related to the low-frequency
relaxation oscillation resonance of the feedback system.
This issue has recently been settled by Sacher and Elsas-
ser [41] who have shown experimentally that both contri-
butions can be present simultaneously and have measured
the bias current dependence of the frequencies of the two
contributions. The relative importance of the contribu-
tions depend, e.g., on the external cavity length, the bias
current, and the laser material. We will not discuss the
transition between regimes V and IV any futher in this
paper, but there is clearly a need for a more detailed anal-
ysis.
M$RK et al.: CHAOS IN SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS 95

The occurrence of subharmonic bifurcations has been

reported for an external cavity laser system [42], [39],
[40], but these results relied on a deliberate tilting of the rl r2 r3
external mirror whereby subharmonics of the external Fig. 1. External cavity laser configuration.
cavity round-trip frequency are introduced. Quasi-peri-
odic and frequency locking phenomena, similar to those
reported here, have been observed in semiconductor la-
d
sers which were self-pulsing [43] or coupled to an exter- - N(t) = J - N(t>
- - G(N, E:) E:(t)
nal cavity [44], [45]. However, these results relied on a dt 7s (3)
direct modulation of the bias current pumping the laser
diode, whereby an external frequency is imposed on the where
system. In contrast the laser system investigated here is
A(t) = 40) - 40 - 7) (4)
pumped with a constant (CW) current, and the frequen-
cies involved in the dynamics thus arise internally in the is the phase delay during the external cavity round-trip
laser. time 7 . The instantaneous optical angular frequency w(t)
The paper is organized as follows. In Section I1 we in- +
is given by w = wo d + / d t . Hence
troduce the rate equations and discuss the stationary
solutions (external cavity modes) and their small-signal
stability properties. Section I11 presents numerical bifur- A7 I-7
w(t') dt' = wo + A/7 (5)
cation diagrams for increasing feedback level and anal-
yses of the various attractors encountered. Two examples which shows that A / r is an average frequency deviation
are considered. The first example demonstrates the basic from the oscillation frequency of the solitary laser. The
quasi-periodic route to chaos and the second illustrates the field amplitude Eo(t) is normalized such that Z(t) =
existence of a three-frequency quasi-periodic attractor and VCEo(t)2is the total photon number in the laser wave-
the coexistence of two attractors associated with the same guide, with Vc being the volume of the active region. The
external cavity mode. Section IV presents the experimen- modal gain per unit time is
tal demonstration of a quasi-periodic route to chaos and
the occurrence of quantum noise induced jumps between G(N, E;) = GN(N - No) (1 - d'E;) (6)
two attractors oscillating at the same optical frequency. where GN is the modal gain coefficient, No is the carrier
Finally, Section V summarizes our conclusions. density at transparency, E is the nonlinear gain compres-
sion coefficient, and r is the confinement factor. The in-
11. THEORETICAL MODELAND STABILITY ANALYSIS clusion of nonlinear gain is known to be important for
Rate Equations correct modeling of the dynamics of semiconductor la-
sers. In (2) we have neglected the dependence of the line-
The external cavity configuration where a laser diode is
width enhancement factor a on the photon density, which
exposed to optical feedback from a flat external mirror is
is not yet known. Nsoris the threshold carrier density for
shown in Fig. 1. rl and r2 are the (amplitude) reflectivities
the solitary laser. Also, 7 p is the photon lifetime, 7inis the
of the laser facets, and r3 is the reflectivity of the external
diode cavity round-trip time, 7s is the carrier lifetime, J
mirror. We introduce the carrier density N ( t ) and the com-
is the pumping term, and R = nsP/7,,is the rate of spon-
plex electric field E(t) as the dynamic variables of the sys-
taneous emission into the lasing mode, with nsp being the
tem. N(t) is the average carrier density in the active region
spontaneous emission factor. The numerical values
and E(t) is the electric field at the inner right laser facet.
adopted for the various parameters, as appropriate for a
It is written as E(t) = Eo(t) exp [ j ( w o t + + ( t ) ) ] ,where
long wavelength InGaAsP laser diode [46], are given in
the amplitude Eo(t) and the phase +(t) are real. wo is the
Table I.
angular frequency of the solitary laser. For the case of
Equations (1)-(3) are written down for the case of a
weak to moderate feedback the dynamics of the laser sys-
Fabry-Perot laser, where the feedback parameter K is real
tem is governed by the following rate equations [2 11, [23],
and given by
[I11
d 1 K = (1 - r 3 r 3 / r 2 . (7)
- Eo(t) = - (G(N, E;) - l / ~ ~ ) E o (+t ) Eo(t - 7)
dt 2 7in K~ is the power reflected from the external cavity relative
R to the power reflected from the laser mirror. For a DFB
COS (U07 + A(t)) + ~
(l) laser diode K in general becomes complex and is given by
2 VCEdt)
a somewhat more complicated expression [ 111 which de-
d 1 K Eo(t - r ) pends on the details of the grating. Here, we shall assume
+(O = 2 aGdN - "1) --
Tin
~

Eo(t) K to be real and positive, but the results can easily be mod-
ified to include the phase of K. The condition for having
- sin (wor + A(t)) (2) weak to moderate feedback is K << 1 .
96
TABLE I
LISTOF PARAMETER VALUES FOR LASERDIODE
_
Parameter
_ ~
Symbol Value Unit
Gain Coefficient 8.1 ’ 10-l~ m3s-’
Carrier density at transparency 1.1 . m-’
Camer lifetime 2.0 ns
Photon lifetime 2.0 PS
Laser cavity roundtrip time 8.0 PS
Linewidth enhancement factor 6.0
Active region volume 1.0 . IO-’’ m’
Confinement factor
Nonlinear gain coefficient
Spontaneous emission factor
2.5
0.3
.
2.2
m3
The Concepts of Attractors and External Cavity Modes
In this section we shall briefly introduce some of the
concepts from nonlinear dynamics and describe a typical
situation for a feedback level in regime IV. The back-
ground for the description will be discussed in detail in
the following sections.
Before solving the rate equations (1)-(3) we need to
specify the initial conditions Eo(0),+(O), and N(O), and
due to the delay term also Eo(t) and +(t) in the time inter-
val -7 4 t I0 . The latter condition turns the system
infinite dimensional since the time evolution actually de-
+
pends on the specified values for Eo and in a continuous
time interval, i.e., in an infinite number of points. The
phase space of the system is therefore the space of all
pairs of suitably well-behaved functions Eo(t) and + ( t ) for
-7 It 5 0 combined with N ( 0 ) .
A solution to (1)-(3) describes a trajectory in, e.g., the
three-dimensional space (Eo, A , N). The trajectory ob-
tained after transients have died away constitutes the so-
called attractor. Apart from the feedback regime I there
will in general be several coexisting attractors for a given
feedback level. This is illustrated in the schematic ex-
ample in Fig. 2, which depicts a situation for a feedback
level in regime IV. The example illustrates some typical
attractors, such as the fixed point solution, the limit cycle,
the torus, and the strange (or chaotic) attractor.
The set of starting points in phase space from which the
subsequent trajectories end up at a given attractor is called
the basin of attraction for the attractor. In the example of
Fig. 2 there are four attractors and the phase space is cor-
respondingly divided into four basins of attraction. If
Langevin noise terms are added to (1)-(3) to represent
spontaneous emission noise the solution may switch be-
tween the different basins of attraction and in this way
simulate mode hopping. The attractor close to which the
solution spends most of its time is called the dominant
attractor. For weak to moderate feedback levels (say K <
0.1) the dominant attractor is usually the attractor with
average value of A closest to zero, i.e., with average op-
tical frequency closest to the frequency of the solitary laser
w . (511.
The dot, the crosses, and the triangles in Fig. 2 repre-
sent fixed point solutions, i.e., stationary solutions to (1)-
(3) of the form N(t) = N,, Eo(t) = E,, and + ( t ) = ( U , -
IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 28, NO. 1, JANUARY 1992
N
t A A
Fixed
point ’
r’
I Eo
Limit
cycle
Chaotic
attractor
Fig. 2. Schematic of attractors in the (Eo, A , N) space for a feedback level
in regime IV. Triangles ( A ) represent antimodes and crosses ( X ) represent
fixed points that have become unstable through Hopf bifurcations.
wo)t (and hence A(t) = A, = (U,- w0)7), where N,, E,,
and w, are constants. The dot indicates a stable fixed point
solution and is therefore an attractor. The triangles rep-
resent unstable fixed point solutions of the saddle point
type while crosses represent fixed point solutions that have
become unstable through Hopf bifurcations. None of these
unstable fixed points are attractors, but a cross is often
“close to” an attractor (cf. Fig. 2) which has been split
off by a Hopf bifurcation at a lower feedback level. There
may be crosses with no corresponding attractor, e.g., in
cases where the split-off solution has collided with the
basin boundary [l 11. As we shall see there can also be
fixed point solutions which have split off more than one
attractor.
It would be logical to define the attractors as the exter-
nal cavity modes of the system. However, for strong feed-
back levels the attractors are generally not known, and it
is therefore more practical to relate the external cavity
modes to the fixed point solutions. In this paper we simply
define the fixed point solutions which are unstable of the
saddle-point type (i.e., the triangles in Fig. 2) as the anti-
modes and the other fixed point solutions as the modes
of the system. This definition ensures that the modes will
actually be the attractors of the system for weak feedback.
The antimodes can never be oscillating modes.
Stationary Solutions and the Complex k-Plane
The externally controlled parameters for the external
cavity laser are the bias current J, the feedback level K ,
and the external cavity round-trip time 7. Stationary (or
fixed point) solutions to (1)-(3) with feedback are found
by substitution of Eo(t) = E,, N ( t ) = N,, and +(t) = Aw,t
= (U, - w o ) t . When solving for the stationary solutions
one may, to a good approximation, neglect the small con-
tributions from nonlinear gain suppression and sponta-
neous emission (i.e., we use E = 0 and R = 0). The
stationary angular frequencies w, are the solutions w = w,
to the equation
U, = w + sin (a7 + arctan a). (8)
Tin
M ~ R Ket a / . : CHAOS IN SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS 91

The solutions to (8) for fixed U, are easily found by graph-

ical construction (cf. Fig. 3) and define the external cavity
modes or antimodes of the system for a fixed set of pa-
rameters. The stationary carrier density and field ampli-
tude corresponding to a given value for U,7 are
2K
N, = Nso/ - -cos wsr (9)
GN 7in

The classification of fixed point solutions into modes w

and antimodes requires a stability analysis. Before dis- Fig. 3 . Graphical solution for the fixed point solutions (modes and anti-
cussing the stability properties, however, we introduce the modes) of the external cavity laser system for given U,, cf. (8).
plane of the complex wavenumber k for the laser wave-
guide, which turns out to be very convenient in charac-
terizing the mode properties.
We introduce coordinates x , y given by
x + jy = 21Ak (11)
where 1 is the laser diode cavity length and Ak is the
change in wavenumber from the solitary value. Using the
expression21Ak = qn{Aw + j 1 / 2 ( 1 + ja)GNAN} [47],
where A w = w - w, and AN = N - Nsol, (11) implies
y = rinGNAN (12)
x + a y = 7inAu. (13) -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02
X
The variable y is proportional to the threshold gain, and
Fig. 4. Complex k plane forJ/J,, = 1.3 and 7 = 1 ns (Example 1 ) . Modes
for a = 0 the variable x would simply be proportional to and antimodes ( 0 ) are shown for K = 2 . (inner circle), 8 .
the relative oscillation frequency A w = w - wo. For non- and 1.5 . lo-’ (outer circle), with the phase tuned to give a mode on the
zero a, however, the lines of constant frequency are in- thick solid line of minimum linewidth, i.e., Bo = 0.
clined relative to the x axis, cf. (13).
Insertion of (8) and (9) into (12) and (13) for w = w,
shows that the fixed point solutions fulfill the equation of the zeros of the corresponding system determinant D(s),
where s = j Q , Q being the baseband frequency. A (com-
( x , y) = -K (sin w s 7 , cos w,r) (14) plex) zero s = so implies a characteristic time dependence
i.e., they lie on a circle with radius K in the complex k 0: exp (sot) of a small perturbation from the initial sta-

plane. An example of the complex k plane is shown in
Fig. 4.
Stability Analysis
Analysis of the small-signal stability properties of the
external cavity laser system were presented in [48], [4],
[47]. These investigations, however, did not include the
effect of nonlinear gain suppression, which turns out to
be important for the stability properties. Below, we give
a short summary of the stability properties including non-
linear gain suppression, which, to a good approximation,
leads to a rather straightforward modification of the ap-
proximative results of [48]. The approximative results are
further compared with exact numerical results, and in par-
ticular it is demonstrated that the complex k plane allows
a simple representation of the results.
The stability properties of a particular stationary solu-
tion are as usual investigated by performing a linear ex-
pansion around that solution and analyzing the positions
tionary solution. Thus, the criterion for stability to small
perturbations is that all zeros of D(s) lie in the left half
(Re {s} < 0) of the complex s plane.
Two different kinds of instability can be identified. If
%= 1+ K 1 cos (wr + arctan a ) < o
dw 7in
(15)
for w = us,the determinant D(s) has a zero on the real
axis in the right half s plane [4], [47]. This means that the
stationary solution is an unstable fixed point of saddle-
point type, i.e., it is an antimode. Introducing x and y by
(14), the stability boundary dw,/du = 0 imposed by (15)
is given by
(16)
and solutions to the left of (16) are unstable. The region
where we have this saddle-point instability is shown
98 IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 28, NO. 1, JANUARY 1992

2.0
hatched in Fig. 4 , i.e., the fixed point solutions in this
region are the antimodes. According to (15) the antimodes
1.5
are the graphical solutions in Fig. 3 where the sinusoidal
curve is decreasing with frequency. From the figure it is
clear that there is an antimode between each pair of ad- $e: 1.0

jacent modes on the frequency axis. The stability bound-

0.5
ary (16) is the line where the modes and antimodes are
created and annihilated. For increasing r the modes and
-.-
antimodes are created in pairs through saddle-node bifur- !

0 1 2 3 4 5
cations at the upper intersection point between the line
(16) and the circle (14). The modes move along the circle
in clockwise direction, and the antimodes move in anti-
0.010
clockwise direction. They meet at the lower intersection
point where they are annihilated through inverse saddle- 2 0.008
node bifurcations. For decreasing r the sequence of events
is reversed. 4 0.006

In addition to the condition dw,/dw > 0 for a mode to 5

be stable, we also have the stability condition [48], [ 1 11
fi O'Oo4
0.002

0.000

for all values of Q satisfying

Q2 - U; = -cot
TR
.);( Fig. 5. (a) Normalized angular frequencies f l / w R where a zero of D(s)
may pass the imaginary axis and (b) minimum feedback levels to reach the
corresponding stability boundaries (17) versus normalized extemal cavity
roundtrip time. The parameter region of instability is shaded. J/J,,, = 1.3.
Here, wR and rR are the relaxation oscillation frequency
and the corresponding damping time for the solitary laser,
and are given by The boundary lines resulting from (17) and (18) (shown
as solid in Fig. 4) are approximations to the curves where
D(s) has zeros on the imaginary axis [48]. The exact
curves are shown as dashed in Fig. 4 and are in fact close
where Esor is the field amplitude of the solitary laser. to the lines given by (17). Upon variation of r the lines
Equation (18) has discrete solutions for Q with spacing perform a complicated motion in the complex k plane.
approximately equal to 21r/r, cf. Fig. 5(a). Each of the This is illustrated in Fig. 5(b) which shows the distances
solutions for Q yields a stability boundary line given by from origo to the various lines, i.e., it shows the mini-
(17). The shaded area in Fig. 4 is the instability region mum feedback levels needed to reach the various stability
where (17) is not satisfied. Passing the first boundary (17) boundaries. The lowest lying curve for given uRr thus
for increasing feedback level a complex conjugate pair of gives the minimum feedback level to reach the first sta-
zeros of D(s) moves into the right half s plane at s = h'Q.bility boundary. This boundary in general corresponds to
This means that the fixed point solution (E,, As,N,) be- the solution Q of (18) closest to oR,cf. Fig. 5(a). It fol-
comes unstable and a stable periodic (limit cycle) solution lows from (18) that Q = oRfor
is created where the field amplitude, phase delay, and car-
U R T = ?r + 2rp, p integer (20)
rier density oscillate with angular frequency Q around the
stationary values E,, As = (U, - U,) r , and N,. The insta- and in this case (17) shows that the distance to the bound-
bility region where (17) is not satisfied has correspond- ary line becomes [49], [50]
ingly been called the region of feedback-induced intensity
pulsations [48] or the region of dynamic instability [4].
K = Tin/(27RJ1 (r2) + (21)
The birth of a stable limit cycle solution from a stable which is shown as the dashed line in Fig. 5(b). For long
fixed point solution is known as a Hopf bifurcation [35]. extemal cavities, w R r >> 1 , (21) is seen to provide a
Notice, that after such a bifurcation the solution remains good approximation to the value for K at which instability
in the neighborhood of the old fixed point solution which sets in, independently of the precise value for w R r . Re-
is now unstable, and we may therefore still associate the cently, (21) was suggested as a simple analytical expres-
solution with the external cavity mode. This is in contrast sion for the onset of coherence collapse by Helms and
to the other stability boundary (16) where a stable and Petermann [50]. However, we should like to point out
unstable solution will collide and disappear, and the so- that the feedback level given by (21) only marks the start-
lution will be swept away to some distant attractor. ing point of a sequence of instabilities which eventually
M@RK et al.: CHAOS IN SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS 99

leads to a chaotic state at a somewhat higher feedback

level, as shown below. The distinction between onset of
relaxation oscillations and onset of coherence collapse was
also made in [4] and in a recent experimental paper by
Woodward et al. [5]. Notice in Fig. 5(b) that for pwR7 <
?r the stability region pertains to very high feedback lev-
els, thus explaining the observed stability of lasers with
very short external cavities [51]. N
The number of modes is determined by the parameter
C = ~ ( 7 / 7 ~J "1)+;;"[52]. Thus, for C < 1 only one
mode exists, while for C > 1 there exists a region of
feedback phase where two or more modes exist. For C
>> 1 the total number of modes is approximately given
by C/?r + 1. The condition C = 1 has a simple interpre-
tation in the complex k plane (cf. Fig. 4). It corresponds 0
+
to the case where the circle x 2 y 2 = K~ just touches the A
instability line given by (16). The inner part of the circle Fig. 6. Example of potential V A ) (upper figure) and modes ( 0 ) and
antimodes (A)in the (A, N ) plane (lower figure).
represents the feedback regime I of single mode opera-
tion.
In the presence of several possible attractors, the issue
respond to the bottoms of the valleys of the potential while
of global stability becomes important. Thus, spontaneous
the antimodes correspond to the hill tops. The noise term
emission quantum noise may induce transitions between
in (22) will induce a switching of A between the valleys.
the attractors, and the question is which solution is dom-
The switching corresponds to mode hopping and from the
inant. It is usually assumed that a laser diode oscillates in
potential model one can derive transition times which are
the mode with lowest carrier density since this corre-
in surprisingly good agreement with experiments [27].
sponds to the lowest gain necessary for lasing to occur.
The dominant mode will be the mode with the deepest
According to (12) this would be the lowest lying mode on
valley and it can easily be seen from (23) that this will
the circle in Fig. 4. However, it has been demonstrated
always be the valley closest to A = 0. Thus, the dominant
experimentally [3], [53], [27], and numerically [23], [24]
mode is the mode with frequency closest to the frequency
that a laser diode with weak to moderate feedback pre-
of the solitary laser. The linewidth A V is in [47] shown
dominantly oscillates in the external cavity mode with
to be given by A v / A v , = (dpw,/dw)-2 which, using (15)
lowest linewidth. In [24], [27], [28] this quite unexpected
and (23), can also be expressed as A v / A v , =
behavior was explained from a potential model for phase
( 7 d 2 V / d A 2 ) - 2 .This shows that the linewidth of a specific
fluctuations.
For a feedback level K < 7in/(27~ w), where the
external cavity modes are all stable fixed points, the dy-
mode is inversely proportional to the square of the poten-
tial curvature at that point [27]. Since the mode with deep-
est valley also has the largest potential curvature, the
namics of mode hopping is governed by the equation [27]
dominant mode is also the mode with minimum line-
d width. The expression
- A(t) = -
dt dA
+ FA(f)
7in
where
1 shows that the level curves of constant linewidth are lines
V(A) = - - K cos (e, + A ) . (23) parallel to (16). The linewidth is infinite along (16) and
27 Tin
decreases rapidly with increasing distance to (16). The
FA(t) is a Langevin noise function which satisfies the cor- line of minimum linewidth is therefore perpendicular to
relation relation ( F A ( t ) F A ( t ' ) ) = 4nAvO6(t- t ' ) , where (16) and given by (13) for Apw = 0, i.e., it is identical to
A V , is the linewidth of the solitary laser. 0, is the phase the line where the modes have the frequency of the soli-
tuning tary laser. According to (8) the minimum linewidth (or
Apw = 0) is obtained for the phase tuning eo = 0.
8, = w,7 + arctan a. (24) The potential model breaks down for higher feedback
Equation (22) is analogous to the equation of motion for levels ( K > J1+;;"))where the modes become
a particle moving with strong friction in a potential V(A) unstable. However, numerical calculations show that even
and exposed to a fluctuating force FA@).An example of for feedback levels up to K = 5 * lo-* the dominant at-
the potential (23) is shown in Fig. 6 for a phase tuning 8, tractors will be those with average values of A closest to
= - 1.O. The figure also shows the fixed point solutions zero. It is not clear to us what happens for even stronger
in the (N, A ) plane. In this plane the circle (14) is trans- feedback where (1)-(3) are no longer valid. In the follow-
formed into an ellipse [34]. We notice that the modes cor- ing section we will investigate the evolution of the mini-
100 IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 28, NO. I, IANUARY 1992

mum linewidth mode, i.e., the mode on the thick solid

line in Fig. 4 with phase tuning 8, = 0. Whereas the tran-
I
sition from a fixed point solution to a limit cycle is pre- 0
dicted by the stability analysis, this analysis tells nothing b. 0-
about the future evolution of the limit cycle for increasing 3
. I 4

feedback level. v)
G -5-
%
111. NUMERICAL
RESULTS k
The rate equations (1)-(3) are solved numerically by -10-
using a technique based on Gear’s method for stiff sys-
tems. As discussed above, a solution to (1)-(3) describes
3
a trajectory in (Eo, A, N) space which approaches an at- 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
tractor as the transients die away. It is convenient to char-
Feedback level K
acterize the attractor by recording its intersection points
(a)
with a transverse plane. The resulting two-dimensional
plot is denoted the Poincark section [35]. For the results l5 i
to be presented, we have chosen the plane E = Esol as the 10 -I ’I
intersection (Poincark) plane, where Esoris the field am-
plitude of the solitary laser. Thus, the Poincar6 section
shows the transverse extent of the attractor in the (N, A)
plane for E = Esol. Two examples of bifurcation se-
quences will be discussed.

Example 1
The first example is for J / J t h = 1.3 and T = 1 ns. The
complex k plane for this case is shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 7
shows bifurcation diagrams obtained for increasing feed-
back level along the line of minimum linewidth. The dia-
grams show the values of normalized carrier density
N/N,,l - 1 [Fig. 7(a)] and phase delay A [Fig. 7(b)] in
the Poincark section. Notice that only intersection points
corresponding to traversal through the Poincark plane in
the direction of decreasing Eo are recorded, i.e., “mir-
ror” points are rejected. Fig. 8 shows examples of pro-
jections of the three-dimensional attractors onto the (Eo,
A) plane for different values of K, and Figs. 9 and 10 show
the corresponding Poincark sections. Finally, in Fig. 11
we show examples of the actual time evolution, since pic-
tures of the attractors in phase space provide no infor-
mation on the time scales of the dynamics.
No intersections with the Poincar6 plane exists when
the solution is a stable fixed point, but for K = 2.4 lop3
relaxation oscillations become undamped and give rise to
a self-sustained periodic (limit cycle) solution with fre-
quency Cl/27r = 2.38 GHz [Figs. 8(a), 9(a), and ll(a)].
The limit cycle solution leads to a single intersection point
with the Poincare plane. This agrees with the stability
analysis since for K = 2.4 a pair of complex con-
jugate zeros of the system determinant D(s) moves into
the right half of the complex s plane at s/27r = 2.38
GHz. Notice, that the relaxation oscillation actually cor-
reponds to a “slow” modulation of the true optical car-
rier, and it leaves the mean optical frequency wo + tion [Fig. 9(e)]. The two rightmost nonclosed curve
( & / d t ) almost unaffected.
For K = 7.4 * lop3the limit cycle solution bifurcates
to a quasi-periodic solution with two incommensurate fre-
-15 1 I 1 I I 1
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
Feedback level K
(b)
Fig. 7 . Bifurcation diagrams for the minimum linewidth mode showing (a)
normalized camer density N/N,,,- 1 and (b) phase delay A. (Example
1).
quencies [Figs. 8(b), 9(b), and 1l(b)j. The new frequency
that comes into play is related to but slightly lower than
the inverse 1/ T of the external cavity round-trip time. The
quasi-periodic nature of the solution is clearly evidenced
by the closed Pioncark section [Fig. 9(b)], which shows
that the trajectory lives on a two-dimensional closed sur-
face (a torus). The bifurcation from a limit cycle solution
to a quasi-periodic solution is sometimes denoted a sec-
ondary Hopf bifurcation, because in the Poincark plane it
corresponds to a fixed point being replaced by a closed
curve. The bifurcation can be analyzed by performing a
stability analysis around the periodic limit cycle solution
using the technique of Floquet multipliers [35]. However,
in our case such an analysis has no predictive power, since
it requires the availability of the limit cycle solution,
which has to be computed numerically anyway.
For K = 1.21 * the limit cycle of order six bifur-
cates to a torus of order six [Figs. 8(e) and 9(e)] as evi-
denced by the closed curves obtained in the Poincark sec-
segments in Fig. 9(e) arise because the torus bends over
very close to the Poincark plane, cf. Fig. 8(e).
For K = 1.21 * lop2the limit cycle of order six bifur-
M@RK er al.: CHAOS IN SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS 101

40 I I 60 I I
3.0 - 4.0 -

2.0 -

-20-
-2.0 -

1 -
0.00
-4.5 -4.0 -3.5 -3.0
50 -
Carrier density
;
g
20-
10-
40-

20-
(a)

g 00- 00-
g -10-
-20-
a
-20 - & 20-
4

4.0 60
2% 0°-

3.0

;
3
2o
1.0
40

20
-20 I
-7.5
I
-5.0
I
-2.5 0
g 0.0 Carrier density (W3)
2 -1.0
00

-20
(b)
-20 Fig. 10. Poincar6 sections. (a) Blowup of the framed part of Fig. 9(f)
I ( K = 1.2279 . lo-’). (b) K = 1.25 . (Example 1).
-30
0- 3 -‘’’ -0.4 -02 0.0 02 0.4
Electric field Electric field

Fig. 8. Projections of attractors. (a) K = 4 . (b) 8 . (c)

8.72 . lo-’, (d) 1.16 . (e) 1.2138 . ( f ) 1.2279 . (Ex-
ample 1).

-ol ’ 0 4
3.0-

20 -

10- .
0.0-

-10-

-50 -45 -40 -35 -30 -70 - 6 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 00

(a) (d) o ~ ~ o
Time [nspt] rime I-[
-ol 40
(b) (4
Fig. 1 1 . Time evolution of electric field amplitude. (a) K = 4 . (b)
8. (c) 1.16 . lo-’, (d) 1.5 . (Example 1).
10

00
cates to a torus of order six [Figs. 8(e) and 9(e), as evi-
-10
- denced by the closed curves obtained in the Poincark sec-
-2 0
-70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 00 tion [Fig. 9(e)]. The two rightmost nonclosed curve
segments in Fig. 9(e) arise because the torus bends over
(e)
very close to the Poincark plane, cf. Fig. 8(e).
10 , I - O 4
For K = 1.22 lo-* the torus bifurcates to a chaotic
attractor [Figs. 8(f) and 9(f)]. This is evidenced by the
multisheeted appearance of the Poincark section (see
blowup in Fig. 10(a)], which signalizes the presence of

- -50
1 4 5
5 -40
1
-35 -30
1 -20
-70
1 ,
-60
-,
-50
, ,
- 4 0 -30 -20
,
-10
, I
00
the basic stretching and folding processes underlying cha-
otic attractors [35].
Just after the onset of chaos the attractor stays in the
Carrier density Carrier density
neighborhood of the old torus solution, but for slightly
(c) (f) larger K [Fig. 10(b)] the points in the Poincark section
Fig. 9 . Poincar6 sections of the attractors shown in Fig. 8. (Example 1). start to “diffuse” inbetween the previously [Fig. 9(f)]
102 IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS. VOL. 28, NO. 1, JANUARY 1992

isolated ‘‘bands. ” Thus, the attractor suddenly starts to 0 010

take up a larger volume in phase space, and the “band”
structure quickly gets lost. The time trace well inside the
0 005
chaotic region [Fig. ll(d)] of course shows completely
erratic dynamics.
The bifurcation diagrams [Fig. 71 show that even after h 0000
onset of chaos, there may be parameter windows of pe-
riodicity (high order frequency locking). Also, the bifur-
-0 005
cation diagram [Fig. 7(b)] for the phase delay A shows
that even when the chaotic attractor extends over several
external cavity modespacings, there is still a reminiscence -0 010
of the old mode structure. -0010 -0005 OOOO 0005 0010
The bifurcation sequence just described for increasing X
feedback level shows that the system undergoes a quasi- Fig. 12. Complex k plane. Modes and antimodes ( 0 )are shown for K =
7 . Solid curves in the shaded area are exact stability boundaries.
periodic route to chaos interrupted by frequency locking. (Example 2).
In other examples, i.e., for other values of bias current
and external cavity length, we have observed essentially
the same pattern. However, the system may also go di-
rectly from a torus to chaos without frequency locking, m
-

and the torus itself may also undergo a period doubling. 0

b. 5- 0
We have seen no frequency locking of fractional order
which is probably due to the fact that higher harmonics 2
of the relaxation oscillation are at high frequencies and $
a 0-
-5
are strongly damped. In Example 2 below, we will dis- L
cuss a different transition sequence and additional com- .9
L -5- -10
plications that arise due to the presence of multiple at- L
tractors. 8
-10 1 I I 1 -15
0.005 0,010 0.015 0.020 0.025
Example 2 Feedback level K
Fig. 13. Bifurcation diagrams for the minimum linewidth mode. Upper
The second example is for J / J t h = 2 . 0 and r = 2 ns. part (right axis) is obtained for increasing K and lower part is obtained for
Fig. 12 shows the complex k plane and Fig. 13 shows decreasing K . The traces are separated vertically for clarity. (Example 2).
bifurcation diagrams for the minimum linewidth mode.
The upper trace in Fig. 13 (right axis) was obtained for
increasing feedback level and shows the creation of a limit
cycle (at K = 6.0 - which evolves into a torus (at K
= 8.6 - and then into chaos (the “explosion” at K
-
= 1.15 lo-’). The transition to chaos at play here will
be discussed later (see Figs. 15 and 16), but for the mo-
ment we will concentrate on the discontinuous jump seen
for K 2: 1.20 which signalizes that the solution
jumps to another attractor. The second attractor under-
goes a usual quasiperiodic route to chaos, involving fre-
-1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2
quency lockings of order eight and sixteen. Tracing back
the second attractor, cf. lower trace in Fig. 13 (left axis), Phase delay A/(27~)
shows that it coexists with the first attractor and is created Fig. 14. Projection of coexisting attractors for K = 7.0 . lo-’. The dot
indicates a stable mode and the crosses indicate unstable modes. (Ex-
as a limit cycle solution at K = 6.4 - The “old” ample 2).
chaotic attractor may also exist beyond the jump at K =
1.20 l o p 2 , but due to the self-generated noise it is nu-
merically hard to avoid switching to a nearby solution with stable solution, i.e., constitutes an attractor. The other
more “damped” trajectories. two modes (the crosses) are unstable but still have attrac-
Fig. 14 shows projections of the various attractors cor- tors associated with them, which are limit cycle solutions
responding to the case of Fig. 12 ( K = 7.0 * l o p 3 , 8, = oscillating around the positions of the unstable modes. It
0). The attractors are projected onto the plane of normal- is important to notice that there are two limit cycle solu-
ized carrier density N / N S o l - 1 and phase delay A. Three tions associated with the middle (dominant) mode. These
modes exist for these parameters and are shown as dots are the two coexisting attractors for which bifurcation dia-
and crosses in Fig. 14. However, in agreement with Fig. grams were shown in Fig. 13. Whereas the mean values
12 only the leftmost of these (the dot) corresponds to a of phase delay (and, hence, optical frequency) and carrier
M@RK er al.: CHAOS IN SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS
density are nearly equal for the two attractors, their relax-
ation frequencies clearly differ. Thus, the attractor marked
1 has a period (measured as the time between consecutive
intersections of the Pioncar6 plane) which corresponds to
a frequency of 4.24 GHz, while attractor 2 has a fre-
quency of 3.83 GHz. The rightmost limit cycle has a pe-
riod equal to that of attractor l.
A small-signal stability analysis shows that the “first”
limit cycle solution (marked 1 in Fig. 14) is created by a
normal Hopf bifurcation at K = 6.0 * where a pair
of complex conjugate zeros of the system determinant D(s)
moves into the right half of the complex s plane at s/27r
= fj 4.24 GHz. The old stable fixed point bifurcates
to an unstable fixed point and a stable limit cycle with
oscillation frequency 4.24 GHz. For a slightly larger
feedback level, K = 6.3 * (see Fig. 12), another pair
of complex conjugate zeros moves into the right half s
plane at s / 2 n = fj 3.83 GHz. This indicates a second
Hopf bifucation from the now unstable fixed point which,
in general, leads to the creation of an unstable limit cycle.
For K > 6.4 - however, direct numerical integra-
tion shows the presence of a stable limit cycle with a fre-
quency of 3.83 GHz that is centered around the unstable
fixed point solution, cf. Fig. 14 (K = 7.0 * lop3). This
strongly suggests that the stable limit cycle bifurcates off
the unstable limit cycle for K = 6.4 - By analyzing
a model system of two coupled oscillators (p. 398 in [54])
we have found that a second Hopf bifurcation in general
leads to the birth of an unstable limit cycle which may,
however, quickly bifurcate into a stable limit cycle and
an unstable torus. This might be the way the second at-
tractor in Figs. 13 and 14 is created.
The birth of another attractor with different relaxation
oscillation frequency is clearly observed in cases like this
where two sets of zeros of D(s) move into the right half s
plane for almost the same K, cf. Fig. 12. Referring to Fig.
5(b), this is expected to happen for values of J / J , , and 7
chosen so that wR7 2: p 27r, p integer. For large values
of p (long cavities, e.g.) this is not a severe requirement,
though, cf. Fig. 5(b). Even if the birth of a stable solution
from an unstable mode is quite unexpected, it will be
shown that this solution is also clearly identified in the
experiments, where the quantum noise induces random
transitions between the two attractors (see Fig. 20).
The dynamics involved in the “explosion” of the first
-
attractor for K = 1.15 lop2is analyzed in Figs. 15 and
16. The closed curve obtained in the Poincar6 section for
K = 1.13 lo-* [Fig. 15(a)] shows that just before the
“explosion” the attractor is a torus. However, the Poin-
car6 section quickly gains a certain width, and for K =
1.1675 - [Fig. 15(b)] the Poincar6 section looks
more like a projection (with shadows, e.g.) of the attrac-
tor than the actual transverse cut it represents. This sug-
gests that we are dealing with an attractor of more than
two dimensions (the dimension of a torus arising due to
two incommensurate frequencies). We have investigated
this by performing a secondary Poincark section. Thus,
for a specific carrier density, N = N,,,, we have recorded
I03
2 0 ,
20, I , I
15-
;
8 05-
lo-
g 00-
2 05-
-10-
- 51 -
-80 -60 -40 -20 00 -80 -60 -40 -2.0 00
Carrier density Carrier density
(b) (4
Fig. 15. Poincare sections near the “explosion” in Fig. 13. (a) K =
1.13 . lo-’, (b) 1.1675 . lo-’, (c) 1.180 . lo-*, (d) 1.181 . lo-’.
(Example 2).
all the points in the Poincar6 section [Fig. 15(b)] which
lie within the slice -ANc,,/2 < N - N,,, < AN,,,/2.
In Fig. 16(a) we have plotted the values of phase delay A
for points in this slice versus the values of A at the pre-
vious intersection with the Poincar6 plane E = Esol.Since
the time T between consecutive intersections of the Poin-
car6 plane E = Esolis approximately constant, this means
that Fig. 16(a) essentially shows A(?) versus A(t - T),
where the points A(t) are taken at times t fulfilling E(t) =
Esol and -AN,,,/2 < N(t) - N,,, < AN,,,/2. We
have used Ncu,/Nso, - 1 = -5.65 and AN,,,-
= 0.0125 The closed curve obtained in Fig. 16(a)
demonstrates that the attractor corresponding to Fig. 15(b)
is a three-dimensional torus, i.e., it corresponds to a
quasi-periodic solution with three incommensurate fre-
quencies (a two-frequency torus would lead to two points
instead). The width of the curves in the secondary Poin-
car6 section decreases for decreasing value of the slice
width AN,,,. Notice, that our introduction of a new vari-
able A(t - T) is allowed by the infinite dimensional na-
ture of the feedback system. Until quite recently, three-
frequency quasi-periodic solutions were believed to be
nongeneric [55], and have not previously, to our knowl-
edge, been found in other laser models.
Fig. 15(c) and (d) show the Poincark sections for
slightly larger values of K. Fig. 15(c) indicates some de-
gree of frequency locking on the three-torus (frequency
locking between two frequencies on a three-torus of course
leads to a normal two-torus), but the curves have a blurred
appearance, which we believe is an indication of chaotic
behavior. This is even more pronounced in Fig. 15(d), for
which we have shown the secondary Poincar6 section in
Fig. 16(b). Fig. 16(b) clearly indicates a multisheeted
structure, which is a good indication that we are dealing
with a chaotic attractor.
104 IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 28, NO. 1, JANUARY 1992
20
a
00
--<'
-1 0
-12 -08 -04 00 04 08
Fig. 16. Secondary Poincar6 sections taken at N / N , , , - 1 = -5.65 .
lo-' of the attractors in Fig. 15(b) and (d). (a) K = 1.1675 . IO-' and
(b) 1.181 . lo-'.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Fig. 17 shows the experimental setup. A 1.3 pm dis-
tributed-feedback laser diode from Fujhitsu was used for
the experiments. The laser was temperature stablized to
within 0.01"C. The distance to the (flat) external mirror
was accurately controlled with a piezo-electric trans-
ducer, thus allowing control of the phase of the feedback
light. A variable attenuator inserted in the external cavity
was used to vary the feedback level, and the absolute level
of feedback was calibrated by identifying the level of at-
tenuation at which several modes start to exist (corre-
sponding to the previously discussed condition C = 1).
The optical spectrum of the laser was monitored with a
confocal Fabry-Perot interferometer (free spectral range
(FSR) of 2 GHz), and the phase of the feedback light was
controlled to assure oscillation in the minimum linewidth
mode (i.e., at the solitary laser frequency).
Experiments were performed with external cavity
lengths of 16 and 30 cm. In order to avoid the additional
complications arising due to multiple attractors with dif-
ferent relaxation oscillation frequencies, the basic route
to chaos is better investigated with a relatively short cav-
ity. On the other hand, a long external cavity is appropri-
ate to investigate the predicted competition between re-
laxation oscillations.
Route to Chaos
For these experiments the external cavity length was 16
cm, corresponding to a round-trip time 7 = 1.07 ns.
Due to the very short time scale (=0.25 ns) on which
the basic relaxation oscillations occur, it is difficult to
measure the time dependent behavior directly. Instead, we
have employed an RF-heterodyne technique where the
PZT Atten. BS FP Det.
&or DFB LD lsolators II I
Delay
Fig. 17. Experimental setup. PZT = Piezo-electric transducer; Atten. =
neutral density filter; BS = beamsplitter; FP = Fabry-Perot interfer-
ometer; Det. = photodetector; Osc. = oscilloscope; Amp. = amplifier.
output current from the photodiode (10 GHz bandwidth)
is mixed with at strong local oscillator signal with fre-
quency fLo in a nonlinear mixer. The output from the
mixer contains the frequency difference signal, and this
signal is then studied directly in the time domain with a
real-time digital storage oscilloscope (500 MHz band-
width). The noise level of our detection system (including
amplifiers) is much lower than the inherent level of quan-
tum noise in the laser. Phase portraits of the dynamic be-
havior were obtained by splitting the signal after the mixer
in two arms and delaying one of these by a quarter of the
oscillation period. The resulting single-shot x-y traces for
various feedback levels are shown in Fig. 18. The fre-
quency of the local oscillator was fixed at fLo = 4.088
GHz and change of this (or, equivalently, the electric de-
lay time) only led to attractors of more elliptical shape.
The first trace in Fig. 18 is for a low feedback level, K
= -45 dB, where the laser still operates stably in the
minimum linewidth mode. Even though the linewidth is
narrowed considerably in comparison with the solitary
laser, the intensity noise level is somewhat larger than for
the solitary laser. The origin of the laser diode noise is
mainly spontaneous emission quantum noise. While the
laser linewidth reflects low-frequency noise, which is
damped for weak feedback from an external cavity, the
intensity noise level, as measured here, is larger with
feedback due to less damping of the relaxation oscilla-
tions.
At K = -43 dB in Fig. 18 a noisy limit cycle has
evolved which then grows in size with increasing feed-
back level ( K = -39 dB). The basic frequency of the self-
sustained relaxation oscillations is 4.20 GHz, which
means that the difference signal has a frequency of = 110
MHz. For K = -34 dB the limit cycle is distorted to a
degree that cannot just be explained as being due to ran-
dom quantum noise, and for K = -31 dB the trajectory
has a completely different character which is typical of
chaotic behavior.
The heterodyne technique used in obtaining these re-
sults of course in some sense obscures the picture when
more than one frequency is present in the basic signal.
However, the results of Fig, 18 are consistent with the
M ~ R Ket ai.: CHAOS IN SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS
-45 dB -43 dB -39 dB
-34 dB -31 dB
Fig. 18. Experimental phase portraits for various feedback levels. J/J,h
1.83, r = 1 ns.
=
predicted quasiperiodic route to chaos. We should also
like to remark, in general, that in going from quasi-peri-
odic behavior to chaos, all the associated peaks in the
spectrum of the signal are expected to broaden. In that
sense it may be appropriate to study the (downconverted)
dynamics within a certain bandwidth of one of the fre-
quency peaks.
In Fig. 19 we report a much more accurate test of the
quasi-periodic route to chaos by examining the evolution
of the intensity noise spectrum as a function of feedback
level. For these measurements the signal from the pho-
todiode was amplified and analyzed with a microwave
spectrum analyzer. The bandwidth of the detection sys-
tem including amplifiers was ~ 4 . GHz. 5 numerical simulations. In the absence of any noise, a route
Fig. 19(a) shows an example of the observed spectrum
of the laser light intensity. The two basic peaks C and R
are situated at frequencies& andf,, where& = 7 - l andf,
is close to the relaxation frequency of the solitary laser.
The specific example of Fig. 19(a) demonstrates a fre-
quency locked state where all peak frequencies are mul-
tiples of the low-frequency peak at fc. Specifically, f,/&
= 5.0, implying that we see the spectrum of a frequency
locked state of order 5 . Halfway between the strong peaks
there are small bumps which might be attributed to a pe-
riod doubling of the frequency locked solution, cf. Figs.
7 and 13.
In Fig. 19(b) we plot the frequency ratiof,/f, versus K
and four different regimes are identified. Regime I, which
starts at K = -44 dB, is the limit cycle regime charac-
terized by a strong relaxation peak at R and a weak and
broad peak at C. The latter peak arises due to noise ex-
citation of the resonance that becomes undamped as a
quasi-periodic solution is created from the limit cycle so-
lution. Thus, moving into regime I1 of quasi-periodicity
the amplitude of C increases strongly. Regime I11 is char-
acterized by a plateau in f r / f c at the integer value 5 . It is
therefore a regime of frequency locking. In the chaotic
regime IV the peaks quickly broaden and are hardly re-
solvable at high feedback levels. These observations thus
provide strong evidence for a quasi-periodic route to chaos
interrupted by frequency locking.
105
<'
0 1 2 3 4 5
Fkequency (GHz)
(a)
.d
4
E -r
5.2
5.0
I I I1
4,
-44 -40 -36 -32
Feedback level IC (dB)
(b)
Fig. 19. (a) Measured intensity spectrum and (b) frequency ratiof,/f, ver-
sus feedback level with identification of regimes I (limit cycle), I1 (quasi-
periodic), I11 (frequency locked), and IV (chaotic). J / J , h = 1.84, T = 1.07
ns.
In other examples we have observed essentially the
same route to chaos as reported in Fig. 19, but without
an intermediate region of frequency locking. Such a route
is of course also possible and has been observed in our
to chaos interrupted by frequency locking seems more
likely, but we note that the relatively high level of spon-
taneous emission noise may act to narrow the feedback
region of frequency locking. Also, frequency locked states
at higher locking ratios are more easily perturbed and as
such more difficult to observe experimentally.
By adjusting the numerical parameters to fit the bias
level, external cavity length, and relaxation frequency of
Figs. 18 and 19, our numerical simulation shows a route
to chaos which is quite close to the experimental obser-
vations (frequency locking of order 5 , and bifurcations
taking place at approximately the same feedback levels).
However, we would not claim a quantitative agreement
between theory and experiment since the various param-
eters involved in laser diode modelling are not really
known with an accuracy that permits so.
Hopping between Relaxation Oscillations
For these experiments the external cavity length was 30
cm, corresponding to a roundtrip time 7 = 2 ns.
Fig. 20(a) shows the time averaged optical spectrum as
observed with a planar Fabry-Perot with 12 GHz FSR. In
addition to the central peak A which reflects the oscillat-
ing (minimum linewidth) external cavity mode, there are
two relaxation oscillation sidebands B and C (and their
symmetrical counterparts). The peaks B and C are dis-
placed from the central peak by 4.36 and 4.79 GHz, cor-
106 IEEE JOURNAL OF QUANTUM ELECTRONICS, VOL. 28, NO. 1, JANUARY 1992

responding to the positions of two strong peaks in the in-

tensity noise spectrum. The widths of all the peaks in the
optical spectrum Fig. 20(a) are limited by the 250 MHz
resolution of the Fabry-Perot interferometer. The peaks
B and C are identified as relaxation oscillation sidebands
of A by their behavior for increasing bias current. As
mentioned above, the relaxation resonances that exhibit
the least damping, correspond to the solutions to (18)
which have frequencies closest to wR. As we increase the
bias current, wR increases as ( J - J,h)’/*. We will there-
fore for increasing bias current see relaxation oscillation -6 -3 0 3 6
peaks rising and reaching a maximum when (20) is ful-
filled and then dying away when the next solution to (18)
Optical Requency (GHz)
is taking over [56]. (a)
In order to time resolve the dynamics underlying the
time-averaged spectrum Fig. 20(a), we used two Fabry-
Perot interferometers (12 GHz FSR) as frequency dis-
criminators, i.e., as filters with transmission around a
specific center frequency only. The two upper traces in
Fig. 20(b) result when the Fabry-Perot interferometers
are set at the frequencies of the two sidebands B and C. Li
The anticorrelated nature of the traces clearly show that 4
Q)
the laser jumps randomly between the two bands, thus
corresponding to random jumps between two periodic (or Hc 2 A
possibly quasi-periodic) solutions with different oscilla-
tion frequencies. The two lower traces result when one of
the Fabry-Perot interferometers is set at the central peak
A and the other is set at the first sideband B. It is seen that
the amplitude of the central peak also changes in response
to the jumps between sidebands. Compared to the case of
modejumps [27] (which may also be studied using this
Fig. 20. (a) Time-averaged optical spectrum. The frequency of the soli-
setup and result in a nearly 100% modulation of the sig- tary laser corresponds to 0 GHz. (b) Time dependence of peaks B and C
nal) these changes are however very small (notice that a (upper two traces) and A and B. Dotted lines indicate zero intensity level
common zero for the two lower traces is used) and are (common for two lower traces). JIJ,,, = 2.01, T = 1.97 ns, K~ = -37 dB.
mainly attributed to a difference in spectral linewidth be-
tween the two attractors or a small change in the average
optical frequency. Furthermore, jumps between different levels (in the range of -50 to -30 dB) and external cav-
external cavity modes would lead to two central peaks in ity lengths on the order of a few tens of centimeters. Even
the time averaged spectrum. This proves that the attrac- with these restrictions, the system allows extremely rich
tors belong to or arise from the same external cavity mode. and complicated dynamics. Two main issues have been
When the two attractors have just been created, at a adressed.
lower feedback level, the average time between attractor First, it was demonstrated that for increasing feedback
jumps is very small, then increases for an increasing feed- level the laser undergoes a quasi-periodic route to chaos
back level, attains a maximum, and finally drops rapidly. which may be interrupted by frequency locking. This, we
The observation of an initial increase of average jumping believe, explains the previously observed transition [3]
time we attribute to an increased spatial separation be- from a feedback regime of single mode narrow linewidth
tween the two attractors. The subsequent decrease in operation to a regime of coherence collapse [2]. Numer-
jumping time probably reflects that the attractors become ically constructed Poincark sections demonstrated that
chaotic, so that the trajectories more likely are taken close within the regime of coherence collapse, the laser dynam-
to the basins of attraction of the attractors. ics display the typical characteristics of chaos. The exis-
tence of a three-frequency quasi-periodic attractor was
V. CONCLUSION predicted theoretically, but has not been observed exper-
imentally. In general we should like to remark, that the
We have presented a detailed theoretical and experi- relatively high level of spontaneous emission quantum
mental investigation of the nonlinear dynamics of a semi- noise in laser diodes may prevent the observation or even
conductor laser diode with delayed optical feedback. Our existence of such extremely complex and delicate attrac-
study has been restricted to the case of moderate feedback tors.
M$RK et al.: CHAOS IN SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS
Second, the coexistence of two attractors associated
with the same external cavity mode but having different
relaxation oscillation frequencies was demonstrated. In an
experimental situation, spontaneous emission noise leads
to random jumping between the two attractors, thus re-
sulting in two strong peaks in the intensity noise spec-
trum. The origin of the second attractor was identified as
a second Hopf bifurcation from an unstable external cav-
ity mode. However, the details of the bifurcation need
further clarification.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We wish to thank M. P. Sqirensen, Laboratory of Ap-
plied Mathematical Physics, Technical University of
Denmark, and D. Salech for helpful discussions.
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Jesper M#rk was born in Copenhagen, Denmark,
on September 2, 1962. He received the M.Sc. and
Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the
Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, in
1986 and 1988, respectively.
Since 1988 he has been with TFL Telecommu-
nications Research Laboratory, HBrsholm, Den-
mark. His main research interests are optical feed-
back effects and ultrafast dynamics in
optoelectronic devices.
Bjarne Tromborg was born in Denmark in 1940.
He received the M.Sc. degree in physics and
mathematics from the Niels Bohr Institute, Co-
penhagen, Denmark, in 1968.
From 1986 to 1977 he was a Research Associ-
ate at NORDITA and the Niels Bohr Institute. His
research field was theoretical elementary particle
physics, in particular, analytic S-matrix theory and
electromagnetic corrections to hadron scattenng.
Dunng this time he coauthored a research mono-
graph on dispersion theory. From 1977 to 1979 he
taught at a high school. Since 1979 he has been with TFL Telecommuni-
cations Research Laboratory, H@holm, Denmark, and since 1987, as Head
of the Optical Communications Group. Since 1991 he has been with the
University of Copenhagen as an Adjunct Professor of physics. His present
research interests in(Aude physics and technology of optoelectronic de-
vices.
Mr. Tromborg received the Electroprize from the Danish Society of En-
gineers in 1981.
Jannik Mark was born in Denmark in 1957. He
received the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electri-
cal engineering from the Technical University of
Denmark, Lyngby, in 1983 and 1987, respec-
tively.
Since 1986 he has been with TFL Telecommu-
nications Research Laboratory, Hgrsholm, Den-
mark. His present research interests are femto-
second pulse generation, ultrafast dynamics, and
photonic switching.